HORMONE

Is a physiological regulator, effective in

small amounts.
Formed by endocrine glands, which
secrete directly into blood stream.
The secretions are transported by the
circulating blood to specific target organ
located at a site far away from the site
of synthesis.
where they exert specific actions which
are either physiologic, morphologic and
biochemical responses.
 Endocrine Glands and Hormones
• Secrete biologically active molecules into the blood.
– Lack ducts.
• Carry hormones to target cells that contain specific receptor
proteins for that hormone.
• Target cells can respond in a specific fashion.
• Neurohormone:
– Specialized neurons that secrete chemicals into the blood rather
than synaptic cleft.
• Chemical secreted is called neurohormone.
• Hormones:
– Affect metabolism of target organs.
• Help regulate total body metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
Chemical classification of hormones
Peptide hormones: Hypothalamic hormones ,
pituitary hormones, parathyroid H, Pancreatic H..

Amino-acid derivatives H: (from tyrosine):

e.g. catecholamines and thyroid H.

Steroid H.: include hormones secreted by

the adrenal cortex and gonads. e.g.
Cortisol, Aldosterone, estrogen,
progesterone and testosterone.
 Chemical Classification of Hormones (continued)

• Glycoproteins:
– Long polypeptides (>100) bound to 1 or more
carbohydrate (CHO) groups.
• FSH and LH.
• Hormones can also be divided into:
– Polar:
• H20 soluble.
– Nonpolar (lipophilic):
• H20 insoluble.
– Can gain entry into target cells.
– Steroid hormones and T4.
– Pineal gland secretes melatonin:
• Has properties of both H20 soluble and lipophilic hormones.
 Hormonal Interactions
• Synergistic:
– Two hormones work together to produce a
result.
– Additive:
• Each hormone separately produces response,
together at same concentrations stimulate even
greater effect.
– NE and Epi.
– Complementary:
• Each hormone stimulates different step in the
process.
– FSH and testosterone.
 Hormonal Interactions (continued)

– Permissive effects:
• Hormone enhances the responsiveness of a target
organ to second hormone.
– Increases the activity of a second hormone.
» Prior exposure of uterus to estrogen induces formation of
receptors for progesterone.

– Antagonistic effects:
• Action of one hormone antagonizes the effects of
another.
– Insulin and glucagon.
 Effects of [Hormone] on Tissue Response

• Priming effect (upregulation):

– Increase number of receptors formed on target cells in
response to particular hormone.
– Greater response by the target cell.
• Desensitization (downregulation):
– Prolonged exposure to high [polypeptide hormone].
• Subsequent exposure to the same [hormone] produces less
response.
– Decrease in number of receptors on target cells.
» Insulin in adipose cells.
– Pulsatile secretion may prevent downregulation.
 GROWTH HORMONE (GH)
Action of GH
1-Stimulation of growth
2-It increases amino acid transport and
increase protein synthesis.
3- Has diabetogenic effect (hyperglycemia)
4- GH mobilizes fatty acids causing
lipaemia.
 PROLACTIN

Action of prolactin:

a- Development of breast during

pregnancy.

b- It increase milk production.

C- Prevents ovulation.
 FSH & LH
• Follicle-stimulating • Luteinizing hormone (LH, also
known as lutropin [1] and sometimes
hormone (FSH) is a [2]) is a hormone produced
hormone found in humans lutrophin
and other animals. It is by gonadotroph cells in the anterior
synthesized and secreted by pituitary gland. In females, an acute
gonadotrophs of the rise of LH ("LH surge") triggers
ovulation [3] and development of the
anterior pituitary gland. FSH
regulates the development, corpus luteum. In males, where LH
growth, pubertal had also been called interstitial cell-
stimulating hormone (ICSH), [4] it
maturation, and
reproductive processes of stimulates Leydig cell production of
testosterone. [3] It acts synergistically
the body.
with FSH.
 HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY

• Antidiuratic hormone (ADH or vasopressin).

• Oxytocin.
These hormones are produced by the
hypothalamus , transmitted through the
neurons to be stored in the posterior
pituitary.
 ANTIDIURATIC HORMONE (ADH)

Functions of ADH:
I-On the kidney: increases permeability
of renal distal tubules and collecting
duct to water, so increases water
reabsorption.
2-In large doses causes
vasoconstriction, so increases blood
pressure.
 OXYTOCIN
Action of oxytocin
1-Milk ejection: through contraction of
the myoepithelial cells lining the walls of
the mammary ducts.
• 2-Labor:by causing contraction of uterus
at the end of pregnancy.
• 3-Contraction of the uterus after
delivery to prevent maternal blood loss.
• 4- Helps to ascend sperms in the
female genital tract.
Site: Located immediately below the
larynx on either side of and anterior to
the trachea.
It is composed of :
Large numbers of closed
follicles .
Between the follicles , there is
another secretory cells (type C-cells)
 :
A - Follicular cells secrete
Metabolically active hormones :
• ( thyroxin or T4 ) 93 % and
• Triiodothyronine (T3) 7 % .

B – C-cells: secret Calcitonin for

calcium metabolism.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE THYROID H
I – Metabolic Functions:
• Increases the O2 consumption of most
tissues of the body except adult brain ,
testes , uterus and lymph nodes .
• increase heat production (increase
metabolic rate ) .
• increases the number and activity of the
mitochondria , increasing the rate of
ATP formation.
A - On Carbohydrate metabolism :
• Rapid uptake of glucose by the cells.
• Enhance glycolysis
B - On Fat metabolism :
2 - Accelerates the oxidation of FFA .
3 - Decrease plasma cholesterol.
C - On Protein metabolism :
, increase protein synthesis , so stimulate
growth .
Thyroid Hs. are essential for normal
growth and skeletal maturation
 III - On Cardio-Vascular System
Increase heart rate & Increase strength of
contraction & It increases blood flow in most of
the tissues , due to increased metabolism .

Arterial blood pressure :

• Increase systolic BP.

• Decrease diastolic BP.

• Increase pulse pressure.

III -On Central Nervous System (CNS )

Promote growth and development of the brain

IV - On Respiration :

crease the rate and depth of respiration .

V - On Gastro-intestinal tract :

a - Increase appetite and food intake.

b - Increase rate of secretion and motility.

Symptoms Of Hyperthyrodism:
Intolerance to heat.
Warm skin and increased sweating .
Loss of weight in spit of increased appetite
Diarrhea.
Nervousness
Tremors of the hands.
Palpitations: due to
increased heart rate
Exophthalmos
(bulging eyes)
• Site :
• There are four small parathyroid glands.
• Located on the back surface of the thyroid gland one in
each corner.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is essential for life

The overall effect of PTH is to increase the

calcium (Ca++) concentration of plasma.

It acts on bone, kidney and intestine

It decrease plasma phosphate (PO4)

concentration.
 action of Parathyroid hormone
1- On Bone: Increase mobilization of calcium
from bone to blood (Stimulate osteoclasts)
2- On The Kidney :
• Increase Ca++ reabsorption.
• Decrease PO4 reabsorption.
• Activation of vit. D
3 - On The Intestine :
It indirectly increases both Ca++ and PO4
absorption ( by its role in vit. D activation).
 Calcitonin
Secreted from the C-cells of thyroid gland.

It reduces blood Ca++ concentration, but it

is not important in normal control of Ca++
metabolism.
 THE ADRENAL GLAND
Adrenal cortex:
Does not receive neural
innervation.
Must be stimulated hormonally
(ACTH).
Consists of 3 zones:
Zona glomerulosa.
Zona fasciculata.
Zona reticularis.
Secretes corticosteroids.

Hormones secreted from the adrenal gland:

1- Cortisol
2- Aldosterone
 Functions of the Adrenal Cortex
• Zona glomerulosa:
– Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone):
• Stimulate kidneys to reabsorb Na+ and secrete K+.
• Zona fasciculata:
– Glucocorticoids (cortisol):
• Inhibit glucose utilization and stimulate
gluconeogenesis.
• Zona reticularis (DHEA):
– Sex steroids:
• Supplement sex steroids.
 Physiological Functions of Cortisol

1-Metabolic functions of cortisol:

A- On carbohydrate (CHO) metabolism:

Stimulate hepatic gluconeogensis: conversion

of amino acids into glucose by the liver

Increase glycogensis: increase glycogen

storage in the liver.

Decrease glucose transport into the tissue,

leading to hyperglycemia .
B- On protein metabolism

• Enhances protein catabolism in muscle and

bone matrix. Inhibit muscle protein synthesis.

• Helps formation of liver proteins and plasma

proteins.

C- On fat metabolism:

• Lipolytic effect: increase mobilization of fatty

acids from adipose tissue to the liver.

• Inhibit fatty acid synthesis.

2- Important in adaptation to stress:

3- On C.V.S:

+ve inotropic effect (increase myocardial

contractility)

4- On blood cells:

Increase number of platelets, neutrophils and

red blood cells.

Decrease basophils, eosinophils and

lymphocytes (lymphocytopenia).
 Pharmacological effects of cortisol
A- Anti-inflammatory action:
B- Decrease Immunity:
• decrease antibody production. As a
result, the level of immunity is
decreased.
• Cortisol could prevent immunological
rejection of transplanted heart, kidney
and other tissues.
C- Anti-allergic:
• Inhibit intracellular synthesis and release
of histamine .
• Used in treatment of anaphylactic shock
and bronchial asthma.
 ALDOSTRONE
Functions of Aldostrone:

A- On Sodium:
1 -Stimulate Na+ reabsorption from renal
tubules.
2- Stimulates Na+ reabsorption from the ducts of
sweat glands, and salivary glands
B- On Potassium:
1-Stimulate K+ secretion secondary to Na+
reabsorption at distal tubules of the kidney.
2- Increases K+ in sweat glands and saliva.
C- On Acid-base balance:
causes increased tubular secretion of K+ and H+
THE PANCREASE
 INSULIN HORMONE

• It is the main hormone concerned with

regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. It
controls the level of blood glucose,
glucose storage and utilization.
 Action of Insulin
I- On Carbohydrate Metabolism
(Hypoglycemic action): By:
1-Stimulates glucose uptake by muscle and
adipose tissue
2-Stimulates Glycogensis in liver and
muscles.
3-Increase Glycolysis : increase the rate of
utilization of glucose by skeletal muscles &
adipose tissue.
4-Inhibit glycogenolysis by the liver.
5-Inhibits Gluconeogensis
II-On Fat Metabolism (Lipogensis):
• it promotes storage of fat and decreases its
utilization.
• Inhibits lipolysis by inhibiting hormone-
sensitive lipase
III-On Protein Metabolism (Anabolic)
• It increases uptake of AA by the cells for
protein synthesis in liver and skeletal muscles.
• It decreases protein catabolism
 2- GLUCAGON HORMONE

It exerts opposite effects to those of insulin

(hyperglycemia, lipolytic, catabolic)

Action of glucagon:
1-On carbohydrate metabolism :
Hyperglycemia by stimulation of glycogenolysis
and Gluconeogensis in the liver.
2-On fat metabolism:
It is lipolytic by stimulation of hormone-sensitive
lipase, so increase FFA & glycerol level.
3-On protein metabolism:
It has a protein catabolic effect so, decrease
protein synthesis.
 TESTOSTERONE HORMONE
• It is secreted from Leydig cells (interstitial cells) of the testis
• Functions:
• 1-Appearance of male secondary sex characteristics:
1. Male pattern of musculo-skeletal development.
2. Development of secondary sex organs e.g. external genitalia.
3. Male distribution of hair along the face and body, baldness.
4. Increase the size of larynx and deeping of voice.
5. Onset of the male sexual drive.
6. Aggressive behavior.
Stimulate spermatogenesis: sperm maturation.
• Protein anabolic function and stimulate growth.
Control: by LH and LHRH (feedback regulation with testosterone).
Hypersecretion: (rare): In young children it causes rapid growth of the
musculature and bone and excessive development of sexual organs.
 ESTROGEN
• Sites of secretion:
• a- The ovaries.
• b- Placenta.
• c- Adrenal cortex (minute amount)
• Functions:
• Reproductive function:
• Maturation and release of ovum.
• Growth of female reproductive tract.
• Development of female secondary sex characters.
• Control GnRH and gonadotropin secretion.
• Stimulate the development of the breast during gestation.
• Non-reproductive effect:
• Promotes fat deposition according to female distribution.
• Increase osteoblastic activity and causes union of the epiphysis.
• Reduces blood cholesterol.
• Sodium & water retention (premenstrual).
 PROGESTRONE
• Sites of secretion:
• From the corpus luteum during the latter half of ovarian cycle.
• Functions:
• On uterus:
• Secretory changes in the endometrium, preparing the uterus for the
embryo.
• Inhibit uterine contraction during gestation.
• Stimulate development of alveoli of the breast.
• Inhibits hypothalamic GnRH and gonadotropin.
• Thermogenic (increase basal temperature at the time of ovulation.
• Control : By LHRH and LH.
 Pineal Gland
• Secretes melatonin:
– Production stimulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in
hypothalamus.
• SCN is primary center for circadian rhythms.
• Light/dark changes required to synchronize.
• Melatonin secretion increases with darkness and peaks in middle of
night.
– May inhibit GnRH.
– May function in the onset of puberty (controversial).
Pineal Gland (continued)
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