1

MODULE 2

STEPPER MOTORS
Stepper motor is a special electrical machine which rotates in discrete angular steps in response
to a programmed sequence of input electrical pulses. The stator has windings that are organised
in groups called phases which are energised using current pulses. The rotor has no electrical
connection but has salient structure which may or may not have permanent magnets. When
each phase is energised in sequence using current pulse, the motor will rotate, one step at a
time. So, a stepper motor converts a train of input pulses to a train of step movements.

TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS

Fig 2.1 – Types of Stepper motor

VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR

Single Stack VR Stepper motor
The stator is made up of silicon steel stampings. It has projecting poles, usually even number
of poles used. The windings on opposite poles are connected in series such that the currents in
them establish a magnetic flux that aid each other. Windings connected in this way form
different phases of the motor. Rotor is usually made of laminated silicon steel. The rotor has
projecting teeth on outer periphery. The number of rotor teeth and stator teeth should not be
equal.

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 2

Working-Full step operation

Let us consider a four phase, eight pole single stack VR motor. Let the initial position of rotor
be as shown in fig 2.2 with all switches S1 to S4 in OFF position.

Fig 2.2 – Initial position of rotor Fig 2.3 – Switching circuit

Now, switch S1 is turned ON and phase A is energised. This will make stator poles A and A’ as
north and south poles. The stator poles attract rotor teeth and the rotor moves to occupy a
position of minimum reluctance. Thus, the rotor teeth 1 and 4 take positions as shown in fig
2.4.

Fig 2.4 – Rotor position when A is energised Fig 2.5 – Rotor position when B is energised

Next, switch S2 is turned ON and S1 is turned OFF. This operation deenergises A and excites
B. The rotor will move in such a direction to occupy the minimum reluctance path by travelling
minimum angular distance. This is achieved by movement of rotor in counterclockwise
direction by 15˚. The equilibrium position is shown in fig 2.5. The angle through which the
rotor moves for a switching operation is called step angle and is given by:

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 3

360
𝜃𝑠 =
𝑚 × 𝑁𝑟

Where, m is the no. of stator phases and Nr is the number of rotor teeth. In this case, m=4 and
Nr=6. Therefore 𝜃𝑠 = 15˚. By continuing the switching operation in the sequence S1, S2, S3, S4,
S1….. rotor moves in CCW direction with step angle of 15˚.

Table 2.1 – Truth table of VRSM

Working-Two phase ON mode

In this mode of operation, two stator phases are energised simultaneously. Initially, let the rotor
position be as shown in fig 2.2. When the switches S1 and S2 are turned ON, the phases A and
B are energized together. With this condition, the rotor tries to move in counterclockwise
direction. But as stator poles A and A’ is also energised, there is a repulsive force on rotor teeth
to move in clockwise direction. The rotor moves by 7.5˚ in counterclockwise direction and
takes rest in a position as shown in fig 2.6, where magnetic forces produced by phases A and
B are equal.

Figure 2.6 – Rotor position with switches S1 and S2 ON

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 4

Next, S3 is turned ON and S1 is turned OFF. The phases B and C are energised. The attractive
forces due to the magnetic poles make the rotor move in counterclockwise direction by 15˚ and
finally take the equilibrium position as shown in fig 2.7.

Fig 2.7- Rotor position with S2 and S3 ON

In two-phase ON mode, the step angle is 15˚ (full step angle). The stable positions
corresponding to switching operation lie in between the stable positions corresponding to single
phase ON operation.

Table 2.2 – Truth table for two-phase ON mode.

Working – Half Step mode

In this mode of operation, we can get a step angle whose value is half of the full step angle.
This mode combines one phase and two-phase ON modes. When switch S1 is ON, phase A is
energised and rotor attains position as shown in fig 2.4. With S1 ON, S2 is also turned ON and
this causes rotor to move in counterclockwise direction and stay in position as shown in fig 2.6.
Then S1 is turned OFF and S2 is kept ON. This causes rotor to move in counterclockwise
direction and stay in position as shown in fig 2.5. By following the sequence of operations S1,

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 5

S1-S2, S2, S2-S3, S3, S3-S4, S4, S4-S1, S1…. The rotor moves in steps of 7.5˚ in counterclockwise
direction.

Table 2.3 – Truth table for half-step mode

Multi-stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

The multi-stack variable reluctance stepper motors are used to obtain smaller step angles,
typically in the range of 2˚ to 15˚. The stator and rotor of multi-stack motor is divided along its
axial length into a number of sections or stacks. All the stacks are magnetically isolated from
others. Each phase has separate stator and rotor stacks. Stator stack consists of salient poles.
All the coils of stator stacks are connected in series and it can be excited to make north and
south poles. The magnetic circuit of each stack is independent from that of others. Usually,
stator poles have sub teeth. The rotor stacks are usually unwound and have projecting teeth.
Both stator and rotor have the same number of poles.

Figure 2.8 – Three stack variable reluctance stepper motor

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

Cons ider th ferabos e/4 tok machiu. hs means
thut both slalon and eolo has bome ao: e/
No: pol
4 A
B

Back A Back C

Not
polu beth n stator &- oloh will be qo.
 Btack

angl
30,
bo, shct Ais
A
when S, ON, A hae enugieg
Se B Ohen Se oN, B phrse erigod
Ohen &a oN, C phse enegued

Susitek S, is oN and thase Ais

Since he soto pol

toee Aeluelanee
is eslbis hed
ghcd A all ot moe.
aser 2

3, 4 get
kali poly2,9,
Bis enugised. Blalo
he iolor
ola
clochwise disels, Yhe blue
Coleus
 Case :3
Noo S, is loned oFF and S3 is lonel
oN. Phase cs envgued. Salosgoluy

Shaft and all thu olors wnil hae

loued 9 cco. Nou sincL phase Ccs
foton toles haue b mor agin 3o CC b maia
lomer elu olane Bel

fonn thu nital fosi laoo tolbr has bb bou bo°

CC o. Yhe rolon josilbo nasked io ble is e
olor.
 6

PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER MOTOR

The construction of permanent magnet stepper motor is similar to that of variable reluctance
stepper motor. The stator consists of salient poles wound with concentric coils. The coils are
grouped and connected in series to form different phases. The rotor consists of permanent
magnets. The rotor can be either in the form of a PM spider cast integral or an assembled
structure as shown in the fig 2.9.

Figure 2.9 – Structure of rotor of PM stepper motor

Working-Single phase ON mode

To study the principle of operation, a two-phase motor is considered. It has four stator poles
and two rotor poles. The stator has windings on its poles. Two stator coils are connected to
form the two phases of the motor.

Figure 2.10 – 4 pole 2 phase PM stepper motor with excitation circuit

Initially, phase A is energised by closing switch S1 to position 1. The rotor and stator magnetic
fields developed keeps the rotor in the same position as shown in fig 2.10. Next S2 is moved to

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 7

position 1 and S1 is opened. The rotor moves by 90˚ in clockwise direction and takes position
as shown in fig 2.11.

Fig 2.11- Rotor position when B (S2 in position 1) is energised

Now, S1 is closed in position 2 and S2 is opened. Rotor moves again by 90˚ in same direction
and rests in position as shown in fig 2.12. The truth table is given in table 2.4.

Fig 2.12 – Rotor position when A (S1 in position 2) is energised

Table 2.4 – Truth table for clockwise rotation

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 8

Working-Two-phase ON mode

Let the initial position of rotor be as shown in fig 2.12. Switches S1 and S2 are kept in position
1 so that both the phases are energised. The rotor moves by 45˚ in clockwise direction and rests
in the position as shown in fig 2.13.

Fig 2.13 – Rotor position when S1 and S2 are in position 1

With S2 in same position, S1 is moved to position 2. The rotor advances by 90˚ in the same
direction and rests in position as shown in fig 2.14.

Fig 2.14 – Rotor position when S1 is connected to position 2 and S2 in position 1

Keeping S1 in position 2, S2 is switched to position 2 and this results in movement of rotor by

90˚ in the same direction and assumes the position shown in the fig 2.15.

Fig 2.15 – Rotor position when S1 and S2 in position 2

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 9

Table 2.5- Truth table for clockwise rotation

Working – Half Step Mode

Initially S1 is switched to position 1. The stator and rotor poles attract but the rotor remains in
equilibrium position as shown in fig 2.12. With S1 in this position, S2 is also switched to
position 1. The rotor moves by 45˚ clockwise and stays in position as shown in fig 2.13.
Keeping S2 in the same position, S1 is opened. The rotor moves clockwise by 45˚ and stays in
position as shown in fig 2.11. Keeping S2 in same position, S1 is switched to position 2. The
rotor moves clockwise by 45˚ and rests in position as shown in fig 2.14. Table 2.6 gives the
truth table of half step mode. In this mode, the rotor moves in clockwise direction in steps of
45˚.

Table 2.6 – Truth table for clockwise rotation

HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR

Hybrid stepper motors have the advantages of both PM and variable reluctance stepper motors.
It works on the combined principles of PM and variable reluctance stepper motors. Typical step
angles of hybrid stepper motor ranges from 0.9˚ to 3.6˚. It has similar stator construction to that
of variable reluctance stepper motor. However, the rotor construction combines both variable

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 10

reluctance and permanent magnet constructions. The rotors are made of an axial permanent
magnet at the middle and two identical stacks of soft iron poles at the outer ends attached to
the north and south poles of the permanent magnet.

The rotor consists of a permanent magnet that is magnetized axially to create a pair of
poles marked N and S as shown in fig 2.16(b). Two end-caps are fitted at both ends of this axial
magnet. These end-caps consist of equal number of teeth which are magnetized by the
respective polarities of the axial magnet. The rotor teeth of one end-cap are offset by a half
tooth pitch so that a tooth at one end-cap coincides with a slot at the other.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 2.16 – Hybrid stepper motor

The cross-sectional views perpendicular to the shaft along X-X’ and Y-Y’ axes are shown in
figures 2.16(a) and 2.16(c) respectively. As seen, the stator consists of four stator poles which
are excited by two stator windings in pairs. The rotor has five N-poles at one end and five S-
poles at the other end of the axial magnet.

5−4
Step angle, 𝜃𝑠 = × 360° = 18°
5×4

Principle of Operation

The switching circuit for exciting the phases is shown in fig 2.17.

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 11

Fig 2.17 – Switching circuit for HSM

With switches S1 and S6 ON, phase A is excited. This will make pole A magnetised as North
and A’ as South. This will cause attraction of some teeth of rotor 1 towards pole A and few teeth
of rotor 2 towards pole A’. The rotor aligns along the axis A-A’. Now, phase A is deenergised
and phase B is energised by turning on switches S3 and S8. This makes pole B magnetised as
North and B’ as South. The rotor moves 18˚ counterclockwise and occupies an equilibrium
position. Now, phase B is deenergised and switches S2 and S5 are turned ON. Phase A is
energised such that pole A magnetises as South and A’ as North. The rotor again moves 18˚
counterclockwise and comes to rest. Now switches S2 and S5 are turned off and S4 and S7 are
turned ON. Phase B is energised such that pole B magnetises as South and B’ as North. The
rotor again moves 18˚ counterclockwise and comes to rest. Truth table of switching operation
is given below in table 2.7.

Table 2.7 – truth table for CCW rotation

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 12

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS

Table 2.8 – Comparison based on advantages and disadvantages

Table 2.9 – Comparison based on different phase properties

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 13

MODES OF EXCITATION

Single Phase Excitation

In this mode of operation only one phase is excited at any time so it is called single-phase-on
operation. The below table shows the sequences of a single-phase excitation mode for three
and four-phase motors. In the table the shaded parts represent the excited state and white the
blanks show the un-excited state. R represents reset. To rotate a motor into clockwise direction,
the excitation sequence is ph1, ph2, ph3... for counter clockwise rotation the excitation
sequence is ph3, ph2, ph1... It is also known as ‘one-phase-on drive’.

1. Three-Phase Motor

2. Four-Phase Motor

Two-Phase Excitation

In this mode of operation two phases are always in excited condition so it is called “two-phase-
on operation”. The below table shows the sequences of a two-phase excitation mode for three
and four-phase motors. It is seen in these tables that when an excitation current is switched
from one phase to another (e.g. as shown by the arrow in table ph2 is turned off and ph1 is
turned on) the third phase (ph3 in the above example) remains excited. It is also known as “Two
phase-on drive." In two-phase-on drive the oscillation damps more quickly than the case of the
one phase-on drive mode.

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 14

1. Three phase motor

2. Four phase motor

Half-Step Excitation

This excitation scheme is a combination of single phase and two-phase excitation. The
sequence for three phase motor is given below.

IMPORTANT TERMS OF STEPPER MOTOR

1. Step Angle: It is the angular displacement of the rotor for a single pulse of excitation
applied to the stator winding. Step angle can be found out using the following two
formulae.
• If the rotor poles and stator poles are Nr and Ns respectively, then step angle is
𝑁 −𝑁
given by: 𝜃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 ×𝑁𝑟 × 360°
𝑠 𝑟

• If the no. of stator phases and no. of rotor teeth are m and Nr respectively, then
360°
step angle is given by: 𝜃𝑠 = 𝑚×𝑁
𝑟

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 15

2. Resolution: It is defined as number of steps per revolution and is given by the

expression
360°
𝑧=
𝜃𝑠
3. Stepping rate: The number of steps completed per second is called stepping rate.
4. Hold position: It corresponds to the resting position of the rotor of an excited motor.
5. Detent position: It corresponds to the position of the rotor of an unexcited motor.
6. Holding torque: It is the maximum torque that can be applied to an excited motor
without slipping the rotor from the equilibrium position.
7. Detent torque: It is the maximum torque that can be applied to an unexcited motor
without slipping the rotor from the equilibrium position. This torque is present only in
PM and hybrid motors.
8. Start-Stop mode: This is a mode of operation of a stepper motor in which the second
pulse is applied to the motor only after the rotor has attained the steady or rest position
due to the first pulse.
9. Slewing mode: In this mode of operation, the second pulse is applied before the motor
has attained the steady position due to the first pulse. In this mode, the motor cannot be
stopped immediately by stopping the applied pulses. Also, the motor cannot be started
in this mode.
10. Synchronism: Synchronism means one-to-one correspondence between the number of
pulses applied to the stator and the number of steps through which the rotor has actually
moved.
11. Pull-in torque: This torque corresponds to the maximum torque developed by a stepper
motor for a given stepping rate in the start-stop mode of operation without losing
synchronism.
12. Pull-in range: It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can operate
in start-stop mode developing a specified torque without losing synchronism.
13. Pull-in rate: It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor will start or
stop without losing synchronism against a given load torque.
14. Pull-out torque: It is maximum torque developed by a stepper motor for a given
stepping rate in the slewing mode without losing synchronism.
15. Pull-out range: It corresponds to the maximum stepping rate at which stepper motor
can operate in slewing mode developing a given torque without losing synchronism.

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 16

16. Pull-out rate: It corresponds to the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor
will slew without losing synchronism against a given load torque.
17. Stepping error: Due to the tolerance in manufacturing and the properties of magnetic
materials and other materials used for the construction of a stepper motor, the actual
step angle may differ from the theoretical angle. The percentage stepping error is given
by:
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
% 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
18. Positional error: The maximum range of cumulative percentage errors taken over a
complete revolution of the rotor is known as positional error

STATIC CHARACHTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTOR

Torque versus step angle and torque versus current are called static characteristics of
stepper motor. First stepper motor is excited and brought to an equilibrium position. Then,
external torque is applied. This makes the rotor to move from the rest position. The angular
displacement is measured. Vary the load torque and find the corresponding displacement.
The variation of displacement is plotted against the torque. A typical torque angle
characteristic is shown in fig 2.18. The maximum of static torque is termed as holding
torque which occurs at 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑚 .

Fig 2.18 – Torque-angle characteristics

The torque-current characteristics for a typical variable reluctance and hybrid stepper
motors are shown in fig 2.19. It is seen that the curve is initially linear. The maximum static
torque appearing in the hybrid motor with no current is the detent torque, which is defined
as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of an unexcited motor without

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 17

causing continuous rotation. Detent torque is due to magnetism, and is therefore available
only in permanent magnet and hybrid stepper motor.

Fig 2.19 – Torque-current characteristics

DYNAMIC CHARACHTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTOR

The dynamic characteristics of a stepper motor represent the characteristics when it is

running or about to run. Pull-in and pull-out torque characteristics are called dynamic
characteristics. Pull-in characteristics is also known as starting characteristics. This curve
refers to the range of frictional torque against which a motor can start without losing any
steps. The pull-out or slewing characteristic is the plot of relation between friction load
torque and the maximum pulse rate at which the motor can be synchronised. Fig 2.20 shows
dynamic characteristics of a typical stepper motor.

In the fig 2.20,

Pull-in torque is OQ at stepping rate A
Pull-out torque is OR at stepping rate A
Pull-in rate is B for torque OP
Pull-out rate is C for torque OP

Fig 2.20 – Dynamic characteristics

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 18

OPEN LOOP CONTROL OF STEPPER MOTOR

The block diagram of an open-loop control scheme for stepper motor is shown in fig 2.21.
The logic controller generates programmed logic sequences required for the operation of
stepper motor. Power controller consists of switching devices which are to be turned ON
at a particular step in the logic sequence. The signals from logic controller are fed to gate
or base drive circuit of the semiconductor switching devices in the power controller
through a suitable amplifier.

Fig 2.21 – Open loop control scheme of stepper motor

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL OF STEPPER MOTOR

In closed loop control of stepper motor, a new command for exciting a phase is given only
after the previous command is fulfilled. The first step takes more time due to inertia of load
and motor. The command for the second step is given only after completing the first step.
The second step takes less time, the third step takes still less time and so on. Thus, the step
duration varies as step advances. To decide the exact time to input the command for
successive steps, the rotor position should be known. The circuit which enables position
sensing is called discriminator. Optical sensors are used here. Depending on the direction
of rotation and steps required, the phases are switched ON. A logic translator is used to
accomplish this function. The signals for the translator are obtained from a comparator. The
comparator compares the number of steps the motor is required to move through with the
actual number of steps completed, the count of which is available from discriminator and
OR gate. The translator feeds the gate/base drive circuits of semiconductor power switching
devices after sufficient amplification. Fig 2.22 shows the block diagram of closed loop
control.

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 19

Fig 2.22 – Closed loop control of stepper motor

APPLICATIONS OF STEPPER MOTORS

• As wiper motors in automobiles

• In dot matrix printers, xerox machines etc.
• In computer peripherals
• In graph plotters
• For closing and opening glass windows in automobiles.
• Tiny stepper motors are used in wrist watches
• Used in robotics
• Used in X-ray machines

EET426 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES-MOD 2 PREPARED BY VEENAA RAJ

 Numeslea

9. thru phase thnea stk valabl nel clana sya

mmolou has to nolon at tnd ib slap angl
Son No: hases - 3
860 z l

thece phase an

Beh No:
No:o olon lte to
A
360

Resolutsi 360

G. asayu motas has 6 dalon poles

and kanig
&o ath Caluet the
and tesobu loo.
Soh No: olslalQs lala 30

No: o/ ob latt.

XB60
NoxN
2

es olulioo, 860 360

. A slys molx has io salor jols h it

Bubtart.
he sotoA,
kolo has bo et: nd ia stp ange & solula
Soh No: gols om slalos - to
No ol slalor sublaeth = y
No:

No: SD

X B60
Ngx No
Nob
Ahwap subhact
Resoulion, X- 36o 36o

PM slau moloa is deinn by a seris o pulby

duealo Qo ms. has
ola. the wnll it ake

Nor satbs poles 4

polu
2
x 360 4-6 X360
Ngx Ny
30

evolulto) 360 o alon

One seWo lul 360
30
one seevoluko Rxao,