Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

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IoT-based real-time analysis of battery management system with long range

communication and FLoRa
Gopal Krishna a , Rajesh Singh a, Anita Gehlot a , Vaseem Akram Shaik b,* , Bhekisipho Twala c,
Neeraj Priyadarshi d
a
Uttaranchal Institute of Technology, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, 248007, India
b
ECE Department, SR University, Warangal, 506371, Telangana, India
c
Digital Transformation Portfolio, Tshwane University of Technology, Staatsartillerie Road, Pretoria West, Pretoria, 0183, South Africa
d
Department of Electrical Engineering, JIS College of Engineering, Kolkata, 741235, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the current scenario, the world is focused on renewable energy generation to achieve sustainability by 2030
BMS regarding clean and affordable energy. Lithium-ion (Li-ion)-based Battery Energy storage (BES) is a prominent
Li- battery approach that is widely adopted for managing large-scale renewable energy generation. Battery Management
SoH
Systems (BMS) play a critical role in optimizing battery performance of BES by monitoring parameters such as
RUL
FLoRa simulation
overcharging, the state of health (SoH), cell protection, real-time data, and fault detection to ensure reliability.
Previous studies have concluded that the implementation of Internet of Things (IoT) with LoRa ensures effective
real-time monitoring of the BMS of Li-ion batteries. This study proposed and implemented a customized LoRa
and IoT-based hardware system with a gateway to acquire parameters such as terminal voltage, current, charge
voltage, charge current, cycle, temperature, state of charge (SoC), and SoH, and log them into the cloud server.
An OMnet++-based Framework for LoRa (FLoRa) simulation was implemented to analyze the power con­
sumption and residual energy of the customized LoRa nodes. The simulation was configured with a spread factor
of 7, a carrier frequency of 433 MHz, a bandwidth of 125 KHz, and a transmission power of 2 dBm. The
simulation results indicated that Node 3 had the highest mean power consumption (0.028233) and total energy
consumption (0.146592), whereas Node 0 exhibited the lowest mean power consumption (0.023413) and total
energy consumption (0.070204). Additionally, a comprehensive dataset encompassing voltage, current, and time
was created and utilized for precise calculations of the battery’s capacity and state of health, with potential use in
future predictions.

1. Introduction characteristics. Major changes in temperature lead to cutoffs that pre­

vent the possibility of a thermal runaway. Variations in the cycle counts
The BMS is crucial in modern energy management, optimizing bat­ indicate how fast the battery will recharge or discharge. If, concomi­
tery performance and ensuring efficient, sustainable operations for su­ tantly with temperature and current fluctuations, these present lower
perior energy utilization. It aims to reduce fossil fuel dependency, values, then there is a clear possibility that the battery will have its
stabilizing the energy sector and enhancing grid competitiveness in charge reduced from the capacity. Major metrics, such as the SoH and
response to the variability of renewable sources. It also conducts com­ Capacity, aim to promptly inform the option schemes of this mainte­
plex technical analyses on the dynamic energy storage processes within nance strategy, offering valuable knowledge if the battery is a pro­
batteries, accounting for specific characteristics based on battery type spective candidate for decommissioning. This growing necessity for BMS
[1]. can be traced back to a set of major determinants. First, the push toward
BMS analysis relies on terminal voltage, current, charge parameters, the increased use of electronic vehicles and more extensive incorpora­
SoH and capacity, and temperature. For example, the variations in ter­ tion of storage seems to be a vital need for the type of technology rep­
minal voltage and current immediately indicate an issue in the electric resented by BMS. Second, the increase in the use of rechargeable

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vaseemakram5491@[Link] (V.A. Shaik).

[Link]
Received 2 July 2024; Received in revised form 14 August 2024; Accepted 21 August 2024
Available online 28 August 2024
2590-1230/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

batteries in all types of consumer electronics sparked the necessity for Table 1
technological changes [2]. BMS market research report.
The burgeoning demand for BMS can be attributed to the three pri­ Attribute Description of Report Information
mary drivers. The foremost among these is the escalating adoption of
Release Date Mar-21
electric vehicles and energy storage systems, underscoring the impera­ Projected Period 2020 to 2030
tive for advanced battery management technologies. Second, the expo­ Initial Market Valuation $5661 Million in 2020
nential growth in rechargeable battery consumption across diverse Anticipated 2030 Market Value Approximately $22,279.6 Million
consumer electronics segments underscores the need for continual Annual Growth Rate Exhibiting a 15.0 % Compound Annual Growth
Geographical Coverage Encompassing the Global Landscape
technological innovation in BMS. This confluence of factors propels the Number of Companies Included Involving 11 Mentioned Enterprises
upward trajectory of the global BMS market, as shown in Fig. 1 and
Table 1 [3].
Historically, BMS research has typically relied on traditional ap­ BMS cannot be considered only as a system, but also as a responsive
proaches that can be effective to a certain extent. However, there are ecosystem supporting sustainable energy and self-regulating energy
usually some inherent limitations generalized across these various fac­ development [5].
tors, such as compatibility, performance, cost, reliability, support, and Wireless communication protocols enable the real-time monitoring
maintenance. These limitations encompass the challenges related to and connectivity of BMS systems. Wi-Fi enables high-speed data trans­
compatibility, performance, cost, reliability, support and maintenance, mission and enables live data to be transferred in real-time systems.
scalability, and security. LoRa is an ideal option for remote IoT deployment in extremely violent
In traditional BMS systems, hardware limitations are also apparent environments. Communication networks and other significant data lines
limitations in battery management and efficiency. Furthermore, their mostly rely on Wi-Fi and LoRa, among other wireless communication
affordability and accessibility are uncertain factors, such as expensive protocols that ensure that BMS systems based on IoT integrate while
upfront costs and solutions that can drive potential manufacturers or smoothly transmitting data and with minimal to zero faults while
facility systems away. Similarly, traditional BMS solutions and square running. Fusing electrical flexibility in a BMS enables the system to
costs may render their use scarce. However, the BMS system has some identify situational energy demand and configure the use of resources to
limitations. Traditional BMS systems are often unable to engage in increase the resilience of an energy system. According to previous
change with emerging technologies in a bear-out manner. Moreover, research, the most common underlying concerns when combining IoT
there are security concerns such as privacy issues and attacks by cyber- and BMS are compatibility, performance, cost, reliability, support,
criminals, and poses a barrier to the deployment of traditional BMS scalability, and security. An integrated system must overcome these
solutions. To realize BMS’s economic potential and meet new demands challenges to work properly and achieve adequate efficiency [6].
generated by our energy environment , these obstacles must be elimi­ On the other hand, Fig. 2 gives insights into several aspects that
nated [4]. should be taken into consideration in choosing the IoT boards for battery
The most value-based and prospective technology tool for BMS is the management systems. One aspect that should be investigated is
IoT, which is a combination of several innovations. The essence of the compatibility. An IoT board that satisfies the given specifications and
IoT is based on connectivity, which is often achieved with the help of one in accordance with the preferences must be selected.
various wireless communication protocols that enable real-time moni­ Wireless communication media, such as LoRa, are indispensable in
toring for battery system management. The feature of IoT is that it is modern BMS solutions because they present unique benefits to the
driven by data analytics and predictive modelling, through use of ma­ monitoring, control, and optimization processes. LoRa is renowned for
chine learning. This enables the optimization of the battery system its exceptional long-range properties, allowing connectivity at several
performance by making it more energy-efficient and long-lived. The kilometers, even through dense or obstructed areas with significant
most comprehensive value of IoT to BMS is proactive maintenance, interference. This is highly advantageous for BMS solutions situated in
remote control, and on-the-go decision-making regarding energy. IoT large-scale industrial facilities, sparsely populated areas, or hard-to-
also connects BMS to disparate systems, helping it grow and allowing for reach locations, as traditional connection methods may be too unfeasi­
the integration of any new energy source and technology. Therefore, a ble or unreliable. Moreover, LoRa has been specifically developed to

Fig. 1. Global market for BMS.

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 2. IoT Board factors.

consume as little power as possible, making it suitable for battery- Reinforcement Learning (RL), for energy management solutions and
powered devices such as BMS. Because of this, sensors and nodes have highlights the necessary steps toward deploying these high-level models
extended lifetimes, requiring little maintenance and battery replace­ in real-world applications. It also highlights a gap in braking power
ment at all times to ensure reliable continuous monitoring and data management research and demonstrates that the synergy of automatic
collection. In addition, LoRa-enabled networks are incredibly scalable, driving technologies provides a new solution for electric vehicle tech­
allowing the combination of thousands of devices within a single nology development.
infrastructure. A comprehensive review [12] of state-of-the-art battery SoC deter­
The study [7] on electric vehicle (EV) battery systems’ digital twins mination is presented in this article, which summarizes the historical
offers both a firm base and useful novel perspectives. It not only sum­ progress and most recent innovations for measuring rechargeable bat­
marizes the use cases, requirements, and platforms of battery system tery SoCs. There are various SoC indication methods, and this paper
digital twins (DTs), but also pools advanced methods such as multi-layer emphasizes the advantages of some (probably especially the electro­
models, artificial intelligence, IoT, and cloud computing. The study motive force-EMF method) as it provides a stable identification without
concludes by exploring how to use DT technology to solve old problems large influence from factors such as battery aging or temperature dif­
in new ways (at long last, fueling your car can be done quickly) and ferences. It also considers case studies such as improved adaptive
opens possibilities that were previously unimaginable for the industry. methods employed in real-time measurement of voltage impedance and
DTs also help ensure design optimization and operational management current, which enhance the accuracy of SoC predictions and prolong the
of batteries, thus contributing to the establishment of sustainable energy life cycle usability of batteries in different applications from mobile
systems and the achievement of environmental and regulatory targets. phones to electric vehicles. This article highlights the ongoing need for
This study had several limitations. These include a lack of clarity about advancements in battery technology as they can supply efficient and
battery DT requirements and use cases for DT in industrial settings as carry-on power solutions that we now demand in our futuristic mobile
well as difficulties justifying costs in certain cases [8]. world.
This study [9]on wireless BMS (WBMS) has produced an invaluable The study [13] stated that it contributes to hybrid electric vehicle
survey of existing WBMS architectures, highlighting their potential to (HEV) energy management and improves dynamic programming, which
address problems inherent in traditional wired-BMS. WBMS, mean­ is a high-resolution algorithm for the optimal use of power between the
while, is still in the primary stage, with industries requiring further engine and battery through machine learning. This paper proposes an
maturity, particularly high-power lithium-ion battery (LIB) packs, to IoT-enabled smart EV charging system to schedule vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
effectively withstand this challenge. By drawing attention to recent in a more semantically aware manner, utilizing edge computing for
developments, this survey hopes to serve as an essential reference for on-site data processing that supports the real-time and robust operation
researchers. Along the way It identifies emerging trends and notes the of the systems. Improvements in energy efficiency and system robust­
major challenges in WBMS design and implementation. It also notes that ness are due to these enhancements, which contribute to a longer battery
there are limitations, such as the imperative need for a great deal of lifespan, lower costs, and increased performance of HEVs.
further study and development work to address system reliability issues, In this study [14], ANN-related key advantages and innovations for
information security, cost-effectiveness, and interference from nearby BMS applications were addressed. All the accepted papers show evi­
wireless networks. dence that ANN techniques (feedforward, deep, convolutional, or
The study [10]presents a novel design, implementation, and recurrent neural networks) are capable of predicting battery states such
deployment of a Modular BMS for IIoT-based applications, emphasizing as SoH, SoC, and RUL. Finally, the research demonstrates clear advan­
fault tolerance, deployment flexibility, and intelligent operation. How­ tages of ANN-based BMS in terms of accurate battery condition esti­
ever, although the proposed BMS offers significant advancements in mation, thus improving safety and reliability. It also provides a
hardware and software design for industrial-scale applications, there comparative analysis, trends, and gaps as well as directions for further
may be limitations in terms of scalability and integration with emerging advances in BMS applications to promote the development of strategies
technologies. related to battery management, especially lithium-ion batteries, used in
A review of energy management systems [11] for dual-motor battery industrial sectors.
electric vehicles (DM-BEVs), outlining different features and benefits, This study [15] provides an extensive analysis of advanced BMS for a
including improved dynamic performance and increased efficiency range of applications, with a focus on EVs and renewable energy storage.
compared to single-motor capacities. This study reviews the influence of This review addresses various challenges, such as accuracy in moni­
different dual-motor architectures on the EMS design complexity. This toring, thermal regulation, and cell balancing, and suggests improve­
study investigates the combination of more refined methods, such as ments in BMS to improve performance, safety, and longevity, offering

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

insights for researchers. 2. BMS and the Internet of Things

In "Blockchain IoT for Smart Electric Vehicles Battery Management,"
[16] possible permutations on a pair of blockchain offshoots for Electric Battery management systems are vital components in the operation
Vehicle Battery Management Systems are brought to the front lines and of rechargeable batteries. An IoT BMS system was designed to help
tested. These implementations take blockchain as the network and data manage, monitor, and control batteries remotely using IoT technology.
layer of the system, shedding light on how blockchain might be used to The IoT-enabled BMS provides the ability to monitor the performance of
create an efficient, semi-centralized, data-driven BMS. Based on this batteries, detect problems, and optimize battery life by optimizing bat­
standard of comparison, this study shows that both Ethereum-based tery usage [17]. Fig. 3 shows the components of the IoT-enabled BMS
smart contracts and a directed acyclic graph (DAG) on the IoTA tangle system, which includes several units such as sensors, microcontroller
are capable of meeting the challenges that confront EV battery man­ units, communication modules, and cloud platform user interfaces that
agement. It is worth noting, however, that the study also indicates that are interfaced with one another [2]. The statistics of battery parameters
deployment complexity is increased when using Ethereum-based solu­ such as voltage, Current, Temperature sensed by the sensors send this
tions, as well as a lack of smart contracts in IoTA that could impact data to the BMS system. The MCU analyzes the sensor data and de­
system logic maintenance and global functionality. In addition, the se­ termines how they are processed. It performs charge and discharge
curity and privacy concerns of blockchain-based applications will control of the battery, as well as managing its condition and fault
require further research and expansion from this paper’s scope for future detection.
work. The task of the communication module is to transmit data from one
While this report delivers important avenues for LoRa and IoT inte­ BMS system to another receiver. It uses many protocols to communicate,
gration on improved BMS, few approaches are open to further research. including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Cellular, and LoRaWAN. The data received
Developing more sophisticated deep learning approaches, such as trying from the BMS system are saved and processed by the cloud platform.
different transformer models or hybrid architectures, could also signif­ This maintains the battery life in check and makes it possible for remote
icantly bolster the interpolated predictions of battery health. Similarly, monitoring and management of the battery. The user interface of the
research on the integration of these models with real-time data analytics BMS system communicates with users. Whether a web interface or
and predictive maintenance methods could provide more proactive and mobile app displays a battery and allows them to change battery
effective management approaches. Research into these new- and settings.
improved-energy-storing materials also needs to examine how broadly An IoT-based BMS system is composed of multiple components that
applicable they might be, from different battery types to massive energy play a role in the control and management of rechargeable batteries.
storage in many settings. In addition to these circumstances, discussing Sensors are components that capture what actually happens to the
and combatting cost concerns approached in terms of both the cost battery, such as temperature or voltage/current. The MCU explains the
challenges inherent to delivery as well as considerations for imple­ data received from all of these sensors and makes decisions based on
mentation or technology compatibility will be key. This could include what it learns to keep the battery charged, healthy, or discharged as
working with industry partners to field-test and validate these methods required. The connection module can transmit data to a cloud platform
as well as strategies for addressing the identified barriers. Addressing or other system for remote monitoring and control. It serves as a central
these areas would allow future research to have important impacts on location on the cloud for data storage, analysis, and remote manage­
the performance, durability, and sustainability of battery management ment. It is the memory where the data of the BMS system resides and its
systems, leading to broader energy efficiency and sustainability goals. processing occurs [11]. The discussion of the various components is as
The proposed approach represents valuable improvements in BMS follows:
performance by integrating the IoT with LoRa technology. This system The Raspberry Pi is general purpose ARM Cortex-A72 micropro­
enables real-time battery monitoring, addressing factors such as over­ cessor with clock speed of 1.5 GHz and up to 8 GB RAM. For connec­
charging and state of health. The hardware system logs essential pa­ tivity, it supports Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Ethernet. Various languages,
rameters to the cloud, thereby enhancing monitoring accuracy and such as Python, C, C++, and Java, are among the programming lan­
battery reliability. The FLoRa simulation uses OMnet++ for a detailed guages that can be used. Its price range of $35 to $100 makes it popular
analysis of power consumption and residual energy. This innovation [18]. In contrast, Arduino is a microcontroller development board that
improves battery performance, energy efficiency, and decision making features an ATmega328P microprocessor with a clock speed of 16 MHz
by setting a new standard for IoT-based BMS solutions in renewable and 2 KB of random access memory (RAM). The Arduino IDE is used for
energy. program or fleshing the code. It is extensively used because of its
The primary objective of this study is to design an IoT-based archi­ simplicity and low cost, which ranges from $5 to $30 [19]. NVIDIA
tecture for a battery management system and establish a LoRa Jetson widely uses artificial intelligence and robotics,. It uses NVIDIA
communication network for real-time data. Tegra K1/X1 microcontrollers with various RAM configurations. With
The main contributions of this study are as follows. the Jetpack SDK, programmers can utilize Python, C, and C++ pro­
gramming languages. However, it is more expensive, ranging from $129
• Significance of IoT devices and their components in the battery to $2,499, which reflects its high performance [20]. Thus, ESP8266 is a
management system. promising alternative at the lower end of the price spectrum. It has an
• Hardware implementation of the Transmitter-Receiver and Gateway Xtensa LX106 microprocessor with an 80 MHz clock speed and 80 KB of
section by identifying the sensors and communication. RAM. It is mostly used for Wi-Fi networking and can be programmed in
• Analyzing the node data on different configurations using the tool C or C++ via the Arduino IDE. Its modest cost, ranging from $2 to $10,
OMnet++. makes it suitable for a wide range of applications [21]. These micro­
• Dataset for Voltage, Current, and Time for Calculating the Capacity controller development boards and single-board computers cater to a
and State of the Health of the battery. wide range of applications and budgets, providing abundant options for
embedded systems, IoT researchers, and developers. The different
The structure of the study is organized as follows: Section 2 presents computing units, including Arduino, Raspberry Pi, and ESP 32, are
BMS and the Internet of Things; Section 3 presents the methodology and discussed in Table 2 in terms of their features and technical
materials; hardware implementation is presented in Section 4, where the specifications.
sender section, receiver section, and gateway section are there; Section 5 Various sensors such as voltage, current, temperature, SOC, SOH,
presents the results; and Section 6 presents the conclusion of the study. impedance, pressure, and humidity sensors are used in battery man­
agement systems. With the majority of these sensors having an accuracy

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 3. IoT-BMS components [2].

of ± 1 % or greater, precision is a crucial characteristic. The sensitivity is band around 2.4 GHz(source), providing a low-cost standard and
not an important parameter for these sensors. In addition to the pressure acceptable range of connections with decent speed and response time
sensors, hysteresis is not a pertinent criterion. The ability of all the over long periods on a battery despite not being open enough to capture
sensors to work consistently over time and temperature is a key feature. a wide market. NFC [40] (13.56 MHz, commenced in 2004) is fast
All sensors have low power requirements and the noise is reduced to low-power communication with restricted range and long battery life;
a minimum. The output signals are either analog or digital with a fast hence it can also be utilized for IoT applications but cellular is a tech­
response time. Overall, the linearity of all the sensors is very good, nology from the 1980s that resides on frequencies between 450 MHz and
effectively making them suitable for a wider range of applications. The 6 GHz and offers medium-range high-speed connectivity at moderate
versatile sensors are housed in either a surface-mount or through-hole power consumption with low-to-medium latencies and reliability, all at
package, with an operational temperature range of − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C. competitive costs.
They featured RS-232, SPI, and I2C interfaces. In a battery management Although suitable for IoT devices, cellular technology [41] is not
system, voltage sensors with accuracy and resolution equal to or greater open source. Satellite technology, dating back to the 1960s, works at
than ± 1 mV are essential components. The result is a stable perfor­ frequencies ranging from 2 GHz to 30 GHz, providing a long range,
mance over time and temperature, guaranteeing the accuracy needed to middling speed, and high-power consumption. This is a costly option
properly detect voltage levels in batteries [29]. As with the voltage with major delays. Satellites are extremely stable and reliable, but they
sensors, there is also very accurate current monitoring solution using a are not open-source. Thus, they are suitable for use in IoT devices. RFID
sensor The best part of these [current] sensing ICs is they have 1 mA to [42], which was invented in the 1940s, operates at many frequencies
± 1 mA accuracy! This allows the system to perform precise current (125 kHz, 13.56 MHz, 868, and 915 MHz) with a restricted range and
measurements, which aids in good battery management and monitoring poor speed and power consumption. RFID is a low-cost alternative that
[30]. The temperature sensors ensure that the BMS can monitor battery offers a high stability, reliability, and battery life. This is a paid wireless
temperatures with precision within ±1 ◦ C or better and at a resolution of or wired communication method that is appropriate for IoT devices.
just 1 ◦ C beyond feasible standards. These sensors are important for Table 4 compares various connectivity modes based on the range, speed,
maintaining batteries within a safe operating temperature range, which power consumption, cost, frequency, latency, year of establishment,
affects the battery longevity and efficiency [31]. stability and reliability, battery life, free or paid availability, wired or
The SOC and SOH sensors were designed to deliver precise readings wireless connection, open-source compatibility, and suitability for IoT
with ±1 % accuracy and 1 % resolution. They provide vital insights into devices.
the battery charge level and overall health, enabling proactive man­ The use of cloud servers in IoT computing units can provide several
agement and maintenance. Impedance sensors are intended to measure benefits for efficient battery-management systems. By storing data in the
impedance precisely, with a resolution of 1m or larger and an accuracy cloud, IoT devices can conserve battery life because there is no need to
of ± 1m. Their accuracy, reliability, and portability render them store large amounts of data locally [45]. Additionally, cloud servers can
essential for effective battery monitoring and management. The remotely manage and monitor IoT devices, allowing for the efficient
different sensors including voltage sensor, Current Sensor, Temperature monitoring of battery life and proactive measures to be taken to extend
sensor, etc. are discussed with their features and comparison of technical battery life. Cloud servers can also analyze data to optimize power
specifications in Table 3. consumption and identify power-hungry applications and processes.
Wi-Fi, launched in 1997, employs frequencies of 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz to Furthermore, cloud servers can remotely update the firmware of IoT
provide a short range with high throughput and low power consump­ devices, thereby reducing the power consumption associated with
tion. It is a commercial non-open-source connection mechanism that firmware updates. Overall, using cloud servers can extend the battery
provides stability and durability. For IoT devices Wi-Fi is a suitable life, reduce power consumption, and boost IoT device performance [46].
communication mode [37]. LoRa was introduced in 2013 and operates The essential attributes, benefits, and drawbacks of the top five cloud
at frequencies of 868, 915, and 2.4 GHz. It IS giving a long range with service providers are compared in Table 4. Amazon Web Services (AWS),
low power consumption; however, its speed IS not too high. It is well Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud Platform (GCP), IBM Cloud, and Oracle
known for its stability, durability, long battery life and price of it is Cloud. AWS provide the widest selection of services, together with
reasonably [38]. The 2.4 GHz frequency was used by Zigbee, which was robust security and compliance features, high levels of scalability, and
debuted in 2002, to provide a limited range, slow speed, and low power flexibility. It is a significant and well-known participant in the industry
consumption. It is reasonably priced and boasts fast reaction speeds, with a high level of customization, but it can be expensive for smaller
excellent stability, and long battery life. Zigbee is not an open source enterprises because of its complicated pricing structure and high
system because it requires a paid wireless connectivity option; it is an learning curve [43]. Microsoft Azure offers various services, high levels
excellent choice for IoT devices. Bluetooth (1994) [39] used the ISM of flexibility and scalability, and interaction with Microsoft’s products.

5
 Table 2
Comparison of different types of Computing boards.
G. Krishna et al.

Ref. Device Purpose Microcontroller Clock RAM Connectivity Price IDE Programming Operating Digital I/O Analog
Speed Language Voltage Pins Input Pins

[18] Raspberry Pi General purpose ARM Cortex-A72 1.5 GHz 2 GB–8 WiFi, Bluetooth, $35- Thonny, PyCharm Python, C, C++, 5V DC 40 8
computer GB Ethernet $100 Java, etc.
[19] Arduino Microcontroller ATmega328P 16 MHz 2 KB USB, serial $5-$30 Arduino IDE C, C++ 5V DC 14 6
development board
[22] ESP32 Microcontroller Dual-core Xtensa 240 MHz 520 KB WiFi, Bluetooth $5-$15 Arduino IDE C, C++ 3.3V DC 34 12
development board LX6
[21] ESP8266 Microcontroller Xtensa LX106 80 MHz 80 KB WiFi $2-$10 Arduino IDE C, C++ 3.3V DC 16 1
development board
[23] Adafruit Feather Microcontroller ATSAMD51J19 120 MHz 512 KB WiFi, Bluetooth, $20-$40 Adafruit CircuitPython, CircuitPython, C, 3.3V DC 36 8
development board BLE Arduino IDE C++
[24] Particle Photon IoT development board STM32F205RG6 120 MHz 128 KB WiFi $19 Particle Workbench C, C++ 3.3V DC 20 6
[25] BeagleBone Single-board computer AM335 × 1 GHz ARM 512 MB WiFi, Ethernet $55 Cloud9, Eclipse, etc. Python, C, C++, 5V DC 65 6
Black Cortex-A8 Java, etc.
[26] BeagleBone Single-board computer AM3358 1 GHz 512 MB Ethernet $50 Cloud9, Eclipse, etc. Python, C, C++, 5V DC 65 8
Green Java, etc.
[27] Intel Galileo Development Board Quark x86 400 MHz 256 MB Ethernet N/A Arduino IDE C, C++ 3.3V/5V DC 20 6
[20] NVIDIA Jetson AI and Robotics NVIDIA Tegra K1/ 2.3/1.3 2 GB–32 WiFi, Ethernet $129- JetPack SDK CUDA, Python, C, 5V DC – –
Development Board X1 GHz GB $2499 C++, etc.
[28] Microsoft Azure IoT development board MT3620 500 MHz 512 MB WiFi, Ethernet N/A Visual Studio C, C++ 5V DC – –
Sphere

6
Table 3
Comparison of different types of sensors.
Ref. No. Sensor Accuracy Resolution Stability Power Noise Output Response Linearity Operating Packaging Interfaces
consumption format time temp.

[29] Voltage Sensors +/− 1 mV or 1 mV or Stable over time and Low Low Analog/ Fast High − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C Surface-mount/ I2C/SPI/RS-
better better temperature Digital Through-hole 232
[30] Current Sensors +/− 1 mA or 1 mA or Stable over time and Low Low Analog/ Fast High − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C Surface-mount/ I2C/SPI/RS-
better better temperature Digital Through-hole 232
[31] Temperature ±1 ◦ C or better 1 ◦ C or better Stable over time and Low Low Analog/ Fast High − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C Surface-mount/ I2C/SPI/RS-
Sensors temperature Digital Through-hole 232
[32] SOC Sensors ±1 % or better 1 % or better Stable over time and Low Low Analog/ Fast High − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C Surface-mount/ I2C/SPI/RS-
temperature Digital Through-hole 232
[33] SOH Sensors ±1 % or better 1 % or better Stable over time and Low Low Analog/ Fast High − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C Surface-mount/ I2C/SPI/RS-
temperature Digital Through-hole 232
[34] Impedance +/− 1mΩ or 1mΩ or Stable over time and Low Low Analog/ Fast High − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C Surface-mount/ I2C/SPI/RS-
Sensors better better temperature Digital Through-hole 232
[35] Pressure Sensors ±1 % or better N/A Stable over time and Low Low Analog/ Fast High − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C Surface-mount/ I2C/SPI/RS-
temperature Digital Through-hole 232
[36] Humidity Sensors ±1 % or better 1 % or better Stable over time and Low Low Analog/ Fast High − 40 ◦ C–85 ◦ C Surface-mount/ I2C/SPI/RS
temperature Digital Through-hole
Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770
G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Although it supports hybrid cloud settings well and has robust security
and compliance capabilities, it only offers limited support for

Suitable for
IoT Devices
open-source software, and certain services could be less developed than
those of rivals [47].

Yes

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes
The different cloud computing units, including Microsoft Azure and
Amazon AWS, are discussed in Table 5 in terms of their features and
technical specifications.
Source
Open

With a focus on machine learning and data analytics, GCP offers

NO

NO

NO
NO
NO

NO

NO

NO
strong support for open-source software and reliable network perfor­
mance. Although it has a user-friendly and well-designed interface,

Wireless or
flexible price choices, decent performance, and good scalability, it
Wired or
Wireless

Wireless

Wireless

Wireless
Wireless
Wireless

Wireless

Wireless

Wired
provides fewer services than its rivals, is a less well-known brand in the
Free or

Table 5
Paid

Paid

Paid

Paid

Paid

Paid

Paid
Free
Free

Comparison of different types of cloud service providers.

Ref. No. Cloud Key Features Advantages Disadvantages
Depends on

Depends on

Depends on
Battery Life

Service
Provider
device

device

device
Good

Good
Good
Good

Good

[48] AWS • Broadest • A Large and • Complex

range of established pricing
services players in the structure
market
Stability &
reliability

• High • Widely adopted • Steep

scalability and supported learning
Good

Good

Good
Good
Good

Good

Good

Good

and flexibility curve

• Strong • High level of • Can be
security and customization expensive
compliance for smaller
Establishment

features businesses
[47] Microsoft • Integration • Strong security • Limited
Year of

1980s

1960s

1940s

Azure with and compliance support for

1997

2013

2002
1994
2004

Microsoft features open-source

products software
• High level of • Good support • Some
flexibility and for hybrid cloud services
Medium
Latency

Low to

scalability environments may be less

High

High
Low

Low
Low
Low

Low

mature than
competitors
• Wide range of
125 kHz, 13.56 MHz,
868 MHz, 915 MHz,

services
2.4 GHz and 5 GHz

450 MHz to 6 GHz

868 MHz, and 915

[49] GCP • Emphasis on • Easy to use and • Fewer

data analytics well-designed services
and 2.4 GHz

13.56 MHz

and machine interface than

Frequency

2–30 GHz
2.4 GHz
2.4 GHz

learning competitors
MHz

• Strong • Flexible pricing • Less

support for options established
open-source players in
Medium

Medium

software the market

High

High

• Good network • Good • Limited

Cost

Low
Low
Low

Low

performance performance support for

and scalability Windows
[50] IBM • Strong focus • Comprehensive • Fewer
Consumption

Cloud on enterprise suite of services services

solutions than
Medium

Medium
Power

competitors
High
Low

Low
Low
Low

Low
Comparison of Different types of communication mode.

• Good support • Good • Higher cost

for hybrid performance than some
cloud and scalability competitors
Medium

environments
Speed

High

High

High
Low

Low
Low

Low

• Emphasis on • High level of • Limited

security and customization support for
compliance open-source
Medium

software
Range

Short

Short
Short

Short

Short
Long

Long
Very

[51] Oracle • High- • Good • Fewer

Cloud performance integration with services
computing Oracle products than
capabilities competitors
Connectivity

• Strong • Comprehensive • Less

Bluetooth

support for suite of services established

Satellite
Cellular
Zigbee
Mode

Wi-Fi

enterprise players in
LoRa

RFID
NFC

applications the market

• Emphasis on • Good • Limited
security and performance support for
Ref. No.
Table 4

compliance and scalability open-source

[37]

[38]

[43]
[39]
[40]

[41]

[44]

[42]

software

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

industry, and only offers limited Windows support. With a strong focus control battery operation and can be used to balance cells, regulate
on corporate solutions, excellent support for hybrid cloud environments, charging, or control the discharge rate[53]. The General monitoring
and a focus on security and compliance, IBM Cloud is an excellent system as shown in Fig. 4, there are lots of boards board like Raspberry
choice. Although it has fewer services than rivals, is more expensive than Pi, Arduino, ESP32, ESP8266, Adafruit, Feather Particle, Photon, Beagle
certain rivals, and offers only a limited amount of open-source software Bone Black, Beagle Bone Green, Intel Galileo, NVIDIA, Jetson, Microsoft
support, it nevertheless offers a wide range of services, strong perfor­ Azure Sphere etc.[54] are acts as the microcontroller that acquires and
mance and scalability, and a high degree of customization [46]. Oracle processes the incoming data from various sensors like Voltage Sensors,
Cloud provides excellent support for corporate applications, Current Sensors, Temperature Sensors, SOC Sensors, SOH Sensors,
high-performance computing capabilities, and a focus on security and Impedance Sensors, Pressure Sensors, and Humidity Sensors[55] then
compliance. It has strong performance and scalability, a wide range of transmits the processed data to the cloud and servers like AWS, Micro­
services, and solid interaction with Oracle products; however, it pro­ soft Azure, GCP, IBM Cloud, Oracle Cloud, etc.[56] via Communication
vides fewer services than rivals, is a lesser-known participant in the Modes like Wi-Fi, LoRa, Zigbee, Bluetooth, NFC, Cellular, Satellite,
industry, and provides very limited support for open-source software RFID, etc.[57].
[51]. Fig. 6 illustrates the LoRa-based IoT architecture of the BMS. LoRa is
embedded in the “n” number of sensor nodes (Fig. 5 represents a single
3. Methodology and materials sensor node) for transmitting and receiving sensory data. For the single
node, battery statistics are obtained from several sensors, and using a
The architecture of any system plays an important role in its devel­ computing unit (Arduino Uno specifications are listed in Table 7, the
opment. An IoT-based general system architecture for battery manage­ data compilation process is performed and communicated over LoR­
ment can be designed using a few key components. First, a sensor aWAN. The specifications of the LoRa are listed in Table 6 and 7 On the
network is necessary to collect data from the battery, with sensors other hand, the sensory data are sent to the gateway, which has internet
placed at different points in the battery to monitor various parameters, connectivity and can store the data on a cloud server. The specifications
such as voltage, current, temperature, and state of charge. The gateway of ESP 8266 are listed in Table 8. The LoRa radio range is used by sensor
collects data from the sensors and transmits them to the cloud. It can be a nodes to transmit data to the gateway. To accept data from sensor nodes
microcontroller with the ability to connect wirelessly (e.g., WiFi, Blue­ and transfer them to the cloud server, the gateway is integrated into the
tooth, or ZigBee). The cloud is the centerpiece, and from there, all the LoRa and IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi/3G/4G networks.
battery data are stored in to be processed. The data analytics layer The Node-MCU is used because of the Wi-Fi built-in module, and its
processes the dataset gathered from your battery and provides driving specifications are shown in Table 6. The cloud server computes and
insights to help you get more out of your batteries using machine stores the data. Therefore, long-range (LoRa) wireless communication
learning algorithms, which are set to predict the battery life or detect technology is suitable for IoT-based BMS integration. This IoT-based
anomalies [52]. battery management system provides real-time monitoring and control
The user interface component provides an interface for the user to of battery performance, leading to a longer battery life, better perfor­
interact with the battery management system, which can be a mobile mance, and improved safety.
app or a web app that displays the battery’s performance metrics and
alerts the user in case of any issues. Actuators are components that

Fig. 4. IoT-based General architecture for battery management system.

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 5. LoRa (Long Range)-based IoT architecture for battery management.

4. Hardware implementation load currents, providing valuable insights into the current flow dy­
namics of the battery. Furthermore, a temperature sensor (DHT11) was
This section delves into the Explanation of block diagrams, Pin dia­ integrated to precisely measure the battery temperature, which is an
grams, connections, hardware, such as sensors, batteries, and moni­ essential factor influencing its performance.
toring tools, and the seamless coupling of transmitters, receivers, LoRa Fig. 7 shows the setup of the pins and the connections of the system.
technology, and cloud gateway interfaces. This shows that the positive terminal of the adapter (ADp1) connects
with one terminal of the switch and the other terminal of the switch
connects with the current sensor’s (U2) terminal (CS). The negative
4.1. Transmitter section terminal of the Adapter connects with the negative terminal (Ne1) of the
battery. The battery’s positive terminal (Po1) is connected to the ter­
In the transmitter setup (as shown in Fig. 6), a 12V 2200 mAh battery minal of the current sensor. The positive terminal (ADp1) of the voltage
(specifications are listed in Table 9) was used. The configuration of the Sensor (U4) connects with the Adapter’s positive terminal and the
adapter used was 12V 1Amp. Two voltage sensors (Voltage Sensor negative terminal (Ne1) connects with the negative terminal (Ne1) of
Module) were connected to measure both the terminal and charge the adapter. Similarly, the positive terminal (Po1) of the battery (B1)
voltages of the battery. Additionally, two current sensors (ACS712 5A connects with one terminal of the switch and the voltage sensor (U5),
Current Sensor Module) were employed to measure both the charge and

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 6. Single Node with sensors, networking units, and computing units.

Table 6 Table 9
SX 1278 LoRa specification. Battery specifications.
Sr. Characteristic Specification Battery Type 18650 cells (NMC chemistry)
No. Nominal Voltage 11.1V
Nominal Capacity 2200mAh
1 Frequency 433 MHz
Operating Voltage Range 9.2V–12.8V
2 Network Point-to-Multipoint, Point-to-Point, Mesh, and Peer-
Charge Voltage 12.8V
topology to-Peer
Max Continuous Discharge 2.2A
3 Modulation FSK/GFSK/MSK/LoRa
Current
4 Data rate <300 kbps
Overcharge Protection Trigger voltage: 4.25V, Release voltage: 4.05V,
5 Output power +20 dB
Delay: 80 ms
6 Operating 1.8 V–3.6 V
Over-discharge Protection Trigger voltage: 2.40V, Release voltage: 3.00V,
voltage
Delay: 40 ms
7 Current Tx: 120 mA, Rx: 10.8 mA
Overcurrent Protection Trigger current: 7A, Delay: 40 ms
8 RSSI 127 dB
Short Circuit Protection Delay: 500 μs
9 Link budget − 168 dB

and the negative terminal (Ne1) connects with the negative terminal of
Table 7 U5 (Ne1). The other pin of the switch is connected to the load pin (L1)
Arduino UNO specifications. load, another pin connects with the current sensor (U3), and another pin
Sr. No. Characteristic Specification of U3 connects with the negative terminal (Ne1) of the battery. The
temperature sensor (U1) was placed on a Battey (B1). All sensors (U1-
1 Controller 8-bit microcontroller
2 Architecture RISC U5) were connected to a 5v Power supply (K1) and negative terminal
3 Programming In-system programming ground by (G2). The DATA pin of U1 connects with K6, the VIOUT pin of
4 Serial interface Master/slave SPI U2 connects with K5, the VIOUT pin of U3 connects with K2, the VIOUT
5 PWM channels 6 pin of U4 connects with K4, and the VIOUT pin of U5 connects with K5 of
6 Pin 6 analog pins 14 digital pins
7 Operating voltage 2.7 V–5.5 V
the Arduno board. The ground pins of the LoRa module are connected to
8 Active state 1.5 mA at 3 V–4 MHz, G2 and a 3.3v power supply is provided to it. The RST and DIO0 connect
9 Power-down state 1 μA at 3 V with G3 and G4. Pin NSS, MOSI, MISO, and SCK are connected with the
pin G5, G6, G7, and G8 respectively.
To accurately gauge the current flow, the current sensors were uti­
Table 8 lized in conjunction with a 12V bulb acting as a load, simulating real-
ESP 8266 specifications. world conditions for comprehensive monitoring.
Sr. Characteristic Specification
The complete configuration of the transmitter for collection of the
No. battery’s data received from the sensors is as follows, and the setup
without load is shown in Fig. 8. Voltage and current sensor modules are
1 Processor Tensilica L106 32-bit processor
2 IEEE standard 802.11 b/g/n important components of this monitoring system. These sensors were
3 Frequency 2.4 GHz connected to the circuit to precisely measure the terminal voltage,
4 Data rate 72 Mbps charge voltage, charge current, and charge current of the battery.
5 Network Ipv4, TCP/UDP, HTTP The temperature sensor DHT11 is connected to keep an eye on the
Protocols
6 Tx power 20 dBm (802.11 b), 17 dBm (802.11 g) & 14 dBm
battery’s temperature, which plays a key role in defining the perfor­
(802.11 n) mance of and the rocky state caused by wearing out. This is helpful for
7 Rx sensitivity − 91 dBm (802.11 b), − 75 dBm (802.11 g) & − 71 dBm determining the condition of the battery. The 12V bulb serves as a load
(802.11 n) in the monitoring system that simulates a realistic environment for
8 Operating 2.5 V–3.6 V
current flow measurements. By introducing a load, the battery can be
voltage
9 Current Average: 80 mA monitored to observe its performance in terms of the average con­
sumption patterns. Fig. 9 shows the configuration of the transmitter with
a load. Microcontroller receives the Multiple readings from sensors and

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 7. Pin diagram of transmitter.

taking an average for lowers the noise and provide exact value of the
battery. This averaging produces a more consistent depiction of actual
parameters. The data received from the sensors must be formatted for
effective transmission in the Ai-Thinker LoRa Module (RA-02). Here,
delimiters are used in the string to separate the different sensor values.
This structured technique was used for data decoding on the receiver
side. The optimized spreading factor, coding rate, bandwidth, fre­
quency, and packet size were included.
The data received from the sensors must be formatted as a string for
effective transmission in the Ai-Thinker LoRa Module (RA-02). Here,
delimiters are used in the string to separate the different sensor values.
Therefore, this string contains the terminal voltage, terminal current,
charge voltage, charge current, and temperature separated by delimiters
(|), as shown in Fig. 11. It must be ensured that the LoRa module is in the
working state before transmitting the data. Exception-handling tech­
niques are included to address any possible transmission-related issues,
guaranteeing accurate and trustworthy data delivery.
Fig. 10 shows the components of the LoRa packet structure during
Fig. 8. Transmitter Setup without load.
packet transmission. The start of the frame (SOF) is followed by another
8-bit preset sequence, indicating the start of the frame. Frame control
(FC), which spans 8 bits, oversees the conveying of critical control in­
formation about the frame, such as its kind and purpose. The payload
length, which is 8 bits, determines the length of the data to be trans­
ferred. In this situation, the payload length of the packet was 36 bytes.
The payload data, which take up 36 bytes, are at the center of the
transfer. This section describes the actual data to be transmitted, which
is suited to the unique requirements of the application. For example,
sensor data, temperature, humidity, and voltage readings might all be

Fig. 9. Transmitter setup with load.

Fig. 10. LoRa packet structure during transmission.

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 11. Sender data on the serial monitor.

included. A 16-bit frame check sequence (FCS) is connected to verify 4.2. Receiver section
data integrity using checksum or CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
computations. Finally, the end of the frame is indicated by eight bits (e. The system setup of Reciever NodeMCU connects with LoRa sx1278
g., 0b00110011), which is equivalent to the start of the frame and in­ and NodeMCU has the code for receiving the data and sending the data
dicates the conclusion of the packet. to the cloud, as shown in Fig. 6.
When the setup process begins, the LoRa Transmitter becomes active The ground pins of the LoRa module are connected to G2, and G1 is
and displays the message "Starting of LoRa Success." The LoRa Initiali­ connected to G1 of the NodeMCU. The RST and DIO0 connect with G3
zation OK will then be displayed as a notice. The terminal voltage, ter­ and G4. Pin NSS, MOSI, MISO, and SCK are connected with the pins G5,
minal current, charge voltage, charge current, and temperature readings G6, G7, and G8 of NodeMCU respectively as shown in Fig. 12. The power
of the sensors, that is, voltages 1, 2, A0, and A1, are displayed here of the NodeMCU Micro USB was used.
temporarily. The information is then converted into a string using the Connecting the LoRa receiver to the microcontroller (NodeMCU
delimiter | and the values of the temperature, charge current, charge 8266) and setting appropriate pins are the first steps in getting it up and
voltage, and terminal voltage. This string communicates with the LoRa running. Dependable data reception and signal strength optimization
device, as shown in Fig. 11. are critical factors. To ensure successful reception, the LoRa receiver
must be configured using the same settings as those of the transmitter
(packet size, frequency, bandwidth, spreading factor, and coding rate).
The parameters for synchronization and error correction are critical for

Fig. 12. Pin diagram of receiver.

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

proper data decoding. Fig. 13 shows the hardware setup of the receiver.
The receiver listens to incoming transmissions. When a packet is
received, it buffers content for further processing. Buffering enables
more efficient error-handling and decoding. Individual parameter
values are extracted from the received data, which are typically in a
string format. Delimiters, which were previously set during data
formatting, aid in processing and separating the parameters for accurate
analysis.
Once the parameters have been collected, the calculations required
to establish essential battery metrics, such as the capacity and state of
health (SoH), are performed. These estimates were based on known Fig. 14. LoRa packet structure during reception.
battery properties and pre-established formulas.
The LoRa packet structure in the receiving phase closely mimics that delimiter, the system retrieves the values received from the LoRa
of a transmitter with identical components, as shown in Fig. 14. The Transmitter And serial monitor prints them. At that time, the system had
preamble and start-of-frame (SOF) retain their 8-bit forms and functions, all of the values to be uploaded. Therefore, for uploading, the machine
making packet synchronization easier. Frame control (FC), which spans connects to a cloud server, in which Google and the data-sending request
8-bit once again, was used for the control-related elements of the are issued. Finally, the data were sent to the server. After completing the
received frame. During receipt, the main focus is on the received process, one message is displayed as the data sent and closes the
payload data, which are 35 bytes long. This is the location where the connection.
data received from the sender are saved. In reality, this data should
correspond to the delivered payload and may include sensor values 4.3. Gateway
identical to those sent. The sender provides a 16-bit received frame
check sequence (FCS) that serves as a checksum or CRC value, thus Cloud Integration (Google Sheets): Google Sheets Setup: The Google
validating data integrity. The end of the frame is again denoted by an 8- Sheets configuration entails generating a new spreadsheet, defining
bit sequence (e.g., 0b00110011), indicating the end of the packet. These headers for each parameter, and obtaining the necessary credentials or
structures are essential for LoRa communication, ensuring that data tokens for secure API access. This sheet served as a cloud database for
transmission and reception occur effortlessly with systems in place to storing the received battery data. Each parameter received from the
validate data accuracy. receiver was assigned to a column on the Google sheet page. This
When the LoRa Transmitter is activated, the message "Starting of mapping guarantees that the data are kept in the exact area inside the
LoRa Success" appears, as shown in Fig. 15. The LoRa Initialization OK spreadsheet, making the data analysis easier. A URL, often comprising
will then be displayed as a notice. ESP 32 is now connected to Wi-Fi and the Google Sheets API endpoint, was created to transfer the structured
displays the connected WiFi message. The WiFi SSID and password were data for storage. To protect the data upload procedure, mandatory
specified in the code. authentication parameters or tokens were included in the URL. Send the
As stated previously, the IP Address was [Link]. The sys­ data displayed here with a timestamp.
tem retrieves the column names: terminal voltage, terminal current, The application checks for the presence of an internet connection
temperature, charge_current, charge_voltage, and the location where the before attempting to upload data. If the device is not connected to the
data will be uploaded. The LoRa receiver receives the values, and using a Internet, the necessary steps are performed to address this condition.
The structured data are provided to the specified URL, which initiates
the data upload to Google Sheets. Before proceeding, the application
waits for the acknowledgement or confirmation of a successful data
upload, ensuring that the data are safely kept for subsequent analysis.
The uploaded data logged on a Google sheet are shown in Fig. 16.

5. Results and discussion

Advanced BMS technologies improve the predictive maintenance,

state-of-charge optimization, temperature management, fault di­
agnostics, and energy efficiency in battery systems. Microcontrollers and
sensors enable low-power consumption and real-time monitoring. IoT-
based systems integrate Wi-Fi and LoRa, providing advanced analytics
and cost-effectiveness for data transfer. The energy consumption of the
proposed architecture is modeled in a virtual environment using the
FLoRa) simulation and by modifying several essential parameters of
LoRa communication. FLora is a simulation framework that uses the
discrete event simulation library, OMNeT++. In addition to the
OMNeT++ framework, FLoRa is also built on the INET Framework,
which is an open-source library for OMNeT++ that aids in the experi­
mentation process for various network protocols. The setup of the sys­
tem with 4 nodes is illustrated in Fig. 17. Here, the network size was
480m × 480m, the spread factor was 7, the carrier frequency was 433
MHz, the bandwidth was 125 KHz, the Transmission power was 2 dBm,
and the Code Rate was 4. Fig. 18 shows the transmission of the packets.
Figs. 10 and 14 show the Configuration of the LoRa packet structure.
Table 10 summarizes an experiment involving power consumption in
the LoRa network nodes. The simulation, which focuses on the power
Fig. 13. Receiver module. consumption of radio components, employs four LoRa network nodes,

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 15. Received data on a serial monitor.

designated as 0 through 3. The reason for acquiring the data is a specific This variability is significant in terms of obtaining LoRa network
measurement criterion that appears to be related to the average values. nodes to implement energy efficiency and thus enhance the battery life.
The initial run of the experiment was denoted as Replication #0. The In terms of power, the use of node 3 was close to the maximum recorded
apiece node has 19 data points, whereas Nodes 1, 2, and 3 have 35 data value. This should provide guidance on where energy efficiency can be
points. improved. A low standard deviation means that when the node’s power
The "Count" column represents the number of data points collected consumption fluctuates, it does not vary widely, which helps network
for each node. Statistical indicators, such as "Mean," "StdDev" (standard stability. Variance analysis can help to identify potential inefficiencies
deviation), and "Variance," give insight into the features of the power or abnormal power consumption behaviors at certain nodes, which may
consumption data. According to statistics, there are differences in power warrant further inspection. This knowledge provides valuable insights
usage across the LoRa network nodes. Node 0 uses the least amount of into the power consumption of the LoRa network nodes. This is the key
"Mean" power (that is, 0.023413), while Node 3 uses the max power (i.e. to improving the performance and energy efficiency of the networks. To
0.028233). This implies that the radio components of these nodes may set up a LoRa network that is as efficient and reliable as possible, further
consume power in different ways based on different factors such as the studies can be conducted to reduce the effects of power consumption
communication load or distance from the base station. differences among these nodes. Based on the mean power consumption
These power consumption standard deviations (stdDev) are very profiles of the nodes over time, it is clear that node 0 has a slight
modest, suggesting that the majority of data points for these measure­ decrease and more variation in relative variance compared to the other
ments are quite close to their mean. The sum of the power consumption three adjacent areas (1 through 3). These data are essential for opti­
from each node is a constant value, which is required for a stable mizing the energy consumption and performance of the network by
network. Nodes 1,2 and 3 have similar variance values but are slightly targeting the power reduction in specific nodes and guaranteeing LoRa
smaller than the one in node 0. This indicates that node 0’s power usage Network reliability. The representation using a graph is shown in
is more constant or less fluctuating than that of the other nodes. Fig. 19.

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 16. Logged data from Google Sheet.

that it uses most of its available power. However, Node 0 presents the
highest mean residual energy capacity, which means that it does not
consume its energy at a similar level as the others or has more remaining
residue.
In this plot (Fig. 20), nodes 1 and 2 have comparatively low values of
standard deviation, which implies that the residual energy remaining in
them is consistently maintained. This reveals the routine for energy
consumption. The standard deviation of the residual energy capacity
over time in node 0 is greater than that at another node, implying that
there are few cases with very low remaining numbers. The variance
values indicate the degree of dispersion of the residual heading capacity
statistics. The denominators of nodes 1 and 2 are very close because this
indicates that energy is highly predictable in these two nodes with very
small variances. Node 3 shows a slightly higher variance and therefore
potentially has fluctuating energy usage.
Network resource management has a significant effect on LoRa node
residual-energy capacity scheduling. It delivers vital data to help reduce
the energy used and increase network resiliency. Example of identifying
Fig. 17. FLoRa virtual setup with 4 nodes. nodes with a lower residual energy capacity (node 3) to make good
choices for energy-efficient routing and power management methods. It
can be used to decide where and when data should be conveyed and how
energy-sustainable it must be delivered. Nodes whose residual energy
capacity stabilizes more quickly, such as nodes 1 and 2 in Fig. 20, are
likely to deliver predictable network performance. This is an ideal sit­
uation for use in cases that require continuous communication. Variance
analysis provides information on the dynamic energy uses of the
network. Understanding these trends helps to improve network man­
agement plans.
The statistical graph in Fig. 20 represents the optimization of energy
usage in the LoRa network nodes. This is also reflected in the enhanced
design of power-aware routing and transmission structures. It also shows
a better representation of how the data change notes over time and helps
in making descent decisions based on the patterns and trends in the
network.
Table 12 illustrates the overall energy usage of the radio component
for the four LoRa network nodes (numbered 0 to 3). Because the "Count"
column was not defined, these data most likely reflected a single mea­
surement point. The results show that energy usage varies between
Fig. 18. Transmitting the packets. nodes, with node 3 having the highest overall energy consumption
(0.146592) and node 0 having the lowest (0.070204). These data reveal
The energy residual capacity statistics (as presented in Table 11) that various nodes consume energy at different rates, which may be
reveal remarkable differences between the four nodes of the LoRa related to changes in their operational circumstances or network func­
network. Node 3 has the lowest mean remaining energy, which means tions. The measurement requirement "$0 = "avg" specifies that the data

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G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Table 10
Power consumption of four LoRa network nodes.
Experiment Measurement Replication Module Name Count Mean StdDev Variance

General "$0¼""avg""" #0 [Link][0].LoRaNic. power-consumption: 19 0.023413 0.032296 0.001043

[Link] consumer vector
General "$0¼""avg""" #0 [Link] [1].LoRaNic. power-consumption: 35 0.025419 0.032432 0.001052
[Link] consumer vector
General "$0¼""avg""" #0 [Link] [2].LoRaNic. power-consumption: 35 0.025419 0.032432 0.001052
[Link] consumer vector
General "$0¼""avg""" #0 [Link] [3].LoRaNic. power-consumption: 45 0.028233 0.033591 0.001128
[Link] consumer vector

Fig. 19. Power consumption.

Table 11
Residual energy capacity of four LoRa network nodes.
Experiment Measurement Replication Module Name Count Mean StdDev Variance

General $0 = "avg" #0 [Link] [3].[Link]. residual energy capacity: 15 − 0.08 0.053 0.003
IdealEpEnergyStorage vector
General $0 = "avg" #0 [Link] [1].[Link]. residual energy capacity: 12 − 0.06 0.045 0.002
IdealEpEnergyStorage vector
General $0 = "avg" #0 [Link] [2].[Link]. residual energy capacity: 12 − 0.06 0.045 0.002
IdealEpEnergyStorage vector
General $0 = "avg" #0 [Link][0].[Link]. residual energy capacity: 6 − 0.03 0.027 7E-04
IdealEpEnergyStorage vector

reflects average energy usage. This offers a useful summary of each graph with the proposed Y-axis range. Fig. 22 shows the “terminal
node’s usual energy use during the experiment. To successfully show voltage, current, charge voltage, current, and temperature. This illus­
these data on a graph, utilize a Y-axis spanning from 0.0 to about 0.16, trates the charging and discharging cycle of the battery. The capacity
and the X-axis might represent the nodes (0–3). This graphical depiction can be calculated based on these parameters, and the state of health of
allows us to examine the variations in energy use between nodes and the battery can be calculated. The Capacity vs. time plot helps us keep
identify which nodes are the most and least energy efficient. track of the energy capacity of the system over time, which provides the
Understanding changes in energy consumption is critical for ability to study how charging, discharging, or any other external influ­
enhancing a network’s energy efficiency. It identifies nodes that may encing factor affects the overall system behavior. Fig. 23 represents the
require energy-saving measures or improve resource distribution. This “Capacity, Time, SoH" graph. Time is represented on the x-axis by the
information can be used to guide network design and resource man­ timestamps at which data points were taken, whereas capacity is rep­
agement choices, assisting in the distribution of energy consumption resented on the y-axis by ampere-hours (Ah). When the graph is exam­
across nodes to enhance network performance and sustainability. ined, the capacity changes dynamically during the day. The initial
Continuous monitoring and evaluation of energy consumption may help increase in capacity is obvious for a charge or to store energy. Conse­
ensure that the LoRa network operates smoothly and dependably. quently, the capacity values change depending on the amount of energy
Fig. 21 displays the data insights regarding the energy usage trends stored in the system. This information also has timestamps of "9/22/
of the LoRa network nodes. A recommended approach involves graph­ 2023 [Link]" and "9/22/2023 [Link].” During this time frame,
ical representation of pertinent data to comprehensively assess and multiple rounds of capacity changes occurred. The column Cycle and
contrast the energy efficiency of diverse nodes. This involves the use of a State of Health (SOH) of the dataset may provide a beneficial

16
G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

Fig. 20. Residual energy.

Table 12
Total energy consumed by LoRa network nodes.
Experi-menu Measurement Replication Module Name Value

General $0 = "avg" #0 [Link][0].[Link] consumer total energy consumed 0.07

General $0 = "avg" #0 [Link] [1].[Link] consumer total energy consumed 0.14
General $0 = "avg" #0 [Link] [2].[Link] consumer total energy consumed 0.14
General $0 = "avg" #0 [Link] [3].[Link] consumer total energy consumed 0.15

Fig. 21. Total energy consumed.

understanding of system performance. Although this study has shown advances, a number of limitations and
This study presents an in-depth analysis of Battery Management technical challenges remain. The FLoRa does not model all real-world
System (BMS) technologies, their use, drawbacks, and integration with aspects, which may introduce inaccuracies in the performance pre­
IoT. This highlights the benefits of using long-range (LoRa) for low- dictions. The hardware configurations and parameter settings used can
power, cost-effective, and long-range remote battery monitoring. The also make this unsuitable in other environments or circumstances,
use of cloud servers for secure, scalable data management has been which may affect generalizability. The study also identified a number of
proposed, with an emphasis on enhancing battery management. This technical challenges that need to be overcome. This adds to the
research calls for infallible security with broad features, such as complexity of integrating technology into the BMS stack itself, such as
encryption and intrusion detection, to secure IoT data. This study also IoT devices or blockchain systems, which could potentially reduce per­
proposed an IoT architecture specifically designed for outdoor de­ formance and impact scalability. In addition, the security and privacy of
ployments with scalability. This also focused on the integration of the data transferred across IoT networks are major issues. These chal­
Artificial Intelligence at the prototype level. lenges require more detailed research to improve the reliability and

17
G. Krishna et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102770

OMnet++ for varying configuration node data has contributed to the

analysis of course behavior. Furthermore, the basis for developing a
comprehensive dataset including Terminal Voltage, Terminal Current,
Charge Voltage, Charge Current, and Temperature has facilitated a clear
examination of battery capacity and health. The simulation was set up
with a spread factor of 7, carrier frequency of 433 MHz, bandwidth of
125 KHz, and transmission power of 2 dBm. Moreover, significant dif­
ferences in terms of energy consumption among the nodes are also
notable, as Node 3 has the highest mean power consumption of
0.028233 and total energy consumption of 0.15, whereas Node 0 is the
lowest, with a mean power consumption of 0.023413 and total energy
consumption of 0.07. Therefore, integrating hardware implementation,
data processing, and dataset creation represents a comprehensive
approach for optimizing battery performance in the IoT context. This
study serves as an important step in understanding sustainable IoT-
based battery management, and is essential for the future practicality
of sustainable implementation. Indeed, the presented results are crucial
Fig. 22. Graph between Terminal voltage, current and Charge voltage, and because they indicate the future of environmentally friendly and effi­
current and temperature. cient battery technologies powered by the IoT. This study opens new
avenues for deeper research and improvements that could further
change the field of energy storage.

Funding statement

No external funding has been received for the article.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Gopal Krishna: Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Concep­

tualization. Rajesh Singh: Visualization, Methodology, Conceptualiza­
tion. Anita Gehlot: Writing – review & editing, Methodology. Vaseem
Akram Shaik: Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Bhekisipho
Twala: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Neeraj Priyadarshi:
Writing – review & editing, Validation, Data curation.

Declaration of competing interest

Fig. 23. Graph between time, capacity, and SoH.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
efficacy of this approach. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Opportunities for improvement must be identified to address these the work reported in this paper.
limitations and challenges. Developing simulation frameworks closer to
real-world scenarios, using scalable technologies for better integration Data availability
of systems, and creating advanced algorithms that maintain a constraint
in the processing time vs. state is important. Efforts to analyze innova­ Data will be made available on request.
tive energy-storing materials and improved, cost-efficient deployment
strategies should also be areas of future research. This system should be References
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