Hardware and Network Servicing

Level-III
Based on December 2021, Curriculum Version 1

Module Title: Determine Best-Fit Topology

Module code: EIS HNS3 01 1122
Nominal duration: 40 Hour

Prepared by: Addis Ababa Tegbareid Polytechnic College

August, 2022
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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 Table of Contents
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................... 3

Acronym ................................................................................................................................................ 4

Introduction to the Module ................................................................................................................... 5

Unit One: Identify key information sources ........................................................................................ 7

1.1. Identifying information repositories ..................................................................................... 8

1.2. Reviewing current organizational documentation ............................................................... 9

1.3. Developing critical questions .............................................................................................. 10

1.4. Information gathering techniques ...................................................................................... 11

Unit Two: Determine user needs ......................................................................................................... 15

2.1. Identifying user needs and establish requirements ............................................................ 16

2.2. Identifying network segments for proposed network requirements .................................. 18

2.3. Determining Segment needs using functional analysis ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.4. Estimating network traffics/loads ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Unit Three: Develop best topology ..................................................................................................... 37

3.1. Overview of network topologies ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2. Determining network resource requirements .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2.1. Tools and equipment’s ……………………………………………………….. 47

3.2.2. TCP/IP, Ethernet, hubs, adaptor cards ……………………………………….56

3.3. Analyzing physical environment features based on network design ................................. 62

3.4. Selecting appropriate network topology………………………………………………………71

Reference ............................................................................................................................................. 74

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 Acknowledgment
Addis Ababa Tegbareid Polytechnic College wish to extend thanks and appreciation to the
many representatives of TVT instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time
and expertise to the development of this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).

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Acronym
TTLM Teaching, Training, Learning Materials
TVT Technical and Vocational Training
LAP Learning Activity Performance
LAN Local Area Network
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
WAN Wide Area Network
JAD Joint application development

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 Introduction to the Module

This lesson introduces some basic principles of computer-based networking, discusses

advantages of networking, and presents the idea of connecting computers together to form a local
area network (such as a corporate intranet) and a wide area network (such as the Internet).

At its most elementary level, a computer network consists of two computers connected to each
other by a cable that allows them to share data. All computer networking, no matter how
sophisticated stems from that simple system. While the idea of connecting two computers by a
cable may not seem extraordinary, in retrospect it has proven to be a major achievement in
communications.

Computer networking arose as an answer to the need to share data in a timely fashion. Personal
computers are powerful tools that can process and manipulate large amounts of data quickly, but
they do not allow users to share that data efficiently. Before networks, users needed either to
print out documents or copy document files to a disk for others to edit or use them. If others
made changes to the document, there was no easy way to merge the changes. This was, and still
is, known as "working in a stand-alone environment."

Copying files onto floppy disks and giving them to others to copy onto their computers was
sometimes referred to as the "sneakernet." This early form of computer networking is one that
many of us have used and perhaps still use today.

Figure 1.1
This module is designed to meet the industry requirement under the Hardware and Network
servicing occupational standard, particularly for the unit of competency: Determine Best-Fit
Topology

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This module covers the units:
Identify key information sources
Determine user needs
Develop best topology
Learning Objective of the Module:
At the end of the module the trainee will be able to:
Identify key information sources
Determine user needs
Develop best topology
Module Instruction
For effective use this modules trainees are expected to follow the following module instruction:
1. Read the information written in each unit
2. Accomplish the Self-checks at the end of each unit
3. Perform Operation Sheets which were provided at the end of units
4. Do the “LAP test” giver at the end of each unit and
5. Read the identified reference book for more resources and Examples and exercise

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 Unit One: Identify key information sources
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
Identifying information repositories
Reviewing current organizational documentation
Developing critical questions
Information gathering techniques

This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:
Identify information repositories
Review current organizational documentation
Develop critical questions
Use Information gathering techniques

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 1.1. Identifying information repositories
An information repository is a collection of interrelated information maintained across a network on
multiple servers. It creates a unified resource for anyone connected with the system to access when they
need information. Numerous organizations use information repositories to handle their data and may
network with others to share material as necessary. The underlying information technology may need to
be very robust to handle the volume of information and requests. This term can also be used to refer to a
specific kind of data management.

The information repository deposits relevant data along with meta information on a regular basis. Users
who want to access the information can run a search to find material relevant to their interests.
Repositories may include a variety of types of information, including images, video, and text. Users may
be able to narrow searches by type to find specific materials. Access is often limited by passwords and
other security measures to protect the integrity of the information and limit abuses of the system.

In the sense of an approach to data management, an information repository is a secondary storage

space for data. When data is no longer needed in a primary server or facility, it can be moved to
the information repository for archival purposes. This frees up room on systems in current use
without destroying data that may be necessary later. The process may be automated to facilitate
smooth functioning within the system and ensure that data transfers on a regular basis, rather
than haphazardly.

When data enters an information repository for storage, the system can tag it with relevant
information and check to see if an identical file already exists. If it does, the duplicate may be
destroyed. The system will store the data as long as directed. Some periodically purge to free up
space while others may be set to retain data infinitely, as long as the data remains useful and the
system still functions.

Information repositories are often established across networks and may include a mixture of
computers for stability and reliability. They can automate backups to tape, disc, and other media
to ensure that the data will be available if necessary. Relying solely on one data storage site can
be hazardous, as any problem at that site may result in permanent data loss. Information
technology personnel can program automatic backups as part of the routine maintenance to keep
the system running smoothly.

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 1.2. Reviewing current organizational documentation
Description
The review of documentation is often the first place to start when trying to learn more about an
organization. There is usually a large amount of useful documentation that management can promptly
provide. You can usually review the documentation without requiring a lot of time from the management.
Of course, what you look for and what you conclude depend on the purposes and the questions to be
addressed by your research.

What You Can Learn from Reviewing Documentation

Some things to look for are:
Completeness – Have they produced the typical documents that you would expect for their
particular stage in organizational development, for example, do they have an organization chart,
strategic plan, job descriptions, personnel policies, fiscal policies and procedures, and financial
reports, ? If so, then they probably value completeness and accuracy.
Currency – How up-to-date is the documentation? If it’s up-to-date, then they probably value
timeliness.
Scope – Does the documentation include the typical contents of that particular type of
document? If so, then they probably value understanding and accuracy.
Depth – How in-depth is the content of the document? If it is in-depth, then they probably value
thoroughness.
Alignment – For example, does the content between the documents seem consistent and
complementary? If so, then they probably are fairly clear in their thinking and management.
Authorship – Who has developed the various documents? If it is appropriate authors, for
example, the CEO is not doing the Board’s documents, then they probably value having clear
roles.
So what have you learned about:
o How their culture values completeness, timeliness, understanding and accuracy,
thoroughness, clear thinking and management?
o How might those be related to the causes of the organization's current situation?
o How might you manage your relationship with management?
o Any specific information in the documents that you still want to learn more about?

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 1.3. Developing critical questions
Closed-ended questions are appropriate in situations where you're looking for a quick, definitive
answer, but they're not conversation starters. When you're looking for an explanation or a rich
level of detail, you'll want to use questions that are open-ended.

Some questions are open-ended while others are closed-ended. Inquiries that are closed-ended
can be answered by a simple "yes" or "no" (or another super-short reply), while open-ended
questions require a more detailed response. Explore some open-ended questions examples vs.
closed-ended ones, so you'll be clear on the difference and have an idea of how to change one
type of question to the other.

Closed-Ended Questions
If you can answer a question with only a "yes" or "no" response, then you are answering a
closed-ended type of question. Not all closed-ended questions have to be answered with a "yes"
or "no." Any question that is worded such that it can be answered with a simple, direct response
of one word or just a few words is closed-ended. These questions have direct responses that don't
require elaboration in order to fully answer what was asked. Examples of closed-ended questions
are:

 Who made this?

 Are you feeling better today?
 Will you please do me a favor?
 Is that your final answer?
 Does four plus four equal eight?

Open-Ended Questions
Open-ended questions are ones that require more than one-word answers or choosing among a
few options. These questions require longer responses, with answers often coming in the form of
a list or a few sentences or paragraphs. They can also come in the form of a speech or essay.

 What led to the two of you having a disagreement?

 How did you and your best friend meet?
 What major effects did World War II have on the United States?
 What suggestions can you share to help me prepare to buy a house?

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 1.4. Information gathering techniques
Information gathering: A Process of Collecting the user needs to solve a problem or issues and
achieve an objective. Business Requirement: A series of needs that must be fulfilled to achieve a
high-level objective. Clear businesses requirements help ensure that the end result of a project
fulfills the stakeholders' needs.

1. One-on-one interviews

The most common technique for gathering requirements is to sit down with the clients and ask
them what they need. There are many good ways to plan the interview, but generally you want to
ask open-ended questions to get the interviewee to start talking and then ask probing questions to
uncover requirements. Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they
wish, and to what length they wish, appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth and
depth of reply

2. Group interviews

Simply, Group interviews are similar to the one-on-one interview, except that more than one
person is being interviewed. These interviews work well when everyone is at the same level or
has the same role. Group interviews require more preparation and more formality to get the
information you want from all the participants. Usually, IF the number is 5 or more, the
interview will be named as “Facilitated Session”.

3. Joint application development (JAD)

Is a technique that allows the analyst to accomplish requirements analysis and design the user
interface with the users in a group setting. In another meaning, JAD sessions are similar to
general facilitated sessions. However, the group typically stays in the session until the session
objectives are completed. For a requirements JAD session, the participants stay in session until a
complete set of requirements is documented and agreed to.

4. Questionnaires

Questionnaires are much more informal, and they are good tools to gather requirements from
stakeholders in remote locations or those who will have only minor input into the overall
requirements. Questionnaires can also be used when you have to gather input from dozens,
hundreds, or thousands of people. Questionnaires are useful in gathering information from key
organization members about:

1. Attitudes – what people in the organization say they want?

2. Beliefs – what people think is actually true.
3. Behavior – what organizational members do?
4. Characteristics – properties of people or things.

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5. Prototyping

Prototyping is a relatively modern technique for gathering requirements. In this approach, you
gather preliminary requirements that you use to build an initial version of the solution — a
prototype. You show this to the client, who then gives you additional requirements. You change
the application and cycle around with the client again. This repetitive process continues until the
product meets the critical mass of business needs or for an agreed number of iterations.

6. Use cases

Use cases are basically stories that describe how discrete processes work. The stories include
people (actors) and describe how the solution works from a user perspective. Use cases may be
easier for the users to articulate, although the use cases may need to be distilled later into the
more specific detailed requirements.

7. Following people around

This technique is especially helpful when gathering information on current processes. You may
find, for instance, that some people have their work routine down to such a habit that they have a
hard time explaining what they do or why. You may need to watch them perform their job before
you can understand the entire picture. In some cases, you might also want to participate in the
actual work process to get a hands-on feel for how the business function works today.

8. Request for proposals (RFPs)

If you are a vendor, you may receive requirements through an RFP. This list of requirements is
there for you to compare against your own capabilities to determine how close a match you are
to the client's needs.

9. Brainstorming

On some projects, the requirements are not "uncovered" as much as they are "discovered." In
other words, the solution is brand new and needs to be created as a set of ideas that people can
agree to. In this type of project, simple brainstorming may be the starting point. The appropriate
subject matter experts get into a room and start creatively brainstorming what the solution might
look like. After all the ideas are generated, the participants prioritize the ones they think are the
best for this solution. The resulting consensus of best ideas is used for the initial requirements.

10. Demo Screens

This technique is especially helpful when gathering information from a client how is totally not
related to Information technology field or the client does not know exactly what he needs. By
providing basic screens “Not necessary to be active” and explaining the concept of the estimated
system, the client will understand more and start to give the analyst the information and the
requirements.

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 Self-Check-1

Direction I: True or False

Instruction1- writes True or False to the following questions.

1. An information repository is a collection of interrelated information maintained across a network

on multiple servers.
2. The review of documentation is often the first place to start when trying to learn more about an
organization
3. Closed-ended questions are appropriate in situations where you're looking for a quick,
definitive answer.
4. Prototyping is a relatively modern technique for gathering requirements

Direction II: Multiple Choices

Instruction1I- Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.

1. The most common technique for gathering requirements is to sit down with the clients
and ask them what they need.
A. Interview
B. Use case
C. JAD
D. none
2. Which one of the following are much more informal, and they are good tools to gather
requirements from stakeholders in remote locations
A. Interview
B. Use case
C. JAD
D. none
3. are similar to the one-on-one interview, except that more than one person is being
interviewed
A. Interview
B. Use case
C. Group interview
D. none
4. Process of collecting the user needs to solve a problem or issues and achieve an objective.
A. Information gathering techniques
B. Use case
C. JAD
D. none

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Direction III: Short answer items
Instruction III- Briefly answer the following questions
1. List information gathering techniques
2. Describe open ended and close ended questions

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Unit Two: Determine user needs
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:

Identifying user needs and establish requirements

Identifying network segments for proposed network requirements
Determining Segment needs using functional analysis
Estimating network traffics/loads
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

Identify user needs and establish requirements

Identify network segments for proposed network requirements
Determine Segment needs using functional analysis
Estimate network traffics/loads

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2.1. Identifying user needs and establish requirements
User needs are the needs that a user has of a service, and which that service must satisfy for the
user to get the right outcome for them. Services designed around users and their needs: are more
likely to be used. Help more people get the right outcome for them - and so achieve their policy
intent.

2.1.1. Assessing User Requirements

In general, users primarily want application availability in their networks. The chief components
of application availability are response time, throughput, and reliability:

 Response time is the time between entry of a command or keystroke and the host
system's execution of the command or delivery of a response. User satisfaction about
response time is generally considered to be a monotonic function up to some limit, at
which point user satisfaction falls off to nearly zero. Applications in which fast response
time is considered critical include interactive online services, such as automated tellers
and point-of-sale machines.
 Applications that put high-volume traffic onto the network have more effect on
throughput than end-to-end connections. Throughput-intensive applications generally
involve file-transfer activities. However, throughput-intensive applications also usually
have low response-time requirements. Indeed, they can often be scheduled at times when
response-time–sensitive traffic is low (for example, after normal work hours).
 Although reliability is always important, some applications have genuine requirements
that exceed typical needs. Organizations that require nearly 100% uptime conduct all
activities online or over the telephone. Financial services, securities exchanges, and
emergency/police/military operations are a few examples. These situations imply a
requirement for a high level of hardware and topological redundancy. Determining the
cost of any downtime is essential in determining the relative importance of reliability to
your network.

You can assess user requirements in a number of ways. The more involved your users are in the
process, the more likely that your evaluation will be accurate. In general, you can use the
following methods to obtain this information:

 User community profiles—outline what different user groups require. This is the first
step in determining network requirements. Although many users have roughly the same
requirements for an electronic mail system, engineering groups using X Windows
terminals and Sun workstations in an NFS environment have different needs than PC
users sharing print servers in a finance department.
 Interviews, focus groups, and surveys—build a baseline for implementing a network.
Understand that some groups might require access to common servers. Others might want
to allow external access to specific internal computing resources. Certain organizations
might require IS support system to be managed in a particular way according to some
external standard.
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 The least formal method of obtaining information is to conduct interviews with key user
groups. Focus groups can also be used to gather information and generate discussion
among different organizations with similar (or dissimilar) interests. Finally, formal
surveys can be used to get a statistically valid reading of user sentiment regarding a
particular service level or proposed networking architecture.

 Human factors tests—The most expensive, time-consuming, and possibly revealing

method is to conduct a test involving representative users in a lab environment. This is
most applicable when evaluating response-time requirements. You might set up working
systems and have users perform normal remote host activities from the lab network, for
example. By evaluating user reactions to variations in host responsiveness, you can create
benchmark thresholds for acceptable performance.

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 2.2. Identifying network segments for proposed network requirements
2.2.1. Definition of computer network

A network is a group of connected computers that allows people to share resources.

Figure 2.1
Advantage of a computer network

 File sharing
The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote
file access. A person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see the files
present on the other workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. It saves the time
which is wasted in copying a file from one system to another, by using a storage
device. In addition to that, many people can access or update the information stored in
a database, making it up-to-date and accurate. Resource
 sharing[Hardware and software sharing]
Hardware like Printer, hard disk, CD-ROM and different software can be shared
 Increased Storage Capacity: A standalone computer might fall short of storage
memory, but when many computers are on a network, memory of different computers
can be used in such case. One can also design a storage server on the network in order
to have a huge storage capacity.
 Centralized administration and support
From just a single location, the network administrator can perform administrative
tasks on any computer on the network, remote troubleshooting, for technical

 Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many software available in the market which
are costly and take time for installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the
software can be stored or installed on a system or a server and can be used by the
different workstations.
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Types of Computer Network

Based on the area coverage of the network, computer networks can be divides into three

A. Local Area Network (LAN)

B. Wide area Network (WAN)
C. Metropolitan area Network(MAN)

LAN
 Local area networks are used to interconnect distributed communities of computers
located within a single building or localized group of buildings.
 Since all equipment is located within a single establishment, LAN’s are normally
installed and maintained by the organization. Hence, they are also referred to as
private data networks.
 Example: network in your class
MAN:
 Is a larger network that usually spans several buildings in the same city or town?
 Example: networks among Addis Ababa sub city administrations

WAN
 When data communication is necessary or desired beyond the reach of a MAN, a
wide area network (WAN) over public carrier networks is established.
 Institutions transferring large amounts of data between offices often decide to lease
dedicated transmission lines from public carriers, in what is termed an enterprise-
wide private network.
 Example: network among news agency offices in different region of Ethiopia.

Based on the computers relationship on the network, computer networks can be categorized as Peer to
Peer and Server based network

2.2.2. Peer-to-Peer Networks

In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network. Peer to peer network are also called Workgroup.

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Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate

Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice than a server-
based network. Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:

 There are 10 users or fewer.

 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist.
 Security is not an issue.
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the foreseeable
future.

Advantages of peer to peer network

 Easy to install and configure

 The cost of installation and operation is less
 A full time network administrator is not required

Disadvantages of peer to peer network

 Shared resources can be accessed by everyone

 Backup has to be performed on each computer separately
 No centralized security

2.2.3. Server Based network (client/server network)

In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network—with computers acting as

both servers and clients—will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks have
dedicated servers. A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a
client or workstation. Servers are described as "dedicated" because they are not themselves
clients, and because they are optimized to service requests from network clients quickly and to
ensure the security of files and directories. Server based network is also known as Domain.

Advantages of server based network

 Centralized resources
o Easier to backup files
o Easier to find files
 Efficient
 Security
o One machine can secure entire network
o One central login
 Scalability

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Disadvantage of client server

 If the server goes down, it takes part or the whole network with it
 It is more expensive to install
 Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT skills

2.2.4. Network Communications

Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another. This complex process can
be broken into discrete, sequential tasks. The sending computer must:

1. Recognize the data.

2. Divide the data into manageable chunks.
3. Add information to each chunk of data to determine the location of the data and to
identify the receiver.
4. Add timing and error-checking information.
5. Put the data on the network and send it on its way.

Network client software operates at many different levels within the sending and receiving
computers. Each of these levels, or tasks, is governed by one or more protocols. These protocols,
or rules of behavior, are standard specifications for formatting and moving the data. When the
sending and receiving computers follow the same protocols, communication is assured. Because
of this layered structure, this is often referred to as the protocol stack.

With the rapid growth of networking hardware and software, a need arose for standard protocols
that could allow hardware and software from different vendors to communicate. In response, two
primary sets of standards were developed: the OSI reference model and a modification of that
standard called Project 802

Acquiring a clear understanding of these models is an important first step in understanding the
technical aspects of how a network functions.

2.2.5. The OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model represents the seven layers of the process by which data is packaged
and transmitted from a sending application through the physical wires to the receiving
application. In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of
specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. The original
document applied to systems that were open to each other because they could all use the same
protocols and standards to exchange information.

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A Layered Architecture

The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication into seven layers. Each
layer covers different network activities, equipment, or protocols. (Layering specifies different
functions and services as data moves from one computer through the network cabling to another
computer.) The OSI reference model defines how each layer communicates and works with the
layers immediately above and below it. For example, the session layer communicates and works
with the presentation and transport layers.

The seven layers of the OSI reference model from highest to lowest layers are

7. Application layer

6. Presentation layer

5. Session layer

4. Transport layer

3. Network layer

2. Data link layer

1. Application layer

Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for delivery over the network to
another computer. The lowest layers—1 and 2—define the network's physical media and related
tasks, such as putting data bits onto the network interface cards (NICs) and cable. The highest
layers define how applications access communication services. The higher the layer, the more
complex its task is.

Relationships among OSI Reference Model Layers

Each layer provides services to the next-higher layer and shields the upper layer from the details
of how the services below it are actually implemented. At the same time, each layer appears to
be in direct communication with its associated layer on the other computer. This provides a
logical, or virtual, communication between peer layers, as shown in the figure. In reality, actual
communication between adjacent layers takes place on one computer only. At each layer,
software implements network functions according to a set of protocols.

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 Figure 2.2

Before data is passed from one layer to another, it is broken down into packets, or units of
information, which are transmitted as a whole from one device to another on a network. The
network passes a packet from one software layer to another in the same order as that of the
layers. At each layer, the software adds additional formatting or addressing to the packet, which
is needed for the packet to be successfully transmitted across the network.

At the receiving end, the packet passes through the layers in reverse order. A software utility at
each layer reads the information on the packet, strips it away, and passes the packet up to the
next layer. When the packet is finally passed up to the application layer, the addressing
information has been stripped away and the packet is in its original form, which is readable by
the receiver

With the exception of the lowest layer in the OSI networking model, no layer can pass
information directly to its counterpart on another computer. Instead, information on the sending
computer must be passed down through each successive layer until it reaches the physical layer.
The information then moves across the networking cable to the receiving computer and up that
computer's networking layers until it arrives at the corresponding layer. For example, when the
network layer sends information from computer A, the information moves down through the
data-link and physical layers on the sending side, over the cable, and up the physical and data-
link layers on the receiving side to its final destination at the network layer on computer B.

In a client/server environment, an example of the kind of information sent from the network
layer on computer A to the network layer on computer B would be a network address, with
perhaps some error-checking information added to the packet.

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Interaction between adjacent layers occurs through an interface. The interface defines the
services offered by the lower networking layer to the upper one and further defines how those
services will be accessed. In addition, each layer on one computer appears to be communicating
directly with the same layer on another computer.

The following sections describe the purpose of each of the seven layers of the OSI reference
model, and identify the services that each provides to adjacent layers. Beginning at the top of the
stack (layer 7, the application layer), we work down to the bottom (layer 1, the physical layer).

2.2.6. Network segmentation

A network segment is a portion of a computer network. The nature and extent of a segment depends on
the nature of the network and the device or devices used to interconnect end stations. Network
segmentation is when different parts of a computer network, or network zones, are separated by
devices like bridges, switches and routers. Network segmentation is a discipline and a framework
that can be applied in the data center and on premises at your facilities.

Following are a few key benefits of network segmentation:

 Limiting access privileges to those who truly need it

 Protecting the network from widespread cyber attacks
 Boosting network performance by reducing the number of users in specific zones

Figure 2.3

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Why Is Network Segmentation Important?

Firewalls have to do far too many these days: From real-time learning behavioral analytics all the
way down to allowing necessary cookies for user experience. Firewalls are very strict and follow
established firewall rules, but they don’t do everything to protect your digital assets. What’s
more, they can quickly become an outdated generation firewall. Your static IP addresses deserve
to be protected, and they need backup beyond the front lines.

What happens when a threat actor penetrates the firewall via a phishing attempt, for example?
Systems and services need to be isolated from one another to prevent a small breach from
becoming a massive incident that leads to a data breach.

It’s one thing to have your smart lighting system compromised, but it’s another to have your
customer data stolen. These are both virtualized functions for many businesses, but they are not
nearly the same in terms of risk and liability.

If the business in the above example practices proper network segmentation and is hacked via
their smart lighting system (this isn’t uncommon), the threat actor will find another obstacle.
Basically, it’s like turning a corner within a hedge maze to find a dead end: the threat actor will
have to work their way backward and attempt to find other access points to the systems and data
they are attempting to compromise. At this point, most cybercriminals are going to get
discouraged and look for an easier target.

Whether you are running a virtual local area network (LAN) in the cloud or running an SDN-
powered architecture, network segmentation will protect your assets.

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 2.3. Determining Segment needs using functional analysis
2.3.1. Who Needs Network Segmentation?

Everyone running internal systems, whether physical or virtualized, to meet business needs
network security. The more complicated the architecture, the more important the need for
segmentation. The only users who won’t need network segmentation are businesses that rely
100% on software as a service (SaaS) solutions or alternatively a business that operates
offline/without IT services.

If you’re running a flat network to simplify the number of switches, you’re going to be an ideal
target for a threat actor. While a flat network may save you time and money in the initial setup,
you are leaving yourself open to being burned on the back end. That type of easy, lateral
movement across the entire network will allow the bad guys to get wherever they want to go
with little to no resistance.

2.3.2. Types of Network Segmentation

So how do you know what network zones your organization needs? Think about the different
types of users and data you have and who needs access to what. Here are some examples of the
types of network zones you may want to establish:

 Users: Users are a network in and of themselves. Make sure you have correct access
control on your users in your active directory. Who needs the least privilege on your
network? Privilege levels should be based on the user’s role in switching administration.
How many admins have full access rights? Make sure you have less than a handful.
Access control lists are typically already a part of your active directory server. The idea
here is you are extending that practice to more components of your network.
 Screened Subnet: This includes the subnet works that expose externally facing systems
– where the handshakes take place on your network. For example, it may include public-
facing websites or other resources accessible via the internet. You want to separate things
that the public can access from your local area network (LAN) and internal data that
needs to be protected.
 Guest Network: Guest Wi-Fi should be separate from the corporate Wi-Fi. This may
seem like a no brainer, but I find a lot of smaller businesses never bother to set it up.
Even residential routers include this feature – you can easily set up a guest Wi-Fi in your
home!
 IT Workstations: This is the dev network zone for IT. It’s where your IT staff does non-
administrative work, and it should be segmented for testing. I would also recommend
giving IT a dedicated internet circuit for testing. This can be a best effort, cheaper
connection. Don’t let anyone else in the company have network access to it aside from
IT.
 Servers by Department: Do department servers need to talk to one another? Create a
public drive and a private drive, and then segment access on the private drives to those
within each team or department. This can limit the crawl of malware.

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  VoIP/Communications: Placing communications systems on their own network zone
boosts performance and enhances quality. But in terms of network security, as
communications move toward more APIs unique to your most used software as a service
(SaaS) platforms, this network will become a more common attack surface.
 Traditional Physical Security: Cameras, ID card scanners, etc., should be in their own
network zone. This is not to be taken lightly, as the risk of a physical breach can be more
harmful than a digital one. There are a number of real-world examples of this, including
in 2017, the closed-circuit camera network in Washington, D.C., was hacked, leaving
police cameras unable to function for three days.
 Industrial Control Systems: HVAC, for example, like the non-segmented network
compromised in the Target breach, should have two-factor authentication and be
segmented.
 Customer Databases: Due to compliance requirements, customer databases need to be
secured more intently than, for instance, your print server. PCI-DSS, HIPAA, HiTRUST,
FINRA, GDPR and other pieces of data legislation will determine the level of
segmentation and cyber security that would be best practice in terms of implementation.

I would suggest configuring your intrusion detection and intrusion prevention system (IDS/IPS)
tools to monitor your internal segmented network zones, just as you would set them to monitor
your public-facing networks. Make sure to review your logs or work with an IT partner that will
double your vigilance and act as an extra set of eyes.

Moving to the cloud is a legitimate strategy for network segmentation, but as I have written
before, it doesn’t mean it’s easier or more secure. Learn more on why your cloud solutions
deserve zero-trust networking.

2.3.3. Benefits of Network Segmentation

While safety and security are critical benefits unto themselves, the following are also excellent
advantages when it comes to network segmentation:

 Damage control and limitation in case of an incident via the smaller attack surface
 Improved access control for external and internal network security
 Reducing the attack plane and scope of compliance requirements related auditing
 Improved performance with less congestion on network traffic
 Better analytics around network monitoring, network access and network devices
 Endpoint device protection, especially important as IoT devices become more common

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Network segmentation can boost your overall security policy by limiting access privileges to
those who need it, protecting the network from widespread cyber-attacks and enabling better
network performance by reducing the number of users in specific zones.

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2.4. Estimating network traffics/loads
Network traffic or data traffic is the amount of data moving across a network at a given point of
time. Network data in computer networks is mostly encapsulated in network packets, which
provide the load in the network.

There are different network traffic types in a network. These traffic types have different
characteristics and requirements. So, in a network there is different behavior according to the
traffic types. So, what are these network traffic types? These are basically three types of traffic:
voice, video and data traffic.

Figure 2.2

Bandwidth requirements vary from one network to another, and understanding how to calculate
bandwidth properly is vital to building and maintaining a fast, functional network.

As most network administrators can attest, bandwidth is one of the more important factors in the
design and maintenance of a functional LAN, WAN or wireless network. Unlike a server, which
can be configured and reconfigured throughout the life of the network, bandwidth is a network
design element usually optimized by figuring out the correct formula for your network from the
outset.

Wondering how to calculate bandwidth requirements when designing the network? What
specific considerations apply? The answers to these important questions follow.

Understanding bandwidth

The term bandwidth refers to the data rate supported by the network connection or the interfaces
that connect to the network. It represents both volume and time, representing the amount of data
that can be transmitted between two points in a set period of time. Data coming into the network
is known as ingress traffic, and data leaving the network is called egress traffic. Bandwidth is
usually expressed in terms of bits per second or, sometimes, in bytes per second.

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Network bandwidth represents the capacity of the network connection, though it's important to
understand the distinction between theoretical throughput and real-world results when figuring
out the right bandwidth formula for your network. For example, a 1000BASE-T -- which uses
unshielded twisted pair cables -- Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) network can theoretically support 1,000
Mbps, but this level can never be achieved in practice due to hardware and systems software
overhead.

Bandwidth vs. speed: 2 different measurements

One point to consider when thinking about how to calculate bandwidth needs on your network is
this: Bandwidth should not be confused with throughput, which refers to speed. While high-
bandwidth networks are often fast, that is not always the case.

A helpful metaphor when thinking about bandwidth is cars on a highway:

 A high-bandwidth network is like a six-lane highway that can fit hundreds of cars at any
given moment.
 A low-bandwidth network is like a single-lane road in which one car drives directly
behind another.

Although the large highway is likely to move vehicles faster, rush-hour traffic can easily bring
cars and trucks to a standstill. Or, perhaps, cars can't get onto the highway quickly because it's
clogged with large delivery trucks that take up a lot of space on the road. Similarly, even a high-
bandwidth network can run slowly in the face of problems, such as congestion and bandwidth-
hungry applications.

What happens if you miscalculate your bandwidth needs?

These points make calculating bandwidth allowances and requirements a challenge, yet the
consequences of getting the bandwidth formula wrong are considerable. If you don't procure
enough and hit your bandwidth limit, you all but guarantee the network will run slowly. Yet,
significantly overprovisioning bandwidth can be cost-prohibitive for most enterprises.

So, how do you determine the right formula that will meet your bandwidth requirements? The
process begins with asking the right questions: What applications are users running, and what is
the performance service-level agreement for these applications? Some network managers are
only concerned with how many users are on a virtual LAN. But, to determine actual bandwidth
usage, what you need to know is what the users will be doing on the network.

It's possible that 200 users will cause less of a bottleneck than a group of three users who really
beat the heck out of the network because of a funky client-server application or extensive use of
a bandwidth-heavy service, like high-definition video conferencing.

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 Figure 2.3

Coming up with a formula for how to calculate bandwidth

Calculating bandwidth requirements has two basic steps:

1. Determine the amount of available network bandwidth.

2. Determine the average utilization required by the specific application.

Both of these figures should be expressed in bytes per second. Consider the following formula: A
1 GBE network has 125 million Bps of available bandwidth. This is computed by taking the
amount of bits -- in a 1 GBE network that would be 1 billion -- and dividing that by eight to
determine the bytes:

1,000,000,000 bps / 8 = 125,000,000 Bps

After determining the network's bandwidth, assess how much bandwidth each application is
using. You can use a network analyzer to detect the number of bytes per second the application
sends across the network.

To do this, follow these steps:

1. Enable the cumulative bytes column of your network analyzer.

2. Capture traffic to and from a test workstation running the application.
3. In decode summary window, mark the packets at the beginning of the file transfer.
4. Follow the timestamp down to one second later, and then look at the cumulative bytes
field.

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How to interpret the results of your bandwidth calculations

If you determine that your application is transferring data at 200,000 Bps, then you have the
information to perform the calculation: 125,000,000 Bps / 200,000 Bps = 625 concurrent users.
In this case, the network will be fine even with several hundred concurrent users.

Look what would happen, though, if you had a 100 Mbps network: 13,102,000 Bps / 200,000
Bps = 65.51 concurrent users. You would then have a network that couldn't support more than
approximately 65 users running the application concurrently. Knowing the formula to calculate
bandwidth is extremely important to network administrators.

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 Self-Check-2

Direction I: True or False

Instruction1- writes True or False to the following questions.

1. The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication into seven layers
2. A network segment is a portion of a computer network
3. Data leaving the network is called egress traffic.
4. A network is a group of connected computers that allows people to share resources.
5. In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers

Direction II: Multiple Choices

Instruction1I- Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. All the computers are equal
a. Server client network
b. Peer to peer network
c. Local Area network
d. None
2. Which one is a larger network that usually spans several buildings in the same city or
town?
a. Server client network
b. Peer to peer network
c. Local Area network
d. Metropolitan area network

3. Network zones, are separated by devices like

a. Bridges
b. switches
c. routers
d. all
4. Which of the following are types of traffic:
a. voice
b. video
c. data
d. all

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Direction III: Short answer items
Instruction III- Briefly answer the following questions

1. describe peer to peer network and server client network

2. describe the types of network based on Area coverage

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Operation sheet 1

Operation Title: How to Create network

Purpose: To show how to create a peer to peer among two computers
Instruction: create a peer to peer network by following procedures.

Required tools and equipment:

1. Cable
2. Computers
3. Crimper
4. RJ45
5. Tester

Precautions:
Take extra RJ45 and cable length than necessary
Procedures:
Step 1: set different IP address for both computers
Step 2: set identical getaway address for both computers
Step 3: make sure the workgroup name is the same
Step 4: crimp the CAT cable on both ends to make crossover cable
Step 5: plug network cables among them
Step 6: run command prompt ping among them to test the connection

Quality criteria:
Ping and file sharing needs to work effectively

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LAP Test Practical Demonstration

Name: __________________________ Date: ____________

Time started: _____3:00________ Time finished: ____8:00___
Instruction I: Given necessary templates, tools and materials you are required to perform the
following tasks within 1-2 hours.
Task 1: create a peer to peer network between two computer
Task 2: share file among the computers
Task 3: show ping between both computers

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Unit Three: Develop best topology
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
Overview of network topologies
Determining network resource requirements
Tools and equipment’s
TCP/IP, Ethernet, hubs, adaptor cards
Analyzing physical environment features based on network design
Selecting appropriate network topology

This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:
Understand of network topologies
Determine network resource requirements
Identify Tools and equipment’s of network
Understand TCP/IP, Ethernet, hubs, adaptor cards
Analyze physical environment features based on network design
Select appropriate network topology

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3. Develop best topology

3.1. Overview of network topologies

The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement or physical
layout of computers, cables, and other components on the network. "Topology" is the standard
term that most network professionals use when they refer to the network's basic design. In
addition to the term "topology," you will find several other terms that are used to define a
network's design:

 Physical layout
 Design
 Diagram
 Map

A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over another will have
an impact on the:

 Type of equipment the network needs.

 Capabilities of the equipment.
 Growth of the network.
 Way the network is managed.

Developing a sense of how to use the different topologies is a key to understanding the
capabilities of the different types of networks. Before computers can share resources or perform
other communication tasks they must be connected. Most networks use cable to connect one
computer to another.

Category of Topology
1. Logical: describes the way network data flows through the physical components.
2. Physical: Physical topology describes how the physical components on a network are
connected.
Standard Topologies

All network designs stem from four basic topologies:

 Bus
 Star
 Ring
 Mesh

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 Bus Topology
The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected
in a straight line. This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers.

Figure 3.1

Communication on the Bus

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular computer

and sending out that data on the cable as electronic signals. To understand how computers
communicate on a bus, you need to be familiar with three concepts:

 Sending the signal

 Signal bounce
 Terminator

Sending the Signal Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all the computers on
the network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original
signal accepts the information. All other computers reject the data. Only one computer at a time
can send messages.

Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number of computers
attached to the bus will affect network performance. The more computers there are on a bus, the
more computers will be waiting to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network
will [Link] following is a list of factors that—in addition to the number of networked
computers—will affect the performance of a network:

 Hardware capabilities of computers on the network

 Total number of queued commands waiting to be executed
 Types of applications (client-server or file system sharing, for example) being run on the
network

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  Types of cable used on the network
 Distances between computers on the network

Computers on a bus either transmit data to other computers on the network or listen for data from
other computers on the network. They are not responsible for moving data from one computer to
the next. Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.

Signal Bounce Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from
one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep
bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals.
Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the proper destination
address.

Terminator To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each
end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other
computers can send data.

Both ends of each cable segment on the network must be plugged into something. For example, a
cable end can be plugged into a computer or a connector to extend the cable length. Any open
cable ends not plugged into something must be terminated to prevent signal bounce.

Disrupting Network Communication

A break in the cable will occur if the cable is physically separated into two pieces or if at least
one end of the cable becomes disconnected. In either case, one or both ends of the cable will not
have a terminator, the signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop. This is one of
several possible reasons why a network will go "down." This network will not work because it
now has unterminated cables.

The computers on the network will still be able to function as stand-alone computers; however,
as long as the segment is broken, they will not be able to communicate with each other or
otherwise access shared resources. The computers on the down segment will attempt to establish
a connection; while they do so, workstation performance will be slower.

Disadvantages of Bus topology

 If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the signal will
travel back and forth across the network and all communication will stop.
 The more computers there are on the bus, the greater the backup of computers waiting
to put data on the bus, and consequently, the slower the network.

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  In addition, because of the way computers communicate in a bus topology, there may
be a lot of noise. Noise is the traffic generated on the network when computers
attempt to communicate with each other simultaneously.

Star Topology

In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a centralized
component called a hub or switch. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through
the hub to all computers on the network

Figure 3.2
Advantage of Star topology

 An advantage of the star topology is that if one computer on the star topology fails,
only the failed computer is unable to send or receive data. The remainder of the
network functions normally.
Disadvantage of star topology
 The disadvantage of using this topology is that because each computer is connected to
a hub, if the hub fails, the entire network fails. In addition, noise is created on the
network in a star topology.

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Ring Topology

The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there
are no terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each
computer, which can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special series
of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The token is
passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The sending
computer modifies the token, puts an electronic address on the data, and sends it around the ring.
The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches the address
on the data.

The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has
been received. After verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it on the
network. The token circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to send data.

Figure 3.3

Advantage of Ring topology

 The advantage of a ring topology is that each computer acts as a repeater,
regenerating the signal and sending it on to the next computer, thereby preserving
signal strength.

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 Disadvantage of Ring topology
 The disadvantage of a ring topology is that only one computer at a time can send data
on a single token ring. Also, ring topologies are usually more expensive than bus
technologies.
 If one computer fails, the network will fail

Mesh Topology

A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology, each
computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling. This configuration provides
redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another will take over the
traffic. While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability are definite pluses, these networks
are expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology will be used
in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid topology.

Figure 3.4
Advantage of Mesh topology
 An advantage of a mesh topology is its back-up capabilities by providing multiple
paths through the network.

Disadvantage of Mesh topology

 Because redundant paths require more cable than is needed in other topologies, a
mesh topology can be expensive.

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Hybrid Topology
It is a combination of two or more standard topologies
Star Bus

The star bus is a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a star-bus topology, several star
topology networks are linked together with linear bus trunks.

If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest of the network. The other computers can
continue to communicate. If a hub goes down, all computers on that hub are unable to
communicate. If a hub is linked to other hubs, those connections will be broken as well.

Figure 3.5
Star Ring

The star ring (sometimes called a star-wired ring) appears similar to the star bus. Both the star
ring and the star bus are centered in a hub that contains the actual ring or bus. Linear-bus trunks
connect the hubs in a star bus, while the hubs in a star ring are connected in a star pattern by the
main hub.

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 Figure 3.6

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 3.2. Determining network resource requirements

Designing a network can be a challenging task. Your first step is to understand your networking
requirements. The rest of this chapter explains how to determine these requirements. After you
have identified these requirements, refer to Chapter 2 for information on selecting network
capability and reliability options that meet these requirements. Networking devices must reflect
the goals, characteristics, and policies of the organizations in which they operate. Two primary
goals drive networking design and implementation:

 Application availability—Networks carry application information between computers.

If the applications are not available to network users, the network is not doing its job.
 Cost of ownership—Information system (IS) budgets today often run in the millions of
dollars. As large organizations increasingly rely on electronic data for managing business
activities, the associated costs of computing resources will continue to rise.

A well-designed network can help balance these objectives. When properly implemented, the
network infrastructure can optimize application availability and allow the cost-effective use of
existing network resources.

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 3.2.1. Tools and equipment’s

Network Interface Cards (NIC)

Network adapters constitute the physical interface between the computer and the network cable.
Network adapters, also known as network interface cards, are installed into an expansion slot in
each computer and server on the network. After the network adapter is installed, the network
cable is attached to the adapter's port to physically connect the computer to the network.

As the data passes through the cable to the network adapter, it is formatted into packets. A packet
is a logical grouping of information that includes a header, which contains location information
and user data. The header contains address fields that include information about the data's origin
and destination. The network adapter reads the destination address to determine if the packet is to
be delivered to this computer. If it is, the network adapter then passes the packet on to the
operating system for processing. If not, the network adapter discards the packet.
Each network adapter has a unique address that is incorporated into chips on the card. This
address is called the physical, or media access control (MAC), address.
The network adapter performs the following functions:

 Receives data from the computer's operating system and converts it into electrical
signals that are transmitted onto the cable

 Receives electrical signals from the cable and translates them into data that the
computer's operating system can understand

 Determines whether data received from the cable is intended for the computer

 Controls the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system
To ensure compatibility between the computer and the network, the network adapter must meet
the following criteria:

 Fit in the computer's expansion slot

 Use the correct type of cable connector for the cabling
 Be supported by the computer's operating system

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Repeaters

As signals travel along a cable, they degrade and become distorted in a process called
"attenuation." If a cable is long enough, attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable.
Installing a repeater enables signals to travel farther.

Repeater Considerations

Repeaters afford the least expensive way to expand a network. When the need arises to extend the
physical network beyond its distance or node limitations, consider using a repeater to link segments if
neither segment is generating much traffic or limiting costs is a major consideration.

No Isolation or Filtering Repeaters send every bit of data from one cable segment to another,
even if the data consists of malformed packets or packets not destined for use on the network.
This means that a problem with one segment can disrupt every other segment. Repeaters do not
act as filters to restrict the flow of problem traffic.

Repeaters will also pass a broadcast storm along from one segment to the next, back and forth
along the network. A broadcast storm occurs when so many broadcast messages are on the
network that the number is approaching the network bandwidth limit. If a device is responding to
a packet that is continuously circulating on the network, or a packet is continuously attempting to
contact a system that never replies, network performance will be degraded.

Implementing a repeater this section summarizes what you need to consider when deciding
whether to implement repeaters in your network.

Use a repeater to:

 Connect two segments of similar or dissimilar media.

 Regenerate the signal to increase the distance transmitted.
 Pass all traffic in both directions.
 Connect two segments in the most cost-effective manner.

Do not use a repeater when:

 There is heavy network traffic.

 Segments are using different access methods.
 Data filtering is needed.

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Hubs

Hub is used as the central hardware component in a star topology. It can also be used in token-
ring topology. Hubs can also be used to expand the size of a LAN. This method of growing a
LAN is popular, but does come with many design limitations. Hubs are multiport repeater. A
Hub works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate the network's signals
and resend them out on other segments. Hubs contain multiple ports for connecting to network
components. If you use a hub, a break in the network does not affect the entire network; only the
segment and the computer attached to that segment fail. A single data packet sent through a hub
goes to all connected computers.

There are two types of hubs:

Passive Hubs: Send the incoming signal directly through their ports without any signal
processing. These hubs are usually wiring panels.
Active Hubs: Sometimes called multiport repeaters, receive incoming signals, process the
signals, and retransmit them at their original strengths and definitions to the connected computers
or components.
Use a hub to:

 Easily change and expand wiring systems.

 Use different ports to accommodate a variety of cable types.
 Enable central monitoring of network activity and traffic.

Bridges

Like a repeater, a bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs. However, a bridge can also
divide a network to isolate traffic or problems. For example, if the volume of traffic from one or
two computers or a single department is flooding the network with data and slowing down the
entire operation, a bridge could isolate those computers or that department.

Bridges can be used to:

 Expand the length of a segment.

 Provide for an increased number of computers on the network.
 Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting from an excessive number of attached computers.
 Split an overloaded network into two separate networks, reducing the amount of traffic
on each segment and making each network more efficient.
 Link unlike physical media such as twisted-pair and coaxial Ethernet.

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How Bridges Work

Because bridges work at the data-link layer of the OSI reference model, all information
contained in the higher levels of the OSI reference model is unavailable to them. Rather than
distinguish between one protocol and another, bridges simply pass all protocols along the
network. All protocols pass across bridges, so it is up to the individual computers to determine
which protocols they can recognize.

As discussed in previous topics the data-link layer has two sub layers: the Logical Link Control
(LLC) sub layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer. Bridges work at the MAC sub
layer and are sometimes referred to as MAC-layer bridges.

A MAC-layer bridge:

 Listens to all traffic.

 Checks the source and destination addresses of each packet.
 Builds a routing table, as information becomes available.
 Forwards packets in the following manner:
o If the destination is not listed in the routing table, the bridge forwards the packets
to all segments.
o If the destination is listed in the routing table, the bridge forwards the packets to
that segment (unless it is the same segment as the source).

A bridge works on the principle that each network node has its own address. A bridge forwards
packets based on the address of the destination node.

Bridges actually have some degree of intelligence in that they learn where to forward data. As
traffic passes through the bridge, information about the computer addresses is stored in the
bridge's RAM. The bridge uses this RAM to build a routing table based on source addresses.

Initially, the bridge's routing table is empty. As nodes transmit packets, the source address is
copied to the routing table. With this address information the bridge learns which computers are
on which segment of the network.

Creating the Routing Table Bridges build their routing tables based on the addresses of
computers that have transmitted data on the network. Specifically, bridges use source
addresses—the address of the device that initiates the transmission—to create a routing table.

When the bridge receives a packet, the source address is compared to the routing table. If the
source address is not there, it is added to the table. The bridge then compares the destination
address with the routing-table database.

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  If the destination address is in the routing table and is on the same segment as the source
address, the packet is discarded. This filtering helps to reduce network traffic and isolate
segments of the network.
 If the destination address is in the routing table and not in the same segment as the source
address, the bridge forwards the packet out of the appropriate port to reach the destination
address.
 If the destination address is not in the routing table, the bridge forwards the packet to all
its ports except the one on which it originated.

In summary, if a bridge knows the location of the destination node, it forwards the packet to it. If
it does not know the destination, it forwards the packet to all segments.

Segmenting Network Traffic A bridge can segment traffic because of its routing table. A
computer on segment 1 (the source), sends data to another computer (the destination) also
located in segment 1. If the destination address is in the routing table, the bridge can determine
that the destination computer is also on segment 1. Because the source and destination computers
are both on segment 1, the packet does not get forwarded across the bridge to segment 2.

Therefore, bridges can use routing tables to reduce the traffic on the network by controlling
which packets get forwarded to other segments. This controlling (or restricting) of the flow of
network traffic is known as "segmenting network traffic."

A large network is not limited to one bridge. Multiple bridges can be used to combine several
small networks into one large network.

Switch

Switches are similar to bridges but offer a more direct network connection between the source
and destination computers. When a switch receives a data packet, it creates a separate internal
connection, or segment, between any two of its ports and forwards the data packet to the
appropriate port of the destination computer only, based on information in each packet's header.
This insulates the connection from the other ports and gives the source and destination computers
access to the full bandwidth of a network. Unlike a hub, switches are comparable to a telephone
system with private lines.

In such a system, if one person calls someone, the operator or telephone switch connects them on
a dedicated line. This allows more conversations to take place at any one time.
Use a switch to:

 Send a packet directly from the source computer to the destination computer.
 Provide for a greater rate of data transmission.

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Routers

In an environment that consists of several network segments with differing protocols and
architectures, a bridge might be inadequate for ensuring fast communication among all segments.
A network this complex needs a device that not only knows the address of each segment, but can
also determine the best path for sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to the local segment.
Such a device is called a "router."

Routers work at the network layer of the OSI reference model. This means they can switch and
route packets across multiple networks. They do this by exchanging protocol-specific
information between separate networks. Routers read complex network addressing information
in the packet and, because they function at a higher layer in the OSI reference model than
bridges, they have access to additional information.

Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge:

 Filtering and isolating traffic

 Connecting network segments

Routers have access to more of the information in packets than bridges have and use this
information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are used in complex networks because they
provide better traffic management. Routers can share status and routing information with one
another and use this information to bypass slow or malfunctioning connections.

How Routers Work

Routers maintain their own routing tables, usually consisting of network addresses; host
addresses can also be kept if the network architecture calls for it. To determine the destination
address for incoming data, the routing table includes:

 All known network addresses.

 Instructions for connection to other networks.
 The possible paths between routers.
 The costs of sending data over those paths.

Routers require specific addresses. They understand only the network numbers that allow them
to communicate with other routers and local NIC addresses. Routers do not talk to remote
computers. When routers receive packets destined for a remote network, they send them to the
router that manages the destination network. In some ways this is an advantage because it means
routers can:

 Segment large networks into smaller ones.

 Act as safety barriers between segments.
 Prohibit broadcast storms, because broadcasts are not forwarded.

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Because routers must perform complex functions on each packet, routers are slower than most
bridges. As packets are passed from router to router, data-link layer source and destination
addresses are stripped off and then re-created. This enables a router to route a packet from a
TCP/IP Ethernet network to a server on a TCP/IP Token Ring network.

Because routers read only addressed network packets, they do not allow corrupted data to get
passed onto the network. Because they do not pass corrupted data or broadcast data storms,
routers put little stress on networks.

Routers do not look at the destination node address; they look only at the network address.
Routers will pass information only if the network address is known. This ability to control the
data passing through the router reduces the amount of traffic between networks and allows
routers to use these links more efficiently than bridges.

Using the router-addressing scheme, administrators can break one large network into many
separate networks, and because routers do not pass or even handle every packet, they act as a
safety barrier between network segments. This can greatly reduce the amount of traffic on the
network and the wait time experienced by users.

Routable Protocols Not all protocols are routable. Protocols that are routable include:

 DECnet.
 Internet Protocol (IP).
 Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).
 OSI.
 Xerox Network System (XNS).
 DDP (AppleTalk).

Protocols that are not routable include:

 Local Area Transport Protocol (LAT), a protocol from Digital Equipment Corporation.
 NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface).

Routers are available that can accommodate multiple protocols such as IP and DECnet in the
same network.

Choosing Paths Unlike bridges, routers can accommodate multiple active paths between LAN
segments and choose among redundant paths. Because routers can link segments that use
completely different data packaging and media-access schemes, there are often several paths
available for the router to use. This means that if one router does not function, the data can still
be passed over alternate routes.

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A router can listen to a network and identify which parts are busiest. It uses this information to
determine which path to send data over. If one path is very busy, the router identifies an
alternative path and sends data over that one.

A router decides the path the data packet will follow by determining the number of hops between
internetwork segments. Like bridges, routers build routing tables and use these in routing
algorithms such as the following:

 OSPF ("open shortest path first") is a link-state routing algorithm. Link-state algorithms
control the routing process and allow routers to respond quickly to changes in the
network.
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol) uses distance-vector algorithms to determine routes.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and IPX support RIP.
 NetWare Link Services Protocol (NLSP) is a link-state algorithm to be used with IPX.

Types of Routers

The two major types of routers are:

 Static:-Static routers require an administrator to manually set up and configure the

routing table and to specify each route.
 Dynamic:-Dynamic routers are designed to discover routes automatically and therefore
require a minimal amount of setup and configuration. More sophisticated than static
routers, they examine information from other routers and make packet-by-packet
decisions about how to send data across the network.

Four key pieces of information can help you distinguish between a bridge and a router and
determine which would be appropriate in a given situation:

 The bridge recognizes only local MAC-sublayer addresses (the addresses of NICs in its
own segment). Routers recognize network addresses.
 The bridge broadcasts (forwards) everything it does not recognize and forwards all
addresses it knows, but only from the appropriate port.
 The router works only with routable protocols.
 The router filters addresses. It forwards particular protocols to particular addresses (other
routers).

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Brouters

A brouter, as the name implies, combines the qualities of both a bridge and a router. A brouter
can act as a router for one protocol and as a bridge for all the others. Brouters can:

 Route selected routable protocols.

 Bridge non routable protocols.
 Deliver more cost-effective and more manageable internetworking than separate bridges
and routers.

Gateways

Gateways enable communication between different architectures and environments. They

repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that each environment can
understand the other environment's data. A gateway repackages information to match the
requirements of the destination system. Gateways can change the format of a message so that it
conforms to the application program at the receiving end of the transfer. For example, electronic-
mail gateways, such as the X.400 gateway, receive messages in one format, translate it, and
forward it in X.400 format used by the receiver, and vice versa.

A gateway links two systems that do not use the same:

 Communication protocols.
 Data-formatting structures.
 Languages.
 Architecture.

Gateways interconnect heterogeneous networks; for example, they can connect Microsoft
Windows NT Server to IBM's Systems Network Architecture (SNA). Gateways change the
format of the data to make it conform to the application program at the receiving end.

How Gateways Work

Gateways are task-specific, which means that they are dedicated to a particular type of transfer.
They are often referred to by their task name (Windows NT Server to SNA gateway).

A gateway takes the data from one environment, strips off its old protocol stack, and repackages
it in the protocol stack from the destination network.

To process the data, the gateway:

 Disassembles incoming data through the network's complete protocol stack.

 Encapsulates the outgoing data in the complete protocol stack of the other network to
allow transmission.

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 3.2.2. TCP/IP, Ethernet, hubs, adaptor cards

The Function of Protocols

Protocols are rules and procedures for communicating. When several computers are networked,
the rules and technical procedures governing their communication and interaction are called
protocols.

Keep three points in mind when you think about protocols in a network environment:

 There are many protocols. While each protocol facilitates basic communications, each
has different purposes and accomplishes different tasks. Each protocol has its own
advantages and restrictions.
 Some protocols work only at particular OSI layers. The layer at which a protocol works
describes its function. For example, a protocol that works at the physical layer ensures
that the data packet passes through the network interface card (NIC) and out onto the
network cable.
 Protocols can also work together in a protocol stack, or suite. Just as a network
incorporates functions at every layer of the OSI reference model, different protocols also
work together at different levels in a single protocol stack. The levels in the protocol
stack "map," or correspond, to the layers of the OSI reference model. For instance, the
TCP/IP protocol's application layer maps to the OSI reference model's presentation layer.
Taken together, the protocols describe the entire stack's functions and capabilities.

Routable Protocols

Until the mid-1980s, most local area networks (LANs) were isolated. A LAN served a single
department or company and was rarely connected to any larger environments. As LAN
technology matured, however, and the data communication needs of businesses expanded, LANs
evolved, becoming components in larger data communication networks in which LANs talked to
each other.

Data that is sent from one LAN to another along any of several available paths is said to be
routed. The protocols that support multipath LAN-to-LAN communications are known as
routable protocols. Because routable protocols can be used to tie several LANs together and
create new wide-area environments, they are becoming increasingly important.

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Introduction to TCP/IP

TCP/IP has become the standard protocol used for interoperability among many different types
of computers. This interoperability is a primary advantage of TCP/IP. Most networks support
TCP/IP as a protocol. TCP/IP also supports routing and is commonly used as an internetworking
protocol.

Other protocols written specifically for the TCP/IP suite include:

 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) E-mail.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) For exchanging files among computers running TCP/IP.
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) For network management.

Designed to be routable, robust, and functionally efficient, TCP/IP was developed by the United
States Department of Defense as a set of wide area network (WAN) protocols. Its purpose was to
maintain communication links between sites in the event of nuclear war. The responsibility for
TCP/IP development now resides with the Internet community as a whole. TCP/IP requires
significant knowledge and experience on the user's part to install and configure. Using TCP/IP
offers several advantages; it:

 Is an industry standard As an industry standard, it is an open protocol. This means it is

not controlled by a single company, and is less subject to compatibility issues. It is the de
facto protocol of the Internet.
 Contains a set of utilities for connecting dissimilar operating systems Connectivity
from one computer to another does not depend on the network operating system used on
either computer.
 Uses scalable, cross-platform client-server architecture TCP/IP can expand (or shrink)
to meet future needs and circumstances. It uses sockets to make the computer operating
systems transparent to one another.

TCP/IP and OSI

The TCP/IP protocol does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of seven layers, it
uses only four. Commonly referred to as the Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP is broken into the
following four layers:

 Network interface layer

 Internet layer
 Transport layer
 Application layer

Each of these layers corresponds to one or more layers of the OSI reference model.

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Ethernet
This lesson introduces the Ethernet network architecture. Over the years, Ethernet has become
the most popular media access method to the desktop computer and is used in both small and
large network environments. Ethernet is a nonproprietary industry standard that has found wide
acceptance by network hardware manufacturers. Problems related to using Ethernet hardware
products from different hardware manufacturers in a single network are nearly nonexistent. This
lesson presents an overview of the major Ethernet components, features, and functions.

Ethernet Specifications

In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications
for connecting dissimilar devices. This set of standards is referred to as the OSI reference model
(OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection). The Ethernet specification performs the same
functions as the OSI physical and data-link layers of this model. As you will see later,
these specifications affect how hardware links, or passes information to and from, ISO standards.
In the 1980s the IEEE published Project 802. This project generated standards for design and
compatibility for hardware components that operated within the OSI physical and data-link
layers. The standard that pertains to Ethernet is the IEEE 802.3 specification.

The 10-Mbps IEEE Standards

This section looks at four 10 Mbps Ethernet topologies:

 10BaseT
 10Base2
 10Base5
 10BaseFL

10BaseT Standard

10BaseT (10 Mbps, baseband, over twisted-pair cable), is an Ethernet network that typically uses
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable to connect computers. Usually, 10BaseT employs UTP, but
shielded twisted-pair (STP) cabling will also work without changing any of the 10BaseT
parameters.

Most networks of this type are configured in a star pattern, but internally they use a bus signaling
system like other Ethernet configurations. Typically, the hub of a 10BaseT network serves as a
multiport repeater and often is located in a wiring closet of the building. Each computer is
located at the endpoint of a cable that is connected to the hub. Each computer has two pairs of
wire; one pair is used to receive data, and one pair is used to transmit data.

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The maximum length of a 10BaseT segment is 100 meters (328 feet). Repeaters can be used to
extend this maximum cable length. The minimum cable length between computers is 2.5 meters
(about 8 feet). A 10BaseT LAN will serve 1024 computers.

A multiport repeater (hub) can be used to extend an Ethernet LAN

The UTP cable features data transmission at 10 Mbps. It is easy to make changes by moving a
modular patch cord on the patch panel. A change at the patch panel will not affect other devices
on the network; this differs from a traditional Ethernet bus network.

A patch panel makes moving computers easy

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Patch panels should be tested for rates higher than 10 Mbps. The latest hubs can provide
connections for both thick and thin Ethernet cable segments. In this implementation, it is also
easy to convert thick Ethernet cable to 10BaseT cable by attaching a mini 10BaseT transceiver to
the AUI port of any network interface card. Table 3.4 summarizes 10BaseT specifications:

Table: 10BaseT Specifications Summary

Category Notes

Cable Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP.

Connectors RJ-45 at cable ends.

Transceiver Each computer needs one; some cards have built in

transceivers.

Transceiver to hub distance 100 meters (328 feet) maximum.

Backbones for hubs Coaxial or fiber-optic cable to join a larger LAN or to

carry major traffic between smaller networks.

Total number of computers per LAN 1024 by specification.

without connectivity components

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Ethernet Specifications (IEEE 802.3) summary table

10Base2 10Base5 10BaseT

Topology Bus Bus Star bus

Cable type RG-58 (thinnet coaxial Thicknet; one-centimeter (3/8- Category 3, 4, or 5

cable) inch) shielded transceiver cable unshielded twisted-pair
cable

Connection to BNC T connector DIX or AUI connector RJ-45

NIC

Terminator 50 50 Not applicable

resistance, Ω
(ohms)

Impedance, Ω 50 ± 2 50 ± 2 85-115 unshielded

twisted-pair; 135-165
shielded twisted-pair

Distance 0.5 meters between 2.5 meters (8 feet) between taps 100 meters (328 feet)
computers (23 inches) and maximum of 50 meters (164 between the transceiver
feet) between the tap and the (the computer) and the
computer hub

Maximum cable 185 meters (607 feet) 500 meters (1640 feet) 100 meters (328 feet)
segment length

Maximum 5 (using 4 repeaters); 5 (using 4 repeaters). Only 3 Not applicable

connected Only 3 segments can segments can have computers
segments have computers connected.
connected.

Maximum total 925 meters (3035 feet) 2460 meters (8000 feet) Not applicable
network length

Maximum 30 (There can be a 100

computers per maximum of 1024
segment computers per network.)

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 3.3. Analyzing physical environment features based on network design

A company that manufactures custom-made bicycles has asked you to install an economical
computer network that will bring it up-to-date in communication technology and be flexible
enough to allow for future expansion.

The company's network goals are to:

 Network the existing computers so that they can share information and printers.
 Add two additional computers to the network: one for the Product Design Group and one
for the Manufacturing Department.
 Allow for the possible addition of three computers at a later date.
 Provide an Internet connection for the Product Design Group.

The first decision we need to make for this new network is whether it should be a peer-to-peer or
a server-based network. The factors we need to examine include the:

 Size of the network.

 Level of security.
 Type of business.
 Level of administrative support available.
 Amount of network traffic.
 Needs of the network users.
 Network budget.

In a peer-to-peer network, all users on the network are equal. Each will have equal access to all
other computers on the network, provided the owner of the computer has shared that resource
with the network. In a small network or business, this "one for all and all for one" system often
works well.

Often, in a small business, no individual is able to devote full-time attention to administering the
network. This brings another advantage of peer-to-peer networks to light. Here, responsibility for
running the network is distributed to everyone, and users determine which information or
resources on their computers will be shared.

While the peer-to-peer network option looks like a good choice for our bicycle company, it has
some drawbacks that must be considered. For example, imagine a user on the network who has
the laser printer attached to her computer. If she turns off her computer and leaves the office, no
one else will be able to use the printer. If Computer A freezes or is rebooted while Computer B is
trying to use a resource, Computer B will be disconnected. To summarize, usually, in a peer-to-
peer scenario, no system administrator is designated, security precautions are few, and each user
is responsible for his or her own data.

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Another down side of the peer-to-peer network is its limited performance. If another user is
accessing the resources on your computer, that user will also be using processor time on your
computer. Therefore, regardless of how fast your computer's processor is or how much memory
you have, the performance of your computer will slow down when someone else is drawing on
its resources.

Even with these drawbacks, a peer-to-peer network might still appear to be a good choice for our
network. However, we should also consider the advantages of using a server-based network
before we make our decision. On a server-based network, resources are usually centralized. For
example, one server manages all the printers, and another server manages all the files. Because
servers are rarely turned off, resources will always be available. Server-based networks are also
scalable. This means that their size can be easily adjusted to respond to changes in the load on
the network.

Server-based networks are also more secure than peer-to-peer networks. With a peer-to-peer
network, all resources are shared equally across the network. If the Accounting Department
shares the directory that contains the salary files so that the Managing Director can access them,
everyone else on the network can also access these files. On the other hand, server-based
networks allow for the creation of accounts and permissions that provide for further security. For
example, a server-based network can share individual files within a directory without making the
directory itself available to everyone on the network.

As it grows, a server-based network can be segregated according to organizational needs. For

example, one server might be designated for the Accounting Department and another server
designated for the Sales Department. Should our bicycle company's network requirements reach
this level, we will need to consider using a network that supports file-level sharing and user
groups with shared rights to network resources.

At present, the better choice for our company is to use a peer-to-peer network. But in order to
provide more flexibility and to prepare it for further expansion, another option exists: create a
hybrid network. Thus, while our basic network will be peer-to-peer, we will install one computer
as a file server. With this approach, access to the file server requires an account and permissions,
while access to other computers on the network is shared equally.

So, after weighing these factors, we arrive at our network-design selection for this bicycle
company: a hybrid peer-to-peer network, with one new computer to be installed and configured
as a file server and used to centralize company information.

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Taking Inventory

After deciding on the overall network design, our next step in creating a network is to take
inventory to determine what hardware and software is already available and what needs to be
acquired. As an illustration, we turn again to our bicycle company. It has a mixture of computers,
ranging from a legacy 286 to a new Pentium III, as well as some older printers. Thus, some
obvious updating will be required to get this network up and running. Taking inventory is an
important step, because it sets the stage for future network expansion. For example, if all your
computers run Microsoft Windows 95 or Windows 98, you will be limited to using a peer-to-
peer network. To upgrade to a server-based network in the future, you will have to upgrade one
of the computers to run NetWare or Windows NT or add a new server with one of those network
operating systems installed.

To take inventory, you'll need to survey four categories:

 Hardware
 Software
 Telecommunications equipment
 Network requirements

Hardware Survey

This is actually a simple process, but one that should not be taken lightly. Begin by recording the
specifications of each computer; the details you gather at this stage can save time in the long run.
As we will see later, in order to function effectively, networks often require that hardware and
software meet certain minimum standards. If you know the specification details of the available
equipment in advance, you can prevent many problems later on.

For each computer, you will need to gather information, including:

 Make and model.

 Processor manufacturer and speed.
 Amount of memory (RAM) installed.
 The size and manufacturer of each hard drive.
 Details of any other installed drives, such as compact-disc and removable disk drives.
 Monitor—make, model, and size.
 Video card—make, model, and amount of memory.
 Any installed peripherals.
 Type of bus—EISA, Micro Channel, ISA, or PCI—the computer uses and whether there
are any free slots; you will need free slots to install network interface cards. (For more
information on bus architecture, refer to

Make a list of the manufacturer and model number for any peripheral devices, such as printers,
plotters, and scanners, whether they are installed or simply sitting on a shelf. For each of these,
note whether you have the original disk with drivers.

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Software Survey

Be aware of all the software currently in use throughout the potential network. For example, if
you were to convert all the computers to Windows NT while you were installing the new
network, you might find that some of the old standby programs, once used on a daily basis, now
no longer run. Be especially careful when evaluating custom-designed and proprietary programs,
such as accounting databases that have been written especially for the company. You might need
to contact the manufacturer for information about running proprietary programs on the network.
Not all of these will run in a network environment; the product-licensing arrangement might not
allow network operations.

For each software program, gather the following information:

 Program name
 Program version number
 Availability of the original installation floppy disks or compact discs
 Any licensing information

As you carry out your survey of our bicycle company, also note any potential software
incompatibilities within and among company departments. For example, the Accounting
Department might be using WordPerfect, whereas the Sales Department is using Microsoft
Office. If you are planning to upgrade someday, now is the time to make any changes needed to
ensure that the same system is used company wide.

Telecommunications Equipment Survey

It might seem strange to review the existing telecommunications equipment when you are
installing a LAN, but this is actually a very important element of your survey, especially if you
intend to use Internet connections or some form of remote access server. Overlooking something
as simple as the number of phone lines wired into each office can have a major impact later
if you need modem and telephone connections at the same time. For example, if the company has
an automated telephone system, while telephone outlets might be located in every office, they
might not be capable of a modem connection. In that case, a separate telephone outlet might be
required for voice and data communication. Also, if the company is using a high-speed digital
telephone service, you might not be able to connect with standard modems. Don't assume
a standard RJ-11 telephone jack is going to be sufficient for you to connect a modem and start
surfing the Web.

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Requirements of the Network

After you have examined the existing facility and equipment, you need to define the
requirements of your network. You'll then match these requirements to the existing hardware,
software, and telecommunications features available and determine what steps need to be taken
to develop the network. At a minimum, you should consider the following:

 The size of the facility (located on a single floor vs. multiple floors)
 The number of users
 Whether the LAN will be extended to several buildings
 The environment (office, manufacturing, out-of-doors)
 The current network media, if any
 The technical competence of users
 The amount of network traffic (initially, and anticipated for the future)
 The level of security

Building a Map

Now it's time to lay out the network. But before you begin to recommend a network plan for our
bicycle company, you will first need to make a map of all the elements involved. During this
step, you should consider two aspects of the network: the physical layout, including the location
of each piece of hardware and how it relates to the others, and the physical and logical topology
of the proposed network. The second step is to create a layout of the network topology. Don't
forget to include printers and other peripherals, such as scanners and modems.

Choosing Network Media

The choice of which media to select should not be taken lightly. The cost of installation can be
quite high, especially if you have to do it twice. The media you choose will usually be related to
the geographic requirements of the site. For example, if several of the workstations are located in
a manufacturing environment in which a large amount of electrical noise is generated, fiber-optic
cable might be required because it is unaffected by electrical signals. On the other hand, in a
small office, simple twisted-pair cable will usually be appropriate. The most important thing to
keep in mind is not the cost today, but the cost in the future. Being overly cost-conscious now
can limit the scalability, and thus the life span, of the network.

At our bicycle company, we might decide to install our network using CAT 3 UTP cable. This
would give us a functional network with our seven workstations, but limit our network speed to
10 Mbps. Five years from now, when we might have as many as 30 to 50 workstations, a 10
Mbps network would be slow. However, by installing CAT 5 UTP now, we can upgrade our
network to 100 Mbps at any time in the future without needing to rewire the building. And CAT
5 UTP cable costs only a few cents more per foot than CAT 3 UTP cable.

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Installing Network Media

Installing network media requires special skills and is best left to a professional cable installer if
the topology is complex. With a simple topology, however, the necessary skills are well within
our reach. Still using our bicycle company as an example, we will next tackle the basics of
installing a CAT 5 Ethernet cabling system. (Bear in mind that at this point we are focusing on
the cables and are not yet ready to connect any of the devices.)

The simplest way to lay out a network in our small-office environment is to use a physical star.
The focal point of the star will be a patch panel. (A patch panel is an array of RJ-45 female
connectors that have terminals for connecting the wires.)

Notice that the front of the panel has 12 RJ-45 connectors. On the back is a terminal for each of
the 12 cables. Looking closely, you will notice that each terminal has eight connection points,
one for each of the eight wires. The wires are color-coded for easy installation. By mounting the
patch panel near the hub (usually next to the server), you can easily make connections to the
network.

On the other end of the cable, you will need to install a CAT 5 outlet. This is similar to a
standard telephone outlet but uses an RJ-45 connection, just as the patch panel does. Notice that
this connector also has color.

Factors That Affect a Network Design

Designing a network is more than merely planning to use the latest device in the market. A good
network design takes into consideration many factors:
Size Matters
Designing a LAN for a small office with a few users is different from building one for a large
company with two thousand users. In building a small LAN, a flat design is usually used, where
all connecting devices may be connected to each other. For a large company, a hierarchical
approach should be used.
Geographies
The geographical locations of the sites that need to be connected are important in a network
design. The decision making process for selecting the right technology and equipment for remote
connections, especially those of cross-country nature, is different from that for a LAN. The
tariffs, local expertise, quality of service from service providers, are some of the important
criteria.

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Politics
Politics in the office ultimately decides how a network should be partitioned. Department A may
not want to share data with department B, while department C allows only department D to
access its data. At the network level, requirements such as these are usually done through
filtering at the router so as to direct traffic flow in the correct manner. Business and security
needs determine how information flows in a network and the right tool has to be chosen to carry
this out.
Types of Application
The types of application deployed determine the bandwidth required. While a text-based
transaction may require a few kbps of bandwidth, a multimedia help file with video explanations
may require 1.5 Mbps of bandwidth. The performance requirement mainly depends on
application need and the challenge of a good network is to be able to satisfy different application
needs.
Need For Fault Tolerance
In a mission-critical network, performance may not be a key criteria but fault tolerance is. The
network is expected to be up every minute and the redundancy required is both at the hardware
level and at the services level. In this aspect, many features have to be deployed, such as
hardware redundancy, re-route capabilities, etc.
To Switch or Not to Switch
One of the factors that influence the network design is whether to deploy switching technology.
Although switching seems to be enjoying popularity, it may not be suitable in terms of cost for a
small office of four users. In a large network design, switching to the desktop may not be
suitable because it would drive up the entire project cost. On the other hand, a small company
that designs multimedia applications for its client may need a switching network to share all the
video and voice files. The decision a network manager has to make is when to switch and where
to switch.
Strategy
One important factor is of course a networking strategy. Without a networking blueprint, one
may end up with a multi vendors, multiprotocol network that is both difficult to manage and
expand. It has been estimated that 70% of the cost of owning a network is in maintaining it.
Having a network strategy ensures that technology is deployed at the correct place and products
chosen carefully. A network that is built upon a strategy ensures manageability and scalability.
Cost Constraints
The one major decision that makes or breaks a design is cost. Many a times, network managers
have to forego a technically elegant solution for a less sophisticated design.

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Standards
Choosing equipment that conforms to standards is an important rule to follow. Standards means
having the ability to deploy an industry-recognized technology that is supported by the majority
of vendors. This provides flexibility in choice of equipment, and allows network managers to
choose the most cost effective solution. As more business and transactions are conducted through
the network, the network infrastructure has become more important than ever. Network
managers need to choose the right technologies, from the backbone to the desktops, and tie
everything together to support the needs of their businesses. By now, it is obvious that designing
a network is not just about raw speed. Adopting a balanced approach, weighing features against
cost, and choosing the right technology that is based on open standards to meet the business
requirement is a right way to begin.
Network documentation

Here is a basic set of items that should be contained in network documentation:

All server hardware and operating systems should be documented, including the
physical locations and what primary, secondary, etc.. Purpose they serve.
All key service accounts an login account user-id and password's should be
documented and stored in a safe location, maybe a company lockbox or vault, or
use something like KeyPass to store them.
A visual diagram of the network layout, even from a high level, should exist no
matter how small or large the network is. Products like WhatsUpGold can assist
with this or you can create a Visio diagram of the network.
Procedures on how to maintain the network technology, including Operating
Systems, security related services, backup and disaster recovery (business
continuity), and firewall technologies should exist. Additionally, you should
document and secure all Operating System and application licensing. This is
something that is very often overlooked and is imperative if you have to recover
from a disaster situation in which the rebuild of systems is necessary.
Other information to have documented is key contact information. For instance,
who do you call if your Internet connection goes down? Who do you contact if
your offsite web services are not functioning? Do you have a third party that
maintains your Domain Name Services (DNS)? If you have custom applications,
do you know exactly who you must call if there is a problem?

The above is just the basic items that need to be documented within a computer network. There
are many more aspects to network documentation.

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Who Needs To Document Their Network

In a nutshell, anyone who has a computer network, home office, small office, or large office,
should have an adequate level of network documentation and procedures to follow in order to
maintain the network. If you have invested in network technology, don't you want to keep your
investment safe, sound, and performing at it's peak?

Conclusion

If you are a customer, and have a systems integrator or consultant working on a new network
implementation or upgrading an existing one, demand that they provide you with complete
network documentation. Even if it costs you extra you should request it. It will save you a lot of
time and money in the future. And, it may actually keep your business from experiencing long
periods of down time.

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 3.4. Selecting appropriate network topology

There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the needs of an organization.
The following table provides some guidelines for selecting a topology.

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus Use of cable is economical. Network can slow down in heavy

traffic.

Media is inexpensive and easy to work with. Problems are difficult to isolate.

System is simple and reliable.

Cable break can affect many users.
Bus is easy to extend.

Ring System provides equal access for all computers. Failure of one computer can impact
the rest of the network.
Performance is even despite many users.
Problems are hard to isolate.

Network reconfiguration disrupts

operation.

Star Modifying system and adding new computers is If the centralized point fails, the
easy. network fails.

Centralized monitoring and management are

possible.

Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of

the network.

Mesh System provides increased redundancy and System is expensive to install

reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting. because it uses a lot of cabling.

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 Self-Check-3

Direction I: True or False

Instruction1- Say True or False to the following questions.

1. Routers work at the network layer of the OSI reference model.

2. Switches are similar to bridges but offer a more direct network connection between the
source and destination computers.
3. Installing a repeater enables signals to travel farther.
4. Network adapters constitute the physical interface between the computer and the
network cable.
5. The UTP cable features data transmission at 10 Mbps

Direction II: Multiple Choices

Instruction1I- Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. Use of cable is economical.
a. Bus Topology
b. Ring Topology
c. Star Topology
d. Mesh Topology
2. Modifying system and adding new computers is easy.
a. Bus Topology
b. Ring Topology
c. Star Topology
d. Mesh Topology
3. System is expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling.
a. Bus Topology
b. Ring Topology
c. Star Topology
d. Mesh Topology
4. Data movement is unidirectional
a. Bus Topology
b. Ring Topology
c. Star Topology
d. Mesh Topology

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Direction III: Short answer items
Instruction III- Briefly answer the following questions

1. Describe Topology and all classification of Topology

2. List and define the usage of network connectivity devices

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Reference

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
qudah

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
requirements
[Link]

Links

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
qudah

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
requirements
[Link]

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 TTLM Developers for Determine Best Fit Topology

No Name Qualification Field of Study Organization/ Mobile E-mail

(Level) Institution number

1. Bona Gudeta C Computer Science A.A Tegbareid 0922250802 Bonylet4jc@[Link]

PTC

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