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CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY

●​ Unit 1 - Psychology of Criminal Behaviour - 2

1.​ Definition, Nature and Scope of Criminal Psychology - 2
2.​ Theories of Crimes - 12
a)​ Psychological Theories - 12
b)​ Social Theories - 18
c)​ Diathesis - Personality Stress Behaviours - 26
3.​ Crime Trends in India - 29
4.​ Prevention of Crime - 30

●​ Unit 2 - Psychological Disorders and Criminal Behaviour - 39

1.​ Psychopath - 39
2.​ Juvenile Delinquency - 43
3.​ Mentally Ill Offenders - 48
4.​ Serial Killers and Rampage Killers - 49
5.​ Sex Offenders - 53
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UNIT 1 - PSYCHOLOGY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR

CH. 1 - DEFINITION, NATURE AND SCOPE OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY

●​ Introduction to Crime
1.​ Some definitions of crime are -
a)​ According to Munice and McLaughlin (2001), crime is ‘an act or omission punishable
by law’.
b)​ According to Wikström (2006), crime is ‘an act of breaking a moral rule defined in
criminal law’.
c)​ According to C. Darrow, “Crime is an act forbidden by the law of the land and for
which a penalty is prescribed”.
d)​ According to Branes and Teeters, “The term Crime technically means a form of
anti-social behaviour that has violated public sentiment to such an extent as to be
forbidden by statue”.
e)​ Garofalo developed a concept of the “natural crime” and defined it as a violation of
the prevailing sentiments of pity and probity.
f)​ Radcliff Brown defined crime as the violation of usage which gives rise to the
exercise of a sanction.

2.​ However, as criminologists have noted, criminal law is far from static and thus crime
is a ‘moving target’. What constitutes a criminal act depends on when and where it is
committed. Therefore, crime cannot be easily defined.
3.​ In short, crime is considered to be a socially constructed class of acts, rather than
something that is a ‘given’ feature of the world.
4.​ For example, the use of various drugs, gambling, homosexuality, prostitution and
spousal rape are all acts that have been punishable by the law (and thus ‘criminal’) in
some times and places but not in others.
5.​ According to law a criminal is one who has intentionally violated a criminal law.

●​ Criteria of Crime (Extra info.)

There are seven interrelated but overlapping criteria to call an act as a crime. Ideally
behaviour would not be a crime unless all the seven conditions are present.

1.​ Harm - Before a behaviour can be called crime there must be certain external
consequences or ‘harm’. A crime has a harmful impact on social interests.
2.​ Illegal - The harm must be legally forbidden, must have been prescribed in penal law.
Anti-social behaviour is not a crime unless it is prohibited by law.
3.​ Malafide intention - There must be criminal conduct, that is, there must be an
intentional or reckless action or inaction which brings about the harmful
consequences, for example, Doctor‘s negligence.
4.​ Criminal intention - Criminal intent must be present. Hall suggests that legal scholars
have confused between intention and motive. The motives for a crime may be good
but the intention is criminal. Thus if a man kills his starving children his motive is
good but killing is legally forbidden and so his intention is criminal.
5.​ Concurrence of intention and conduct - There must be a concurrence of criminal
intention and conduct. For example, if a policeman, who goes into a house to make
an arrest is not a trespasser from the beginning.
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6.​ Casual relationship - There must be a casual relationship between the legally
forbidden harm and the voluntary misconduct.e.g: if a man dies of suffocation after
being shot at, the relationship between conduct and the harm is not clear cut.
7.​ Prescription of punishment - There must be legally prescribed punishment. The
voluntary misconduct must be punishable by law.

●​ Types of Crime
1.​ Crimes against persons - Crimes against persons can take any form, as for instance
against children, adolescents, youths, adults and old persons. These crimes are also
called Personal crimes. These include murder, rape, robbery and aggravated
assaults.
2.​ Crimes against property - These consist of causing bodily harm to other persons,
burglary, looting a person’s home and the belongings thereof, stealing cars, and
many electronic and other appliances of great value. Larceny comes in this category
which means theft of physical items, whereas theft refers to all variations of stealing
property from another person. Many other crimes such as stealing cars, thefts of
many articles kept within the car or automobile of any type, are all crimes against
property. Arson is another major crime that causes untold harm to public and private
property.
3.​ Hate crimes - These are against persons or property belonging to a certain religion,
caste, community or group against which there is considerable degree of prejudice.
4.​ Crimes against morality - These are crimes in which there is no victim and no
complainant. Examples of such crimes for instance are illegal gambling, prostitution,
illegal drug use etc. Morality refers here to social and personal values of people in a
society that defines how people should behave, it is a kind of ”code of conduct” for
people. When crimes of morality occur, it is against these moral values and the code
of conduct. It includes soliciting or selling or buying sex for profit, and is considered
not respectable.
5.​ White-collar crime - The term was coined in 1939, by Edwin Sutherland, it refers to
the full range of frauds committed by businessmen and government officials.
White-collar crimes are crimes committed by people of high social status who commit
their crimes in the context of their occupation. This includes embezzling (stealing
money from one‘s employer), insider trading, tax evasion, and other violations of
income tax laws.
6.​ Organised crimes - In addition to the above, there are also organised crimes, which
involves distribution and sale of illegal goods and services such as the sand mafia
etc. These are organised crimes as a particular group exercises control over large
illegal enterprises, as for example it can also involve trading in drugs, weapon
smuggling, money laundering etc.

●​ Introduction to Criminal Behaviour

1.​ The following are the definitions of criminal behaviour in different contexts -
a)​ Legal - Criminal behavior refers to actions that are prohibited by the state and
punishable under the law.
b)​ Moral - Criminal behavior refers to actions that violate the norms of religion and
morality and are believed to be punishable by supreme spiritual beings.
c)​ Social - Criminal behavior refers to actions that violate the norms of custom and
tradition and are punishable by the community.
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d)​ Psychological - Criminal behavior refers to actions that may be rewarding to the actor
but that inflict pain or loss on others. That is, criminal behavior is antisocial behavior.

2.​ According to Ullmann and Krasner (1976), criminal behavior refers to antisocial acts
that place the actor at risk of becoming a focus of the attention of criminal justice
professionals within the juvenile and/or adult justice systems.
3.​ The definition of the Psychology of Criminal Conduct (PCC) is, ‘As a science, the
psychology of criminal conduct is an approach to understanding the criminal behavior
of individuals through: (a) the ethical and humane application of systematic empirical
methods of investigation, and (b) the construction of rational explanatory systems.
Professionally, a psychology of criminal conduct involves the ethical application of
psychological knowledge and methods to the practical tasks predicting and
influencing the likelihood of criminal behavior, and to the reduction of the human and
social costs associated with crime and criminal justice processing.’

●​ Reasons to Measure Crime and Criminal Behaviour

1.​ Most straightforwardly we are interested in determining just how much crime there is
in society and how prevalent different types of crime are.
2.​ Inevitably we will also be interested in finding out whether crime is increasing or
decreasing and whether crime is more prevalent in some places than others.
3.​ Obtaining clear information about the nature and prevalence of crime in society is
also important for the development of theories of crime. A good theory of crime, for
instance, will provide a satisfactory account of the most notable patterns in criminal
behaviour, such as the over-representation of men and young people in crime
statistics. In short, we want to ensure that we have a clear picture of the
phenomenon that we want to explain.

●​ Ways to Measure Crime and Criminal Behaviour

1.​ Official crime statistics
a)​ Official crime statistics are those that are gathered by law enforcement agencies and
are based on offences that are reported to, or otherwise come to the attention of, the
relevant law enforcement authorities.
b)​ They do, however, have some well recognised limitations. Many offences are simply
not reported to the police and thus they cannot find their way into official crime
statistics. Criminologists use the term ‘the dark figure of crime’ to refer to those
unreported and undetected offences.
c)​ To make matters more problematic some offences are more likely to be reported to,
or detected by, the police than are others. Property offences, for instance, such as
burglary or motor vehicle theft, are likely to be reported to police as people will
typically want to make insurance claims on lost items. Many offences against the
person, however, such as sexual and violent offences, may be less likely to be
reported as many people may view these as private matters or think that the police
will not be able to do anything to help them.

2.​ Victim surveys

a)​ Victim surveys involve obtaining information about the experience of victimisation
from a representative sample of the population over a particular time period (usually
a year).
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b)​ Researchers are then able to extrapolate from the information provided in victim
surveys to estimate how much crime (or, rather, victimisation) there has been in a
country as a whole over the relevant time period.
c)​ Although victim surveys are enormously useful for understanding crime in society,
like official crime statistics they also have their limitations. For example, because they
rely on the reporting of victimisation from the public they are subject to the natural
limitations of human memory.
d)​ Moreover, some people may be reluctant to talk about their experiences of
victimisation, particularly if they involve sexual offences.

3.​ Self Report Study

a)​ Whereas victim surveys obtain information about experiences of victimisation,
self-report studies involve obtaining information from individuals about their
experience as offenders.
b)​ Self-report studies are often employed as part of longitudinal research designs that
track individuals over time and may be particularly useful in mapping changes in
offence rates over time for the same individuals.
c)​ They are also widely used for offences like illicit drug use, which are poorly
represented in both official crime statistics and victim surveys. Inevitably, although
self-report studies can provide valuable information that may be missed in other
types of research they are limited by the sample employed and the willingness of
individuals to disclose information about illegal activities.

●​ Introduction to Criminal Psychology

1.​ The word “criminal” originates from the French word “criminel” meaning criminal,
despicable etc. and it directly rises from the Latin word “criminalis” pertaining to
crime. The word “psychology” is a combination of two words, viz., ‘psyche’ and
‘logos’, that is, “psyche” means 'mind' and ‘logos’ means ‘the study of’. Thus,
‘psychology’ means the study of the mind and ‘criminal psychology’ means the study
of the criminal mind.
2.​ According to Gudjonsson and Haward (1998) criminal psychology is a branch of
applied psychology which is concerned with the collection, examination and
presentation of evidence for judicial purposes.
3.​ Criminal Psychology is also known as Investigative Psychology.
4.​ Prof. Lionel Haward is considered to be the father of criminal psychology.
5.​ This study of the mind of the criminals goes beyond studying the committing of a
crime by an individual, that is, this study includes also the reactions after the crime,
the escape of the person who commits the crime and his/her behaviours in the court
etc.
6.​ Criminal psychology can be described as a branch of applied psychology that
focuses on determination of the criminal’s reasons for committing a crime.
7.​ It can also be described as a study of thoughts, intentions, reactions and wills of a
criminal so as to ascertain why the crime was committed.
8.​ The legal dictionary defines criminal psychology as “a study of will, intention,
thoughts, feelings and reactions of criminals and those who engage in criminal
behaviour”.
9.​ Criminal psychology to a greater extent derives its scientific methods and rigours
from that anthropology. However, it uses psychological principles, techniques and
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knowledge in the process of investigation so that both crime and the criminal
behaviours are understood relatively in greater depth. Criminal psychology thus helps
the police and other investigating agencies by applying psychological principles in
understanding a crime, the criminal and to an extent the victim as well as the entire
situation that led to the criminal behavior.

●​ Scope of Criminal Psychology

1.​ The scope of criminal psychology involves evaluation that is carried out with the help
of psychological tests and interview if the person accused of a crime (criminal) is
capable of standing the trial in a Court of Law, in terms of his mental capacity,
understanding and mental state.
2.​ A criminal psychologist plays an important role in helping the courts, the judges and
other law enforcement personnel in arriving at a proper decision regarding the
accused such as if they in fact had committed the crime, if so the motive behind the
same as well as other details of the person.
3.​ Criminal psychologists are also involved in the evaluation of the eye witnesses in
regard to the credibility, veracity and reliability of their statements about what they
witnessed at the crime scene etc.
4.​ Often action researches are conducted in criminal psychology so as to help the
judges and the courts to decide in the most competent and justified manner about a
case.
5.​ Criminal psychology has actuarial scope too, in that the experts in criminal
psychology use statistics such as probability of a crime taking place at a certain place
or the probability of a criminal striking again or reoffending.
6.​ Another important scope is one of advisory wherein the criminal psychologist gives
suggestions and advice to police personnel involved in investigation.
7.​ They also help judges to understand the behaviours of an accused or offender and
deliver accurate justice.

●​ Roles of a Criminal Psychologist (notes by ma’am)

1.​ Research evidence to support practice
2.​ Assessment in jail and rehab
3.​ Interviews
4.​ Provide interventions
5.​ Modifying offender behaviour
6.​ Help law enforcement agencies
7.​ Provide a statement to the court based on the assessments
8.​ Assessments of defendants or criminals and victims
9.​ Statistical analysis used for prisoner profiling
10.​Provide psychological reports to the defence/prosecution
11.​Research and training
12.​To present themselves as witnesses
13.​Responding to changing needs of prisoners and staff
14.​Stress management techniques for staff and prisoners
15.​Crime analysis

●​ Roles of a Criminal Psychologist

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1.​ One of the important roles of a criminal psychologist is to study the behaviours and
thoughts of criminals.
2.​ Criminal psychologists study the various causes that lead people to commit crime.
3.​ They assess criminals and evaluate them in order to determine recidivism, that is
whether the person concerned will indulge in crime once again, and also evaluate as
to their behaviours and actions after having committed the crime.
4.​ Criminal psychologists also provide expert testimony in the court. They are involved
in criminal profiling. Criminal profiling helps the police and the investigators to identify
the criminal concerned and apprehend him/ her.
5.​ Criminal psychologists also take up psychological assessment and counselling
people who have committed a crime, so that similar or even newer crimes may be
prevented.
6.​ They also are involved in studying the hackers, internet predators and help computer
experts in investigating frauds online.
7.​ Criminal psychologists interview people, work out in detail an offender’s life history
and help the law enforcement in both investigating crime and apprehending the
criminal.
8.​ Criminal psychologists collect reliable and accurate information through interviewing
offenders and witnesses as well as the victims. They are skilled in conducting
interviews of children, adolescents and adults about the case, using different
approaches and extracting useful information.
9.​ Criminal psychologists also use the worked out offender profile to determine the most
appropriate approach towards solving the crime.
10.​The criminal psychologist not only helps the police to apprehend a criminal, but also
helps the government and its competent organs to take steps to prevent the
offenders from re-committing a crime and getting them rehabilitated back in the
society.

●​ Functions of a Criminal Psychologist

Prof. Lionel Haward, who is considered to be the father of criminal psychology,
categorised the functions into the following -

1.​ Clinical functions - This involves assessing a person to provide a clinical judgment.
For this they use assessment tools, such as personality tests, psychometric tools,
interview etc. and inform the police and the court whether the individual is capable of
standing trial and whether he/ she suffers from any mental illness that renders him/
her incapable of understanding what is going on in the court proceedings.
2.​ Experimental functions - These are research functions, involving tests of varied
types. Using tests and research materials, the criminal psychologists inform the
courts about the credibility and veracity of the statements given by the defendant,
victim and the eyewitnesses. For example, whether the response of the person
involves false memory, whether the eyewitness statements are credible etc.
3.​ Actuarial functions - Criminal psychologists use statistics to present a case to the
court and to the police. For example, they provide the occurrence of probability of an
event such as murder, rape or burglary and even may indicate whether the offender
will repeat offending after release from jail etc.
4.​ Advisory function - The criminal psychologist gives advice to the police regarding
how to proceed with the investigation, and what are all the best methods to conduct
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an interview with a suspect, and advises the police and the court how an offender will
act after committing an offence.
5.​ Crime analysis - Taking into consideration the victim’s statement and report, as well
as inferring from the crime scene, the criminal psychologist analyses the behaviour of
the offender in the specific situation and compares this information and the profile of
the offender across different recorded similar crimes in the database. This analysis
helps the police officers and the investigating team to identify the criminal and also
consider the probabilities of the same person committing a crime in a typical
geographical location.

●​ Difference between Criminal Psychology and Forensic Psychology

Area of Difference Criminal Psychology Forensic Psychology

Focus Motive leading to crime Legal aspect of the outcome

Primary Setting Rehab, policing, jail and Court and crime scene
interviews with criminals

Assessment Criminal or abuser Defendant and victim

Target Population Criminals and law enforcement Defendant, legal professionals

agencies and victims

Duties Criminal profiling, advise and Assessment of defendant, being

interrogation tactics an expert witness and advise on
policies

Collaboration Law enforcement agencies Legal professionals, i.e., lawyers

and advocates

Training Required Bachelor’s in Psychology, Bachelor’s in Psychology,

Master’s in Criminal Psychology, Master’s in Forensic Psychology,
Doctorate in Criminal Doctorate in Forensic
Psychology Psychology

1.​ Forensic psychology deals with work related to prisons, victims of crime, witnesses to
the crime, and handles counselling of ‘at-risk’ youths.
2.​ Forensic psychology also assists lawyers and advocates, as well as the law
enforcement in regard to criminal investigation.
3.​ Forensic psychologists render an opinion as to whether an individual is competent to
stand trial, whether the person is capable and competent to continue with the legal
proceedings in the court of law.
4.​ Thus, forensic psychology mainly focuses on the association between psychology
and law.
5.​ Forensic psychologists work with judges and lawyers.
6.​ They may also serve as legal consultants.
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7.​ Criminal psychology uses the psychological expertise in evaluating criminals,

whereas forensic psychology does not evaluate criminals.
8.​ Thus, the focus of criminal psychology is on crime and criminal behaviour.
9.​ A criminal psychologist could look into the history, past experiences of the criminal, in
order to ascertain his/ her behaviour.
10.​Various factors related to the crime are also analysed.
11.​Further, criminal psychologists are also involved in ascertaining the progress of the
offender when they have been sentenced or after a treatment play is assigned to
them.
12.​They may also conduct studies using psychological tools focusing on the causes of
criminal behaviour.
13.​A criminal psychologist is also involved in devising psychological tests that could tap
the criminal traits and tendencies in individuals.
14.​They help in policy decisions regarding prevention of crime in society and may
present number of measures, tools and techniques to prevent crime and criminal
behaviours
15.​Furthermore, criminal psychology focuses on criminal behavior, whereas forensic
psychology focuses on cases related to both criminal and civil law.
16.​The focus of forensic psychology is also on investigation of crime and processes
related to the judiciary. Whereas, a criminal psychologist is mainly involved in the
assessment and treatment of the offender.
17.​To summarise, the difference between forensic psychology and criminal psychology,
forensic psychology involves analysis of the effect that the crime has on the victims
and also on the mental status of the offender. Criminal psychology on the other hand
involves determination of the reason why the criminal may have committed the crime.

●​ Criminal Psychology and Other Related Disciplines (Extra info.)

1.​ Criminal psychology and Criminology
a)​ While criminology studies the causes of crime, criminal psychology studies thoughts,
feelings and behaviours of criminals.
b)​ Also, criminology finds out and presents measures to prevent and control crime in the
society based on the study of causes of crime. Criminal psychology on the other
hand focuses on what makes a person commit the crime and the typical personality
that such persons have and creates a profile of such people so as to even predict the
kind of persons would commit a certain crime etc.
c)​ While criminology is a multidisciplinary subject, and its focus is on theories of crime,
factors influencing crime, history of crime, control and prevention of crime etc. the
focus of criminal psychology is to interpret psychological tests administered to
criminals and others and use theories to explain the criminal behaviour.

2.​ Criminal Psychology and Police Psychology

a)​ As for its relationship to police psychology, criminal psychology applies psychological
knowledge to police settings and problems. Criminal psychologists are used for
evaluating police applicants, educating and training the police officers, as well as
evaluating police personnel’s job tasks and duties. The criminal psychologists are
also used to assess whether the police applicants for different police positions are
mentally fit and suited for the job assigned to them, etc.
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b)​ Police psychology is the practice of psychology in police settings. It is a clinical

endeavour, provided by clinical psychologists in assessment and treatment of
prisoners, victims and perpetrators if they suffer from any mental illness. Police
psychologists provide research consultations. They apply psychological knowledge
and principles to the many problems related to police and the many police settings.
Police psychology is involved in recruitment and selection of police personnel, their
placement as well as training. They evaluate the job tasks and duties of police
personnel to ensure efficiency and effectiveness. They also evaluate the
psychological fitness of the police applicants. They also screen out applicants who
manifest psychopathology and those who are not fit to be in police employment.
Using psychological tests such as personality tests, situational and projective tests,
role play etc. they select persons who show ideal police characteristics.

3.​ Criminal psychology and Legal psychology

a)​ Psychology applied to the legal system is called legal psychology. It studies varied
aspects of the legal system, and uses psychology to understand, evaluate, and
question the suspects. It also evaluates jury candidates, (in countries which have the
jury system) as well as those who investigate crimes and crime scenes, forensic
investigation and other legally-related situations.
b)​ Legal psychology is part of applied psychology and differentiated from criminal
psychology. Both these disciplines differ from each other though both study criminals
with different focus.
c)​ Legal psychology also deals with improving the legal system through research etc.
d)​ While legal psychology uses cognitive and social principles in dealing with the legal
system, criminal psychology uses psychological principles and techniques to deal
with behaviours of individuals, especially those of criminals.
e)​ Legal psychology can be seen in advisory roles, academics and research in legal
matters. The legal psychologists are involved in trial consulting, policy and guidance
in legal aspects based on empirical research, scientific backups and statistics. Legal
psychology is used in testifying eye witnesses.

4.​ Criminal psychology and Clinical psychology

a)​ Clinical psychology deals with assessment, diagnosis and treatment of behavior and
emotional problems in a broad spectrum of people. In clinical psychology, persons
with mental health problems are tested, the test results are interpreted, diagnosis of
the problems are arrived at and plans for treating the problems are worked out in
detail and administered to patients to render the persons asymptomatic.
b)​ Criminal psychology too requires knowledge and training in clinical psychology so as
to administer the required tests, interpret the same and arrive at the understanding of
the crime that has been committed and also of the individual who has committed the
crime.
c)​ Criminal psychology thus uses clinical psychology and psychological knowledge in
dealing with the legal system and issues related to crime and criminals.
d)​ While a clinical psychologist may be an advocate for his/her clients/patients, a
forensic psychologist/criminal psychologist works generally for an attorney, judge and
any other legal authority.
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e)​ While forensic psychology and criminal psychology requires a strong clinical
psychology knowledge and discipline, clinical psychology does not require a
background in forensic psychology.

●​ Approaches or Perspectives of Criminal Psychology

Criminal Psychology, as a discipline, does not have any theories of its own. Most of
the theories that we use in Criminal Psychology to explain criminal behaviour come
predominantly from Developmental and Social Psychology. The different approaches
or perspectives used in Criminal Psychology to understand criminal behaviour are -

1.​ Cognitive Approach

a)​ In the cognitive approach, the focus is on how the criminal is reasoning to not being
guilty.
b)​ It focuses on how criminals think, process information, and make decisions.
c)​ It suggests that criminal behavior results from faulty thinking patterns and distorted
cognitive processes rather than purely environmental or biological factors.

2.​ Social Approach

a)​ The social approach emphasises the impact of society on criminal behaviour.
b)​ It suggests that pressure, conformity, obedience, deindividuation, role of prejudice,
social perception of others motives, rehab, suggestibility, memory distortion and
misinformation effect.

3.​ Learning
a)​ The learning approach explains criminal behavior through classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, and observational learning.
b)​ It argues that individuals learn to engage in criminal acts based on reinforcement and
punishment.
c)​ It talks about concepts like social learning theory, observation, classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, habituation, desensitization and media influence.

4.​ Biological Approach

a)​ The biological approach suggests that criminal behavior has genetic, neurological,
and physiological underpinnings.
b)​ It focuses on brain abnormalities, hormonal imbalances, and genetic predispositions
to crime.
c)​ It talks about concepts like heritability, structural brain abnormalities (amygdala),
neurochemical imbalances (dopamine, testosterone), lower baseline for arousal and
traumatic brain injury.

5.​ Psychodynamic Approach

a)​ The psychodynamic approach suggests that criminal behavior is driven by
unconscious conflicts, early childhood experiences, and repressed urges.
b)​ It focuses on the influence of personality structures on criminality.
c)​ It talks about concepts like unresolved childhood trauma, neglectful parenting leading
to lack of empathy, aggression, death drive, moral development, catharsis, fixation,
Erikson’s Theory (Identity crisis), Adler’s Birth Order Theory, and structure of
personality (Id).
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CH. 2 - THEORIES OF CRIME

★​ PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
●​ Psychodynamic Theory
1.​ According to psychodynamic theory, the early childhood experiences of the individual
are responsible for such behaviours.
2.​ The Id has been considered responsible for criminal behavior.
3.​ A person with a strong Id has more chances of involving themselves into criminal
activity.
4.​ Id has two important functions - pleasure principle and instant gratification.
5.​ Id is concerned with immediate gratification of its needs with no concern for others or
what is right and what is wrong.
6.​ According to the Psychosocial Stages of the Psychodynamic Theory, fixations can
also lead to criminal behaviour.
7.​ Fixation occurs the most in the oral stage.
8.​ Fixation in the oral stage can lead to adult behaviours like verbal abuse, addiction,
etc.

9.​ According to the psychodynamic theory, if a person who has underwent neglectful
parenting while growing up were to get children, their response to that situation can
go in one of two ways as follows -
a)​ They will either run in the same cycle as their parents and turn into neglectful parents
themselves
b)​ Or they will learn from their mistakes and be that parent to their children that they
wished they would have growing up.

10.​In such a situation, the response of the person completely depends on literacy,
awareness and what the society has shown them to be right or wrong.
11.​Thus, psychodynamic theory explains criminal behavior in terms of a dominant Id,
frustration, provocation and childhood experiences such as being neglected, sibling
rivalry, unhappy and miserable, lack of love and nurturing and a very weak superego,
which is linked to immaturity, and dependency on others.

●​ Cognitive Theory
According to this theory, criminal behaviour is explained in terms of the mental
processes of the individual. The focus of this theory is to understand how criminals
perceive the world around them, and how the individuals solve problems. Cognitive
theory has two sub disciplines as follows -

1.​ Moral Development

The focus in moral development is to understand how individuals morally represent
the world and how they reason about that world. This discipline is based exclusively
on Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development. It is a comprehensive stage
theory of moral development based on Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for
children (1932) and developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958. Cognitive in nature,
Kohlberg’s theory focuses on the thinking process that occurs when one decides
whether a behaviour is right or wrong. Thus, the theoretical emphasis is on how one
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decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what one decides or what one actually
does. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development has 3 levels with 2 stages each as
follows -

a)​ Level 1 - Preconventional Level

At the preconventional level, morality is externally controlled. This level is especially
seen in young children. Rules imposed by authority figures are conformed to in order
to avoid punishment or receive rewards. They see rules as fixed and absolute. This
perspective involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or what
is personally satisfying.
i.​ Stage 1 (Punishment and Obedience Orientation) - Behaviour is determined
by consequences. In this stage, moral reasoning is based on the avoidance of
punishment. The primary concern is avoiding punishment, and right or wrong
is seen as what is directly enforced by authority figures. Example - A child
might not steal a cookie because they are afraid of being punished by their
parents.
ii.​ Stage 2 (Instrumental Purpose Orientation) - Behaviour is determined again
by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying
personal needs. At this stage, individuals recognize that there is not just one
right view, but different perspectives and needs. Moral decisions are based on
what benefits the individual or offers a quid pro quo. Example - A child might
share toys with a friend, but only because they expect to get something in
return (like the friend sharing their toys back).

b)​ Level 2 - Conventional Level

At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the
individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other
people and social systems. The individual strives to support rules that are set forth by
others such as parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or
to maintain social order.
i.​ Stage 3 (Good Boy or Nice Girl Orientation) - Behaviour is determined by
social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and
approval of others by being a “good person.” Example - A teenager might
follow school rules to fit in with their friends or to gain approval from their
parents.
ii.​ Stage 4 (Law and Order Orientation) - At this stage, individuals recognize the
importance of law and order. Moral reasoning is focused on maintaining social
order, fulfilling one’s duty, and respecting authority. People at this stage see
laws and rules as essential for societal functioning and believe that
adherence to these structures is necessary for stability and cohesion. Such
an understanding helps the individual to function properly in the society, obey
and recognise the social pillars of the society. In other words, the child or the
individual develops into a person who is reliable, who can distinguish between
right and wrong, is decent, hardworking, helpful and compassionate towards
others, engages in voluntary work and takes up worthy causes to work on for
the benefit of the society etc. The person is law abiding and follows all norms.
According to Kohlberg, most people in any society are at this stage of moral
development, wherein morality is driven by external force. Example - An
 14

individual might follow the law (e.g., not stealing) because they believe in the
importance of rules and the greater good of society.

c)​ Level 3 - Postconventional or Principled Level

At the postconventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or
her own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that
apply to all situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of
all individuals. This stage represents the highest level of moral reasoning, where
decisions are based on universal principles of justice, dignity, and equality.
i.​ Stage 5 (Social Contract Orientation) - Individual rights determine behaviour.
The individual views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human
purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are exceptions to rules.
When laws are not consistent with individual rights and the interests of the
majority, they do not bring about good for people and alternatives should be
considered. Moral decisions are based on a balance between individual rights
and the collective good. People at this stage are willing to work within the
system to change laws that are deemed unethical or unjust. Example - A
person might support civil disobedience, like protesting an unjust law,
because they believe that justice and human rights outweigh the law itself.
ii.​ Stage 6 (Universal Ethical Principle Orientation) - According to Kohlberg, this
is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that some individuals
will never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is determined
by one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience. These principles are
abstract and universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking
the perspective of every person or group that could potentially be affected by
the decision. At this stage, individuals are guided by their own ethical
principles, which may or may not align with the law. They are willing to take
personal risks (even legal risks) in order to uphold universal moral principles.
Example - A person might engage in nonviolent resistance to an oppressive
regime, even at the cost of personal harm or imprisonment, because they
believe that human rights and justice are more important than any law.

For explaining criminality and criminal behaviour, this theory states criminals are
significantly lower in their moral judgment development. Thus one explanation for
criminal behaviour based on this theory is that those who are low in moral judgement,
are more prone to criminal behaviour as compared to those who are high in this
characteristic.

2.​ Information Processing System (IPS)

a)​ According to this, people use their thought processes step by step to make a
decision based on the information that they received through their information
processing system.
b)​ For instance, as the individual experiences an event, they gather all the relevant
information from the environment and store them for retrieval at a later time. Then the
person searches for the appropriate response and from amongst the responses,
selects the most appropriate one for action.
c)​ Those persons who use the information correctly and appropriately will avoid criminal
or delinquent behaviours. Also those who make reasoned judgements when
 15

encountering emotional situations, would most likely avoid criminal or antisocial

behaviours.
d)​ One of the reasons for inappropriate reasoning is the faulty cognitive processes, that
is the individual is following what they had learned in childhood. Also such
inappropriate reasoning may result from a very long period of exposure to violence
and also can be the consequence of rejection and neglect experienced in childhood.
e)​ These persons tend to become hypersensitive and often resort to violent behaviours,
as a coping mechanism, in addition to becoming alcohol and substance dependent.

●​ Behavioural Theory
1.​ The main tenet of this theory is that all behaviours are learned and hence can be
unlearned and a new behaviour which is more appropriate and desired can be
learned in place of the undesirable behaviour.
2.​ By the same logic, criminal behaviour or violent behaviours too are learned and so
can be unlearned, and in their place new and desirable behaviours can be learned
afresh.
3.​ Behaviourists opine that behaviours are not inherited but are learned during growing
up on the basis of their experiences in their environment.
4.​ For instance, the individual in their childhood years had been observing his father or
any other adult or peer being rewarded for violent behaviours, then the individual
acquires and internalises the violent behaviour, and uses it to get the desired
outcome. This is also termed “modelling”, as stated by Bandura.
5.​ Thus, according to behavioural theory, criminal behaviour is a learned behaviour.
6.​ If an individual, during his childhood, had experienced a violent environment or had
witnessed time and again violence getting rewarded or if they had acquired
criminality as part of socialisation in his community, then one can expect such an
individual to indulge in criminal and violent behaviours.

●​ Personality Theory
1.​ Personality can be described as the individual’s pattern of thinking, feeling and acting
(that is, the behaviour of the individual). Personality can be defined as the
characteristic sets of behaviours, cognitions and emotional patterns which evolve
from both biological and environmental factors. Thus, personality is a relatively stable
characteristic of a person that helps behaviour consistent across situations.
2.​ Personality is always acquired and not inherited.
3.​ Bad moral development leads to bad personality.
4.​ Underdevelopment of the id, ego and superego can also lead to a faulty personality
and in turn to criminal behaviour.
5.​ Individuals who have a lack of empathy and lack of patience (want instant
gratification) traits may indulge in criminal activity.
6.​ Seeing violence growing up in their society can also lead to personalities that commit
crime.
7.​ There are many personality theories, but the one that could explain criminal
behaviour appears to be that of Eysenck’s theory of personality. This theory of
Eysenck is also known as personality theory of offending. It is also known as the
PEN model.
8.​ Eysenck considered criminal behaviour as the outcome of interactions between
extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. While E refers to the overall person
 16

being sociable, active, lively and sensation seeking etc. N stands for persons being
anxious, depressed and reacting strongly to adverse stimuli. P refers to psychoticism
and people getting high scores on this dimension are considered to be relatively
more aggressive, antisocial and more egocentric and Eysenck related P to the
functioning of the nervous system and according to them all the three E, N and P
traits are determined largely by genetics.
9.​ On the basis of this theory, Eysenck considered criminal behaviour as arising from
immature development, selfishness and persons demanding immediate gratification
of all the desires and wishes which arise within.
10.​In almost all societies many of these behaviours are intervened by the socialisation
process and the individual is trained and made to learn to postpone his gratification
etc. However, in the criminals, the socialisation process does not have the needed
impact and such persons continue to act irresponsibly and remain immature and
cannot tolerate frustration arising due to the needs and wishes not getting gratified
immediately. These frustrations lead to anger, violence and indulgence in criminality.
One of the personality disorders associated with criminality is the Antisocialocial
Personality Disorder, characterised by impulsive behaviour, excitability, lack of
remorse, violating other people’s rights, and linked closely to adult criminals.
11.​The important factors of personality that influence criminal behaviour are biological
risk factors, adverse childhood experiences, negative social environment and
substance abuse.
12.​As for biological factors, the variances and abnormalities in autonomic arousal,
neurobiology and neuroendocrine functioning have been found to increase the
probability of a person to commit a crime.
13.​In regard to adverse childhood experiences, it has been noted that children who are
brought up or raised in bad situations are considered to be at greater risk for
indulging in delinquency during childhood and adolescence and criminal behaviour
during adulthood, as compared to those who are brought up under favourable and
good loving situations.
14.​Another factor contributing to criminal behaviour is the social environment such as
the crime filled neighbourhood or living in a home with either or both parents involved
in criminal activities. Such persons closely associated with criminality develop
personality which is anti-social in all aspects and thus indulge in criminal behaviour
and are unmindful and unremorseful of the damage and injury they cause to the
victim. Furthermore, extreme poverty and struggling for food causes intense stress
and such persons are more likely to indulge in crime.
15.​Substance abuse is another important problem that leads to criminal behaviour. The
substances which are intoxicants bring about an altered state of mind losing all the
inhibitions that a normal person would experience when contemplating or indulging in
wrongful behaviours. These intoxicants cause physiological and psychological
changes affecting the individual’s ability to control himself and also his decision
making ability. Furthermore, the person’s craving for the substance such as alcohol
or heroin etc. accompanied by extreme discomfort compels them to obtain the drug
by any means including criminality.

16.​There are different models of personality that explain criminal behaviour as follows -
a)​ 5-factor model of McCrae and Costa (1990)
b)​ PEN model of Eysenck (1977)
 17

c)​ 3-factor model of Tellegen (1985)

d)​ Temperament and Character model of Cloninger et al (1993).The 5-factor

17.​The 5-factor model has Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to experience,

Agreeableness and Conscientiousness.
18.​The 3-factor model of Tellegen covers Positive Emotionality, Negative Emotionality
and Constraints.
19.​The third model of Cloninger and colleagues contain traits such as novelty seeking,
Harm avoidance, Reward dependence, Persistence, Self directedness,
Cooperativeness, and Self transcendence.
20.​Eysenck’s PEN model hypothesised that a typical criminal would possess high levels
of psychoticism, Extraversion and Neuroticism traits.
21.​Cloninger on the other hand hypothesised a link between antisocial personality with
high novelty seeking, low harm avoidance, and low reward dependence.
22.​Another way by which personality theorists link the personality with criminal
behaviour is by asserting that abnormal persons, and persons showing deviant
behaviours possess criminal personality.
23.​These personality traits include psychopathic personality trait, sociopathic traits or
antisocial personality trait.
24.​Persons with these traits are generally highly self centered, grandiose, callous and
lack remorse or empathy for others in addition to being manipulative and superficial.
They are impulsive, irresponsible, and antisocial in their behaviours. Some may
suffer from antisocial personality disorder, and this personality disorder persons do
engage in criminal behaviour or it may be stated that those who indulge in criminal
behaviours, may suffer from this personality disorder.
25.​While personality is linked to criminal behaviour, many researches have shown that
the environment too plays a significant role in criminality.
26.​For instance a person having antisocial personality traits may not necessarily indulge
in criminal behaviour. However if the environment in which he/ she lives and is
brought up is conducive to criminality, this individual too would indulge in criminal
acts.
27.​According to Moffitt (2006), persistence in antisocial behaviour is the result of the
interaction between individual traits and environmental reactions to the personal traits
of the person concerned.

●​ Intelligence Theory
1.​ Both individuals with high as well as low IQs will commit crimes, IQ in and of itself
does not matter in criminal behaviour.
2.​ The types of crimes that are engaged in change according to the IQ.
3.​ Individuals with high IQ indulge in white collar crimes like financial crimes and
corruption.
4.​ Individuals with low IQ indulge in crimes like a small scale robbery, stealing from a
jewellery shop, murders (not celebrities) and chain snatching.
5.​ Individuals with a high IQ are better at not getting caught and the execution of the
crime.
6.​ Individuals with low IQ who also have a poor performance at school and low
academic success have low literacy which leads to more crimes by individuals from
this group.
 18

7.​ The research results over centuries have demonstrated that individuals with low
intelligence quotient (IQ) tend to be more likely to engage in criminal behaviour.
8.​ An important research in this regard is associating school performance with
intelligence and criminal behaviour.
9.​ Studies that have worked on future delinquency and adult criminality have
demonstrated that the IQ and poor school performance are linked to each other and
the youngsters who fail or drop out of school due to poor performance and low IQ
and also having very few career options, indulge in criminality and antisocial
behaviours.
10.​Thus, it may be mentioned that based on research work relating IQ with criminality
and low school performance, those youngsters who dropout of school without even
obtaining the minimum level of education, have relatively less opportunity to get any
suitable vocation or job and thus tend to indulge in crime.
11.​Some studies have also indicated that low verbal intelligence (low verbal IQ) is
obtained in those children who are considered poor school performers and who are
also low in academic achievement, both of which together lead to their likelihood of
indulging in criminal activities.
12.​Many theories of intelligence have shown that people with low IQ are likely to be
impulsive, break the law, do not have social bonding, struggle at school etc. all of
which are related to criminal behaviour.
13.​At the same time people with high IQs also indulge in criminal behaviours.
14.​ISuch high IQ persons plan meticulously every detail so that their crimes go
undetected and even if detected they will be able to escape as no evidence of any
kind is left back.
15.​Many computer related crimes, money being drained out of someone’s account etc.
are typical crimes committed by persons with high IQ.
16.​James C. Oleson, a criminologist, interviewed offenders, and reported that the
exceptionally bright persons appear to be more inclined to commit crimes because
they do feel alienated from others because of their high IQ.
17.​They suffer from social maladjustment , and experience more isolation, bullying by
peers and difficulty in forming attachments and bonding with significant others.
18.​All these characteristics make them at risk for committing crimes.
19.​Despite the fact they do commit crimes, the rate of crime committed by them is far
lower than those committed by persons with low IQ.
20.​However, research results to quite an extent appear to be contradictory with some
research showing no significant relationship between IQ and criminality.
21.​IQ alone is not the deciding factor in criminality.

★​ SOCIAL THEORIES
●​ Social Learning Theory
1.​ Social Learning Theory (SLT) is a psychological theory developed by Albert Bandura
in the 1960s.
2.​ It proposed that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling and is
influenced by factors such as attention, motivation, attitudes, and emotions.
3.​ SLT bridges behaviorism and cognitive psychology by incorporating both
reinforcement principles (from behaviorism) and cognitive processes (such as
attention, memory, and motivation) in learning.
 19

4.​ While the behavioral theories of learning suggested that all learning was the result of
associations formed by conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, Bandura's
social learning theory proposed that learning can also occur simply by observing the
actions of others.
5.​ It is particularly useful in explaining how socialization, moral development,
aggression, and gender roles are learned.
6.​ The theory suggests that learning occurs because people observe the consequences
of other people's behaviors.
7.​ According to Bandura, people observe behavior either directly through social
interactions with others or indirectly by observing behaviors through media.
8.​ Actions that are rewarded are more likely to be imitated, while those that are
punished are avoided.
9.​ According to social learning theory, people engage in crime because of their
association with others who engage in crime.
10.​They essentially have criminal role models that they associate with.
11.​As a consequence, these individuals come to view crime as something that is
desirable, or at least justifiable in certain situations.
12.​Learning criminal or deviant behavior is the same as learning to engage in
conforming behavior: it is done through association with or exposure to others.
13.​In fact, association with delinquent friends is the best predictor of delinquent behavior
other than prior delinquency.
14.​If an individual chooses to surround themselves with a poorly behaved group of
people, then it is likely that they will adopt some of their poor behaviors.
15.​Committing crimes comes from these learned behaviors that stem from an
individual’s social environment through experiences and interactions.
16.​This theory suggests that learning these criminal behaviors result from a number of
different factors. These factors include observing and imitating behavior of other
people, gaining rewards for engaging in illegal activity, learning that such activity can
successfully result in desired objectives, and growing a strong sense of self-efficacy
in employing antisocial methods to accomplish goals.

●​ Social Control Theory

1.​ Social Control Theory is a criminological and sociological theory that explains why
individuals conform to societal norms rather than engaging in deviant behavior.
2.​ It was initially known as Social Bond Theory.
3.​ Developed by Travis Hirschi in 1969, the theory suggests that people refrain from
committing crimes because of their strong bonds to society.
4.​ When these social bonds are weakened or broken, individuals are more likely to
engage in delinquency or criminal behavior.
5.​ Unlike other theories that focus on why people commit crimes, Social Control Theory
assumes that deviance is natural and that individuals would naturally break rules
unless constrained by strong social ties.

6.​ Hirschi identified four critical elements that contribute to social control and prevent
individuals from engaging in delinquent acts A follows -
a)​ Attachment
i.​ Hirschi identified attachment as the first social bond, which refers to the level of
psychological affection one has for prosocial others and institutions.
 20

ii.​ Attachment is the emotional connection a person has with family, friends, teachers,
and society as a whole.
iii.​ The impulse to commit a crime can be resisted because of the costs of crime
associated with delinquent behaviors.
iv.​ One major cost is the disapproval of people whom the potential offender cares about.
v.​ This brings in the concept of sensitivity.
vi.​ Psychologists argue that some people are more sensitive to the opinion of others,
and the extent to which one is sensitive to others’ views will predict rates of criminal
activity.
vii.​ If a person feels no attachment or emotion to anyone in society, then theoretically, he
or she would be free to conduct crimes, and there is no reason for him or her to stop.
viii.​ Example - A teenager who has a close bond with their parents is less likely to
engage in crime because they do not want to disappoint them.

b)​ Commitment
i.​ Commitment is the investment an individual has in conventional goals such as
education, career, and reputation.
ii.​ Hirschi noted that people are less likely to commit crimes when they know that they
have something to lose.
iii.​ If a person has invested a lot of time and energy into achieving certain
accomplishments and goals, then he or she has a lot to lose if they commit a crime;
the crimes are thus less likely to be committed.
iv.​ Example - A university student with a scholarship is less likely to commit a crime
because they risk losing their academic standing.

c)​ Involvement
i.​ Involvement is the participation in socially approved activities such as school, work,
sports, and community service.
ii.​ relates to the opportunity costs associated with how a person spends their time.
iii.​ If a person is heavily involved in these activities, then they have less time and energy
to think about committing delinquent acts.
iv.​ On the other hand, some people may spend less time doing conventional activities,
experience detachment from society, and thus be more likely to commit a crime.
v.​ Example - A student who is occupied with studies and extracurricular activities is less
likely to engage in gang activities.

d)​ Belief
i.​ The fourth and last type of social bond identified by Hirschi is belief, which refers to
the degree to which one adheres to the values associated with behaviors that
conform to the law; the assumption being that the more important such values are to
a person, the less likely he or she is to engage in criminal/deviant behavior.
ii.​ Those who strongly believe in the fairness of laws and the importance of morality are
less likely to engage in crime.
iii.​ Example - A person who believes in honesty and justice will be less inclined to steal,
even if given the opportunity.

●​ Differential Association Theory

 21

1.​ Differential Association Theory is a criminological theory developed by Edwin H.

Sutherland in 1939, which he later elaborated in 1947, proposing that through
interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and
motives for criminal behaviour.
2.​ According to this theory, criminal behavior is learned in the same way as any other
behavior—through communication, association, and socialization.
3.​ This theory focuses on how individuals learn to become criminals, but it does not
concern itself with why they become criminals.
4.​ Sutherland forwarded mainly two explanations for criminal behaviour - situational and
genetic or historical.
5.​ The former explains crime on the basis of the situation that exists at the time of
crime, and the latter explains crime on the basis of a criminal's life experiences.
6.​ He himself used the second approach in developing his theory of criminal behaviour.
7.​ Sutherlands main thesis is that individuals encounter many inharmonious and
inconsistent social influences in their lifetime and many individuals become involved
in contacts with carriers of criminalistic norms and as a consequence become
criminals. He called this process differential association.

8.​ Sutherland formulated nine key propositions that explain how people learn criminal
behavior as follows -
a)​ Criminal behaviour is learned - Crime is not the result of biological inheritance or
mental disorders. Individuals learn how to engage in criminal acts just as they learn
non-criminal behaviors. Example A child raised in a family where theft is common
may learn that stealing is acceptable.
b)​ Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of
communication - Learning occurs through communication and social interaction,
primarily within intimate personal groups such as family, friends, and peers. Example
- A teenager who spends time with delinquent friends may adopt their behaviors and
attitudes.
c)​ The principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate
personal groups - While media and social institutions can influence people, the most
impactful learning happens through close relationships. Negatively, this means that
impersonal communication, such as movies or newspapers, play a relatively
unimportant part in committing criminal behavior. Example - A child is more likely to
adopt criminal behavior from their parents or siblings rather than from movies or
books.
d)​ When criminal behaviour is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing
the crime (which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple) and the
specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes - Learning criminal
behavior involves both (a) Techniques (e.g., how to pick a lock, commit fraud, or
evade police) and (b) Motivations and Rationalizations (e.g., believing that stealing
from the rich is justified). Example - A hacker may be taught not only how to break
into systems but also how to justify it as a means of "exposing corruption."
e)​ The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal
codes as favourable or unfavourable - Individuals interpret laws and rules differently
based on their social group’s beliefs. Some groups see criminal behavior as
acceptable or necessary, while others view it as unacceptable. Example - A gang
 22

might teach its members that "violence is necessary for survival," while law-abiding
citizens believe "violence is wrong."
f)​ A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favourable to
violation of law over definitions unfavourable to violation of the law - The core idea of
the theory: When individuals are exposed to more influences that support criminal
behavior than those that oppose it, they are more likely to become criminals. When
people become criminals, they do so not only because of contact with criminal
patterns but also because of isolation from anti criminal patterns. Negatively, this
means that associations that are neutral so far as crime is concerned have little or no
effect on the genesis of criminal behavior. Example - A youth who grows up in a
neighborhood where drug dealing is seen as normal will likely engage in it.
g)​ Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity -
Priority seems to be important principally through its selective influence, and intensity
has to do with such things as the prestige of the source of a criminal or anticriminal
pattern and with emotional reactions related to the association.
h)​ The process of learning criminal behaviour by association with criminal and
anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other
learning - The process of learning crime is no different from learning socially
acceptable behaviors. Example - Just as a person learns good work ethic from hard
working parents, another can learn criminal habits from criminals.
i)​ While criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, it is not
explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behaviour is an expression
of the same needs and values - People may commit crimes for the same reasons
they engage in legal activities—such as money, status, or security. However, the
mere existence of these needs does not explain why some choose crime while
others do not. Example - Both a law-abiding entrepreneur and a fraudster may want
financial success, but the fraudster learns criminal methods to achieve it.

9.​ Differential Association Theory identifies several factors that affect how and to what
extent individuals learn criminal behavior -
a)​ Frequency - The more often a person is exposed to criminal values, the more likely
they are to adopt them. Example - A teenager who hangs out with thieves every day
is more likely to engage in theft than someone who does so occasionally.
b)​ Duration - The longer someone is exposed to criminal behavior, the greater the
influence. Example - Growing up in a family of criminals for years has a stronger
effect than meeting a criminal friend once.
c)​ Intensity - The closeness of the relationship matters. Example - Learning criminal
behavior from a trusted mentor (like an older sibling) is more influential than from a
casual acquaintance.
d)​ Priority - Learning criminal behavior at an early age has a stronger impact. Example -
A child who is exposed to drug dealing at the age of 10 is more likely to normalize it
than someone exposed to it in adulthood.

●​ Labeling Theory
1.​ Labeling Theory is a sociological and criminological theory that explores how
individuals become identified as deviant or criminal due to societal reactions and
labels.
 23

2.​ Developed in the 1960s by sociologists like Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert, the
theory argues that deviance is not inherent in an act but is instead the result of how
society labels and reacts to it.
3.​ Labeling theory is a reaction to sociological theories, which examine only the
characteristics of the deviants rather than the agencies that controlled them.
4.​ Labeling theory stems from the school of symbolic interactionism, which believes that
an individual’s sense of self is formed by their interactions with and the labels
ascribed to them by other people.
5.​ This perspective suggests that once a person is labeled as "deviant" or "criminal,"
they may internalize that identity, leading to further deviant behavior—a process
known as self-fulfilling prophecy.
6.​ Labeling theory is an approach in the sociology of deviance that focuses on the ways
in which the agents of social control attach stigmatizing stereotypes to particular
groups, and the ways in which the stigmatized change their behavior once labeled.
7.​ Howard Becker’s (1963) idea is that deviance is a consequence of external
judgments, or labels, that modify the individual’s self-concept and change the way
others respond to the labeled person.
8.​ The premise of Labeling Theory is that, once individuals have been labeled as
deviants, they face new problems stemming from their reactions to themselves and
others to the stereotypes of someone with the deviant label.
9.​ That is to say, a label of deviance (such as being a criminal) can become one that
overtakes one’s entire identity.
10.​Those with criminal labels are distrusted and disdained widely, and individuals may
believe that criminals are completely unable to behave morally.
11.​Any misbehavior may be explained entirely by how that individual is labeled as a
criminal
12.​Lower-class people and those from minority groups are more likely to be involved
with police interventions, and when those from minority groups are involved in police
interventions, they are more likely to lead to an arrest, accounting for the nature and
seriousness of the offense. Once arrested, these individuals face more severe
sentences regardless of the seriousness of the offense. As a result, those from lower
classes and minority communities are more likely to be labeled as criminals than
others, and members of these groups are likely to be seen by others as associated
with criminality and deviance, regardless of whether or not they have been formally
labeled as a criminal.
13.​This manifests both on the societal and individual levels.
14.​African American children, for example, are more likely to be seen as rule-breakers
by their parents than their white peers

15.​Labeling can encourage deviant behavior in three ways: a deviant self-concept, a

process of social exclusion, and increased involvement in deviant groups.

16.​Deviant Self Concept

a)​ Deviant self-concept originates from the theory of symbolic interactionism. In
summary, symbolic interactionism is a theory in sociology that argues that society is
created and maintained by face-to-face, repeated, meaningful interactions among
individuals.
 24

b)​ Some sociologists have argued that the concept of self is formed on the basis of their
interactions with other people. These people learn to define what they are and what
they do on the basis of how they see the attitudes of the people around them.
c)​ Those labeled as criminals or deviants — regardless of whether this label was
ascribed to them on the virtue of their past acts or marginalized status — experience
attitudes of stigma and negative stereotyping from others.
d)​ Cooley’s concept of the “ looking-glass self ” states how we perceive ourselves
depends in part on how others see us, so if others react to us as deviant, we are
likely to internalize that label (even if we object to it).
e)​ As those labeled as deviants experience more social interactions where they are
given the stereotypical expectation of deviance, this can shape that person’s
self-concept. As a result, the person can see themselves as a deviant.

17.​Social Exclusion
a)​ As deviant labeling is stigmatizing, those with deviant labels can be excluded from
relationships with non-deviant people and from legitimate opportunities.
b)​ Link proposes two processes for social exclusion among those labeled as deviant: a
rejection or devaluation of the deviant person by the community and authorities and
secondly, the labeled person can expect rejection and devaluation, leading to social
withdrawal.
c)​ Because those with deviant labels can actively avoid interactions with so-called
“normals,” they can experience smaller social networks and thus fewer opportunities
and attempts to find legitimate, satisfying, higher-paying jobs.
d)​ Labeling can lead to blocked opportunities, such as reduced education and instability
in employment, and the weak conventional ties resulting from this lack of opportunity
can create a long-lasting effect on adult criminal behavior.

18.​Deviant groups
a)​ When individuals have little social support from conventional society, they can turn to
deviant groups, where having a deviant label is accepted.
b)​ However, this can create rationalization, attitudes, and opportunities that make
involvement in these groups a risk factor for further deviant behavior Thus, those
labeled as deviant would want to seek relationships with those who also have a
deviant self-concept.

●​ Strain Theory
1.​ Strain Theory is a sociological and criminological theory that explains why people
engage in deviant or criminal behavior.
2.​ It was first proposed by Robert K. Merton in 1938, based on Émile Durkheim's
concept of anomie (normlessness or societal breakdown).
3.​ The theory argues that when individuals experience a disconnect between socially
accepted goals and the means available to achieve them, they experience strain,
which may lead to deviance or crime.
4.​ This theory is particularly relevant in understanding crime in lower-income
communities, corporate fraud, gang involvement, and youth delinquency.
5.​ Merton noticed that American society had high rates of crime and proposed that this
was because the achievement of the American Dream — wealth attainment — was
 25

deeply ingrained by Americans, even those for whom factors such as race and class
had made it highly improbable that they would ever achieve large monetary success.
6.​ Holding this cultural value in high regard, they turn to illegitimate means of obtaining
wealth, becoming criminals in the process.
7.​ The discrepancy or strain between the aspirations and the means of achieving them
became known as “strain theory.”
8.​ Merton argued that individuals at the bottom of society could respond to this strain in
a number of ways.
9.​ Different orientations toward society’s goals and differential access to the means to
achieve those goals combine to create different categories of deviance.

10.​According to Merton, there are five responses to strain as follows -

a)​ Conformity - individuals are following a societal goal through legitimate means.
Although a conformist may not necessarily achieve the societal goal, he has enough
faith in society to follow legitimate means. For example, a student who is going to
school to advance a professional career is conforming, as he is following the
American cultural value of success through an approved means.
b)​ Innovation - The individual shares the cultural goal of the society but reaches this
goal through illegitimate means. For example, thieves – who share the cultural goal
of wealth attainment but do so through breaking the law (such as drug dealing or
embezzlement), are innovators.
c)​ Ritualists - Individuals who have given up hope of achieving society’s approved goals
but still operate according to society’s approved means. A member of middle
management, for example, who accepts that they will never progress but stays in
their position is a ritualist.
d)​ Retreatists (like dropouts or hermits) - Individuals who have rejected both a society’s
goals and the legitimate means of obtaining them and live outside conventional
norms altogether. For example, drug addicts.
e)​ Rebellion - Rebellion exists outside of Merton’s system altogether. Rebels aim to
replace societal goals with those of their own and devise their own means of
achieving them. The most obvious examples of rebellion are terrorist organizations,
which attempt to advance a goal, typically political, through means such as violence.
 26

★​ DIATHESIS - PERSONALITY STRESS BEHAVIOUR

1.​ The Diathesis-Personality-Stress-Behavior Model is a framework used in psychology
and psychiatry to understand how biological vulnerabilities (diathesis), personality
traits, and environmental stressors interact to influence an individual's behavior and
mental health.
2.​ It builds upon the classic Diathesis-Stress Model, which suggests that individuals
indulge in criminal behaviour due to a combination of genetic predisposition
(diathesis) and environmental stress.
3.​ The term “diathesis” comes from the Greek word for disposition (“diathesis”). In the
context of the diathesis-stress model, this disposition is a factor that makes it more
likely that an individual will engage in criminal behaviour following a stressful life
event.
4.​ An individual may have a predisposition to criminal behaviour, but it’s the
combination of this vulnerability and adverse life events that triggers its
manifestation.
5.​ A diathesis can be a biological factor, like abnormal variations in one or more genes
or in the brain itself. But other sorts of factors, even if not genetically hard-wired, can
also be considered diathesis so long as they form early on and are stable across a
person’s life. For example, traumatic early life experiences, such as the loss of a
parent, can act as long standing predispositions. In addition, personality traits like
high neuroticism are sometimes also referred to as diathesis.
6.​ Finally, diathesis can be situational factors — like living in a low-income household or
having a parent involved in crime.
7.​ Stress comes in many different forms as well.
8.​ It may be a single traumatic event, like the death of a close relative or friend. But
stress can also be an ongoing, sustained challenge in one’s life, like a chronic illness
or an abusive relationship.
9.​ The role of stress in the diathesis-stress model is nuanced.
10.​For one, some life circumstances may constitute both a diathesis and stress. For
instance, a child with a parent who is a criminal may be genetically predisposed to
criminal behaviour and may also undergo stress as a result of their parent’s criminal
acts.
11.​Second, the timing of stress within an individual’s lifespan may be important; certain
behaviours are thought to have “windows of vulnerability” during which they are more
likely to be brought about by stressful life events.
12.​It’s important to note that not all diathesis are created equal. For example, some
genetic variations only slightly increase an individual’s risk of engaging in criminal
behaviour, while others increase one’s risk substantially.
13.​As a result, in the diathesis-stress model, different diathesis give rise to different
responses to stress. For example, if I am predisposed to low self control and I lose
my job, I will commit crimes like theft because I am impulsive. But if I am predisposed
to aggression and then I lose my job, I will commit violent crimes.
14.​To conceptualize this, consider the “cup analogy.” Imagine several cups filled with
different amounts of marbles; when water is poured into those cups, the cups with
more marbles will overflow more easily. Diathesis are like marbles, and stress is like
water: the greater the diathesis, the less stress is needed to cause “overflow”.
15.​Therefore, individuals with greater innate predispositions to a disorder may require
less stress to trigger that disorder, and vice versa.
 27

16.​This Model intervenes in the debate about “nature vs. nurture” in psychopathology —
whether criminal behaviours are predominantly caused by innate biological factors
(“nature”) or by social and situational factors (“nurture”) — by providing an account of
how both might coincide in giving rise to criminal activity.
17.​The model has been useful in explaining why some individuals with biological
dispositions to criminal behaviour do not engage in it and why some individuals living
through stressful life circumstances nonetheless remain crime free.
18.​It has also opened the door to research into protective factors: positive elements that
counteract the effects of diathesis and stress to prevent the onset of criminal
behaviour.
19.​Just as negative elements in one’s life make the onset of criminal behaviour more
likely, there can also be positive elements that make the onset less likely. These
positive elements are called protective factors.
20.​Protective factors help explain why some people who have both significant diatheses
and stresses nonetheless remain crime free — in these cases, protective factors
prevent criminal behaviour from coming to the surface.
21.​Protective factors can be conditions, meaning beneficial life circumstances that
protect against criminal behaviour.
22.​They can also be attributes: traits or behaviors of an individual that make them more
resilient against criminal behaviour.
23.​Conditions that act as protective factors include strong parental and social support
and assistance from psychotherapists or counselors. Attributes that act as protective
factors include social and emotional competence and the use of healthy coping
strategies and stress management techniques.

24.​The Diathesis Personality Stress Behaviour Model explains crime in the following
way -
a)​ Individual differences in criminal behaviour - With the same kind of stressor, two
people will react differently. One may commit crime and the other may not.
b)​ Development of criminal tendencies - Early childhood trauma can lead to criminal
behaviour. High emotional intelligence can lead to criminal behaviour like domestic
violence, stalking, cyber crimes and bullying.
c)​ Triggering events - Triggering events can be exposure to abusive relationships,
discrimination, injustice, unemployment, loss of a job or loss of a loved one.
d)​ Crime as a camping mechanism - In financial stress, theft could be used as a coping
mechanism. Stress leads to criminal behaviour. It may not lead to crime itself but to
the verge of the behaviour.
 28

●​ Cognizable and Non-Cognizable Crimes

Cognizable Crimes Non-cognizable Crimes

Serious in nature, very grave Not that serious

Examples - Murder, rape, terrorism Examples - Theft, financial crime, dowry

Can be registered and investigated by the Require court’s permission to be

police without a warrant investigated

Can arrest without court’s permission Require court’s permission to arrest

No compromise between the two accused Compromise can happen between the
and the victim accused and the victim

No out of court settlement can occur Out of court settlement can occur

Substantial police involvement is required Victim’s cooperation is required (for

example in domestic violence)

Action can be taken by police to prevent Investigation can be delayed as court

further harm intervention is needed

Usually non-bailable offense Could be bailable offense depending on the

crime

Accused can be kept under police custody Accused is in the court’s custody and not
for investigation the police
 29

CH. 3 - CRIME TRENDS IN INDIA

1.​ In 1953 to 2023, cognizable crimes in India increased nearly 10 fold from 0.6 million
to 5.8 million while the population grew only 3.82 times.
2.​ In those years, the overall crime rate increased from 160 to 422.

3.​ Cognizable crimes in India -

a)​ 6.6 million crimes reported in 2020.
b)​ 6.09 million crimes reported in 2021.
c)​ There is a 7.73% decrease in the cognizable crimes.

4.​ Specific crime categories in 2021 -

a)​ Murder rates were 2.1 per 10,000 people.
b)​ Kidnapping rates were 7.4 per 10,000 people.
c)​ Rap rates were 4.8 per 10,000 people.

5.​ In 2024, there was a 4% increase in crimes against women in India.

6.​ The state of Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of crimes in India. The crimes
include theft, robbery and assault.
7.​ The city of Delhi has the highest number of crimes in India.
8.​ The second highest being Kochi.
9.​ 1952 crimes committed among 10,000 inhabitants of Delhi.

10.​There is an emerging trend of a huge surge in financial crimes, cyber crimes and
identity theft in Mumbai and Chennai.
 30

CH. 4 - PREVENTION OF CRIME

●​ Introduction
1.​ One of the most inclusive definitions of crime prevention is provided by Brantingham
and Faust (1976), who view crime prevention as ‘any activity, by an individual or a
group, public or private, that precludes the incidence of one or more criminal acts’.
2.​ This definition, therefore, includes any activity on the part of the criminal justice
system (such as punishment or policing) that might result in a reduction in criminal
behaviour.

3.​ Crime can be dealt with in the following ways -

a)​ Direct control - Involving operant conditioning like punishment or reward.
b)​ Indirect control - Affectionate identification with non-criminals. This practically works
through government policies. How the government helps us through schemes like
NREGA, raashan and subsidies.
c)​ Internal control - Developing a sense of guilt or conscience.

●​ Classification of Crime Prevention

Crime prevention can be classified in two ways as follows -

1.​ Based on Public Health Initiatives

a)​ Primary crime prevention
i.​ Primary crime prevention refers to approaches that are largely directed at the general
population and include such diverse strategies as improved street lighting and
universal drug education programmes in schools.
ii.​ At this stage of prevention, people are trying not to commit crime.
iii.​ At this level of prevention, the goal is to improve living conditions in order not to
offend people, and to produce values that improve healthy relationships.

b)​ Secondary crime prevention

i.​ Secondary crime prevention involves the development of programmes and initiatives
that are targeted at specific ‘at risk’ groups or locations such as delinquent teenagers
or high-crime neighbourhoods.
ii.​ For example, addicts, street vagabonds and street children.
iii.​ In this type of prevention, the goal is to prevent the occurrence of crime by people
who are in critical condition and likely to be victimized by the use of appropriate and
early measures.
iv.​ For example, in the prevention of addiction, the focus is on those who entertain in the
form of recreation and have not yet reached the level of addiction.
v.​ Also, children living in disadvantaged families and poorer neighborhoods in poor
conditions, or young people who have experienced violence in their homes, are more
likely to commit criminal misconduct than others.

c)​ Tertiary crime prevention

i.​ Attempts to reduce crime that focus on offenders (e.g. rehabilitation programmes),
are viewed as instances of tertiary crime prevention
ii.​ This kind of prevention includes programs such as counseling for women and
children, criminal interventions, and various groups.
 31

iii.​ Preventive efforts at this stage are to prevent criminal behavior so that criminals can
adapt to their social environment and not re-commit crimes.
iv.​ The third prevention is used as a result of detecting operations for arresting the
offender, imprisoning a convicted person, or sentencing and rehabilitating a prisoner.

2.​ Based on General Context

a)​ Social crime prevention
i.​ Social crime prevention approaches target the more distal causes of crime such as
individual characteristics, family environments and communities.
ii.​ It is also called individual based prevention.
iii.​ This kind of prevention includes measures and interventions that seek to eliminate or
reduce the causes of crime and thereby prevent delinquency by intervening in the
development process of individuals, improving their living conditions and normalizing
the social and natural.
iv.​ According to Gessen, this kind of prevention is said to be social prevention as a
result of social worker prevention experiences without interfering with police and
justice discussions, and focusing on the inadequacies of juvenile delinquents and
their growth environment.
v.​ Establishment of recreational areas and parks for recreation, the establishment of
educational, educational, cultural centers, creating income generation and job
creation in neighborhoods, strengthening religious beliefs through effective and
appropriate activation of local religious centers, the formation of local police, the
development of equipment and measures such as youth sports clubs and
activity-based projects to dissuade actual and potential offenders from future
mistakes are examples of this type of prevention.
vi.​ Another of the goals of social prevention is to strengthen the foundations that
contribute to socialization by influencing groups at risk.
vii.​ In other words, social prevention seeks to harmonize the individual with social rules
through education.
viii.​ What those involved in this type of prevention should do is to expel as many people
as possible from the criminal system. In general, social prevention is an attempt to
resolve criminal behavior issues by addressing the roots of crime.
ix.​ For this reason, social prevention is the best description of primary prevention.

b)​ Situational crime prevention

i.​ Situational crime prevention initiatives focus on the more proximal causes of crime
and attempt to change features of the environment in ways that reduce opportunities
for crime.
ii.​ Situational prevention includes a set of non-criminal measures and measures that
prevent the commission of crime through the elimination or reduction of appropriate
opportunities for crime and improper prosecution.
iii.​ Situational theories of crime assume that there will always be some individuals willing
to commit criminal acts and therefore devote their attention to the specific features of
the physical and social environment that make criminal behaviour more likely.
iv.​ Opportunities play a powerful role in criminal offending. Opportunity is, therefore, an
important cause of crime and should therefore feature prominently in our crime
prevention efforts.
 32

v.​ The strategies of this method, focusing on environmental changes, are part of
controlling the perpetrators and partly on protecting the victims.
vi.​ Situational Prevention was introduced as Clark, Cornish, and Heeur, as a scientific
theory to reduce delinquency in the 1980s.
vii.​ In some cases, changing environmental conditions, such as location and time, makes
it more difficult to realize the crime of deprivation or occurrence.
viii.​ Situational prevention includes eliminating some of the hazards, reducing some of
the risks by reducing the extent of the damage and taking security measures such
as: installing CCTV cameras or increasing the number of policemen to scare and
prevent the offense.
ix.​ Reducing opportunities and crime situations is accompanied by the development of
physical security or the design of buildings and neighborhoods, which ultimately
leads to dangerous and costly criminal acts.
x.​ Therefore, forecasting, recognizing and assessing the crime risk and taking actions
to eliminate or reduce it is a conditional prevention, sometimes referred to as “crime
risk management”.
xi.​ To better understand situational crime prevention, here is an example - Consider the
following scenario. You are in a clothing store lovingly gazing at a new jacket that you
covet, but simply cannot afford. The only staff member in the store leaves the counter
and goes out to the back of the store where she cannot see you. Do you take this
opportunity to steal the jacket? For many people the answer to this question will be a
resounding ‘no’ regardless of the circumstances. However, before considering
stealing the jacket others will want to know whether it is electronically tagged,
whether there is closed-circuit television (CCTV) in store, whether there are other
customers about and what the exit routes out of the store are like. In short, the
decision depends not only on the motivation of the potential offender, but also on the
opportunities that the situation affords. Situational crime prevention, then, simply
‘seeks to alter the situational determinants of crime so as to make crime less likely to
happen’.

●​ Prevention of Crime in India

1.​ Strengthening law enforcement - Improving police training, preventing delayed
justice, promoting intersectionality, modernising equipment (updated technology or
softwares), increased police petrol.
2.​ Legal and judicial reforms - Establish more fast track courts, severe punishments,
rehab and community services.
3.​ Education and awareness - Public campaigns, value based education
4.​ Addressing socioeconomic issues - Reduced poverty, substance abuse programs
5.​ Community involvement - Community policing, neighbourhood watch program, more
public policies like the Ghanti Bajao Andolan
6.​ Leveraging technology - Better CCTVs, technology, digital safety initiatives.
7.​ Collaboration with NGOs
8.​ Promoting gender equality - Building a culture of respect and responsibility
9.​ Effective governmental policy implementation - Transparent policies, periodic reviews
(tri-annually or quarterly reviews)

●​ Strategies to Reduce Crime

1.​ Social Crime Prevention
 33

a)​ Preschool enrichment programmes focus primarily on the risk factors of low IQ and
poor performance in school although they may often include other elements, such as
parent training.
b)​ Child social skills training programmes involve a number of structured sessions that
teach children to develop self-control, manage anger, promote victim empathy and
foster social skills.
c)​ Children who grow up in family environments characterised by poor parenting
practices, harsh discipline and low parental supervision are at a significantly greater
risk for later involvement in crime. It follows that if such family environments can be
modified and if parents can be taught effective strategies for raising children, then we
should see a reduction in criminal and antisocial behaviour. Various home visitation,
parent education and parent training programmes have been developed to address
these issues, and their effectiveness has been evaluated.
d)​ Parent education and parent training programmes have also been shown to be
successful in reducing criminal and antisocial behaviour. Parent education
programmes involve teaching parents effective strategies and approaches to raising
children. Such strategies include the use of praise and encouragement, setting limits
and rules and enforcing them consistently, and dealing with problem behaviour
without resorting to physical punishment (e.g. using ‘time out’ strategies).
e)​ A final group of social crime prevention initiatives focus on risk factors associated
with schools, peers and the community. A wide variety of different types of school
based programmes have been developed that variously target school bonding and
truancy, teacher classroom management, and bullying, with generally positive results.
f)​ Research suggests that drug education programmes can also be effective.
g)​ Given that association with delinquent peers is an important risk factor for adolescent
offending, programmes that enable young people to resist ‘peer pressure’ or which
involve the use of prosocial peer leaders should be effective in reducing antisocial
behaviour.
h)​ Community based programmes are also somewhat of a mixed bag and include such
things as afterschool programmes, community mentoring and broader community
initiatives aimed at enhancing the health and social cohesion of communities

2.​ Situational Crime Prevention

a)​ One important strategy is to simply increase the effort of offending. All other things
being equal, if offending is more difficult to accomplish then, according to rational
choice theory, the benefits of offending are less likely to outweigh the costs. One way
of increasing the effort of offending (and thus making benefits harder to obtain) is
through ‘target hardening’: the implementation of locks, bars, screens and so forth
that make desirable items harder to steal. The complex set of screening
arrangements in place now at all airports and many other locations provide another
example of making offending harder to achieve.
b)​ A second strategy that works on the ‘benefits' side of the cost-benefit scales is to
reduce the rewards of offending. Again this can be achieved through a variety of
means. For example, by excluding discs from CDs and DVDs on display, eliminating
cash operating systems (e.g. on public transport) and by having removable car
stereo systems, the potential rewards of offending are substantially reduced.
c)​ The widespread implementation of CCTV provides a good example of this approach,
as does the growing use of alarm systems and private security companies. The risk
 34

of offending can also be increased through relatively simple means such as better
street lighting and the enhancement of natural surveillance opportunities.
d)​ Situational and environmental factors such as provocation, frustration and heat can
all increase the risk for aggression and violence. Situational approaches to crime
prevention, therefore, also note the importance of reducing provocations and
removing excuses. Provocations can be reduced by such strategies as separate
seating for rival sports fans, reducing crowding in bars and other drinking
environments, and reducing peer pressure through social marketing that enforces
messages against drink driving and drug use.
e)​ Excuses for offending can also be removed by clearly providing signs and
instructions regarding what is prohibited, and by controlling the sale and use of
alcohol and other drugs.
f)​ Hot spots policing – Involving the strategic employment of police to geographical
areas that have been identified as particularly crime prone.
g)​ For better recall, here is a table version of situational strategies to reduce crime -

Strategies Examples

Increase the effort of offending Locks, bars, screens, entry control, gating
roads

Reduce the rewards of offending Remove targets, eliminate cash systems,

property identification

Increase the risk of offending Improved street lighting, increase natural

surveillance

Reduce provocation Separate rival sporting fans, reduce

crowding, reduce peer pressure

Remove excuses Post instructions, alert conscience, control

drugs and alcohol

●​ Situational Crime Prevention Theories

1.​ Rational Choice Theory
a)​ Rational choice theory in criminology states that individuals partake in criminal
activity following a logical thought process that consciously analyzes and weighs the
benefits and costs of committing crimes.
b)​ If the perceived cost of committing the crime is outweighed by the benefit, people will
be more likely to offend.
c)​ It was developed by Ronald V. Clarke in 1980.
d)​ Rational choice theory is a school of thought which holds that individuals decide upon
the course of action most in line with their subjective preferences.
e)​ Clarke and Cornish reason that the rational choice model can unveil lines of inquiry
accounting for criminal conduct, and that attempts to fight crime should ideally
increase the barriers to perpetrating it.
f)​ This method was designed by Cornish and Clarke to assist in thinking about
situational crime prevention.
 35

g)​ Rational choice theory employs two subsidiary theories to explain crime -
i.​ Routine Activity Theory
ii.​ Situational Choice Theory (Situational Crime Prevention)

h)​ The following assumptions underpin rational choice theory in criminology -

i.​ Humans possess the power to freely choose their conduct.
ii.​ Humans are goal-oriented and purposive.
iii.​ Humans have hierarchically ordered utilities or preferences.
iv.​ Humans act based on rational judgments pertaining to:
v.​ The utility of alternatives based on their hierarchically ordered preferences.
vi.​ The cost of each alternative.
vii.​ The best opportunity to maximize utility.

2.​ Routine Activity Theory

a)​ Introduced by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson in 1979, routine activities theory
is an approach in criminology that relates crime closely to the environment and
studies it as an event.
b)​ Its primary focus on situations of crime, rather than on offenders, distinguishes it from
many other criminological theories.
c)​ Often studied in the context of rational choice theory, routine activities theory has
been utilized extensively to analyze cybercrimes, robberies, and residential burglary.
d)​ The theory notably assumes that anyone with the opportunity to commit a crime, can
do so.
e)​ Routine activities theory further holds that would-be-victims may choose whether to
become victims or not via their choices.
f)​ For example they may avoid dangerous situations, and thereby, decrease their
likelihood of becoming victims.
g)​ For a crime to occur according to routine activities theory, there must be three
elements: a suitable target, a motivated offender and the absence of a guardianship.

h)​ Suitable Target

i.​ A suitable target could be either a person or property the motivated offender
can readily identify and engage.
ii.​ In other words, the availability of opportunities as well as the offender’s
particular intention may incline him/her to choose a certain target over
another.
iii.​ Contrary to what broad trends in crime might suggest, the offender’s personal
preferences and perceptions play a crucial role in the evaluation and choice
of a target.
iv.​ The appropriateness of the target, herein, however, seems to be the primary
factor determining whether the crime would be committed.
v.​ The following acronym, VIVA, indicates the criteria whereby the motivated
offender would gauge the suitability of a potential target.
Value - The real or symbolic value [from the offender’s perspective] of
engaging the target.
Inertia - The suitable target’s weight, shape, size or other physical attributes
that function as impediments to the motivated offender.
 36

Visibility - The exposure of a target to an offender, marking it suitable for

assault.
Access - The target’s placement and the site’s design increasing the
vulnerability to attack

i)​ Motivated offender

i.​ Motivated offenders are individuals with both the capacity and the willingness
to commit wrongdoing.
ii.​ Routine activities theory, unlike other theories of crime, does not seek to
explain the willingness of the potential offender.
iii.​ It avoids investigating deep-seated psychological drives capable of inspiring
criminal activity, and holds that the offender’s motivation to engage in criminal
activity remains constant.
iv.​ According to the theory, alterations in the surrounding circumstances would
not change the intensity of the motivation, and only factors influencing the
offender’s capacity would determine the likelihood of his/her committing the
crime

j)​ Absence of Guardianship

i.​ Capable guardians could be individuals or objects that effectively deter
criminal conduct via their simple presence in time and space.
ii.​ This type of either informal or formal guardianship can prevent wrongdoing
even when a suitable target has been chosen by a motivated offender.
iii.​ For instance, the presence of a police officer close by could make a potential
criminal increasingly reluctant to launch an assault.
iv.​ Alternatively, ordinary citizens may form community watch associations and
patrol the neighborhood to ensure its safety.
v.​ Nonhuman objects capable of providing guardianship may include security
cameras, burglar alarms, fences and walls.
vi.​ The variety of possible guardians implies that neighborhood planning and
urban layout can play a potent role in reducing crime

3.​ Crime Pattern Theory

a)​ Crime pattern theory is a way of explaining why people commit crimes in certain
areas.
b)​ Crime is not random, it is either planned or opportunistic.
c)​ According to the theory, crime happens when the activity space of a victim or target
intersects with the activity space of an offender.
d)​ A person's activity space consists of locations in everyday life, for example home,
work, school, shopping areas, entertainment areas etc. These personal locations are
also called nodes.
e)​ The course or route a person takes to and from these nodes are called personal
paths. Personal paths connect with various nodes creating a perimeter. This
perimeter is a person's awareness space.
f)​ Crime pattern theory claims that a crime involving an offender and a victim or target
can only occur when the activity spaces of both cross paths.
g)​ Simply put crime will occur if an area provides the opportunity for crime and it exists
within an offender's awareness space.
 37

h)​ Consequently, an area that provides shopping, recreation and restaurants such as a
shopping mall has a higher rate of crime.
i)​ It is highly probable that an area like this will have a lot of car theft because of all the
traffic in and out of the area.
j)​ It is also probable that people may fall victim to purse snatching or pick pocketing
because victims typically carry cash with them.
k)​ Criminals come across new opportunities for crime every day.
l)​ These opportunities arise as they go to and from personal nodes using personal
paths.
m)​ For example, a victim could enter an offender's awareness space by way of a liquor
store parking lot or a new shopping center being built. If the shopping center is being
built in an area where crime occurs a couple of miles away, chances are it will exist in
some if not all offender's awareness space.
n)​ This theory aids law enforcement in figuring out why crime exists in certain areas.
o)​ It also helps predict where certain crimes may occur.
p)​ Pattern theory is important to environmental criminology because it aids in our
understanding of the importance of place in crime prevention efforts.
q)​ This theory combines “rational choice and routine activity theory to help explain the
distribution of crime across places”.
r)​ It also combines elements of geometric theory, as it is concerned with the built
environment and how it shapes the geographic distribution of crime.
s)​ According to Brantingham and Brantingham, pattern theory examines the ways
targets come to the attention of offenders and how this influences the distribution of
crime events over time and space.
t)​ For example, if you are given a high-crime location, a pattern theorist would look at
how an offender (1) established and then (2) gained access to the particular place
where the crime was committed. The difference here with just using routine activity
theory is that we would instead focus on the behaviours of the targets, the potential
absence of a capable guardian, etc. Places are of interest to a pattern theorist
because of their location and relationship to the environment. On the other hand, for
a routine activity theorist, the types of people present and absent from the location
are the reason that places are impactful and important within the crime event
equation.
u)​ Pattern theory explains spatial and temporal patterns in crime.
v)​ This is because the location of the potential criminal activity could be higher during
the day and lower during the night or vice versa depending on the type of crime.
w)​ Domestic assault, for example, may be lower during the day when family
members/friends are in different locations and higher at night when they are all
together. Some households are vacant during the day (e.g., work or school-related),
whereas businesses/facilities are often vacant at night. In this case, offenders are
more likely to commit a crime at those locations when targets (i.e., buildings) are
vulnerable.

4.​ Broken Windows Theory or Paradigm or Hypothesis

a)​ In the late 1960s the social psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted a set of
experiments. When a car with its licence plates removed was left abandoned in a
poor and rundown area of the Bronx it was rapidly and efficiently stripped and
vandalised. A similar car left abandoned in a more affluent suburb in Palo Alto,
 38

however, was left untouched. Until, that is, Zimbardo smashed the car with a
sledgehammer, after which the car was rapidly vandalised.
b)​ The conclusion to be drawn from this experiment is that when there are cues that
indicate that deviance is acceptable or normative then restraints on further deviant or
antisocial behaviour are removed.
c)​ The broken windows theory, defined in 1982 by social scientists James Wilson and
George Kelling, drawing on earlier research by Stanford University psychologist
Philip Zimbardo, argues that no matter how rich or poor a neighborhood, one broken
window would soon lead to many more windows being broken: “One unrepaired
broken window is a signal that no one cares, and so breaking more windows costs
nothing.”
d)​ Disorder increases levels of fear among citizens, which leads them to withdraw from
the community and decrease participation in informal social control.
e)​ The broken windows theory states that visible signs of disorder and misbehavior in
an environment encourage further disorder and misbehavior, leading to serious
crimes.

UNIT 2 - PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR

 39

CH. 1 - PSYCHOPATH

●​ Introduction to Psychopathy
1.​ Psychopathy can be conceptualised as a personality disorder characterised by a
core set of affective, interpersonal, and behavioural features.
2.​ According to Hare, on the interpersonal level, psychopaths are grandiose, arrogant,
callous, dominant, superficial, and manipulative. Affectively, they are short-tempered,
unable to form strong emotional bonds with others, and lacking empathy, guilt or
remorse. These interpersonal and affective features are associated with a socially
deviant lifestyle that includes irresponsible and impulsive behaviour, and a tendency
to ignore or violate social conventions and mores.
3.​ The word “psychopathy” was first used in the late 1800s to refer to people with some
mental health conditions.
4.​ The term comes from two Greek words that combined mean “suffering soul.
5.​ According to Psychology Today, psychopathy is a condition characterized by the
absence of empathy and the blunting of other affective states.
6.​ The term "psychopath" is used to describe someone who is callous, unemotional,
and morally depraved.
7.​ The most widely employed current approach to assessing psychopathy is the Hare
Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL-R).
8.​ This twenty item measure is employed by trained observers (typically clinicians) who
rate the individual on each item based on information derived from semi-structured
interviews with the individual and key informants (e.g. family members, co-workers),
along with available file evidence.
9.​ Psychopathy is typically viewed as a personality disorder, although it does not (as
yet) feature in the DSM.
10.​The closest diagnosis listed in the DSM-IV-TR is antisocial personality disorder
(APD).
11.​However, despite some similarities, APD focuses more on antisocial behaviour and
omits some of the core affective and interpersonal features of psychopathy such as
shallow affect, arrogance and a lack of empathy.
12.​Most research has been conducted with samples of offenders, so reliable information
about the prevalence of psychopathy in the wider population is not currently.
13.​However, it is roughly estimated that less than 1 percent of males (and even fewer
females) in the population would be classified as psychopaths.
14.​In contrast, the prevalence of APD in the community is estimated to be approximately
4.5 per cent for men and 0.8 per cent for women.
15.​There is a moderate-to-strong association between psychopathy and offending.

16.​In general, research suggests that individuals who meet the cut-off point for
psychopathy -
a)​ Have higher rates of criminal recidivism
b)​ Start their criminal careers at an earlier age
c)​ Commit more offences
d)​ Have higher rates of violent offending
e)​ Have higher rates of sexual offending (especially among offenders who victimise
adults and children)
 40

f)​ May engage in more sadistic violent and sexual offending

g)​ Are at an elevated risk for committing sexual homicide.

17.​Because most research has been conducted on offender samples, it is difficult to

evaluate how many individuals who meet the criteria for psychopathy do not engage
in serious offending. Therefore, despite the robust relationship between psychopathy
and offending, it is important to keep in mind that psychopathy does not equate with
criminality
18.​Rather, psychopathy is an underlying personality disorder that has core
characteristics that make offending more likely, but not inevitable.
19.​The difference between ASPD and Psychopathy is as follows -

Psychopathy ASPD

Psychopathy is a personality trait. ASPD is a personality disorder.

It is not a formal diagnosis. It is a formal diagnosis.

Psychopaths are much more subtle and People with ASPD have a history of
may be able to blend in with society and impulsive behavior and legal problems.
even hold down successful careers.

Psychopaths may be able to manipulate People with ASPD struggle with forming
others and maintain superficial relationships and maintaining employment.
relationships.

People with Psychopathy often do not While people with ASPD may not
experience any emotions, including anger, experience empathy, they may be able to
frustration, or empathy. experience emotions such as anger and
frustration.

Psychopathy is much more physical and ASPD mostly presents itself as insecurity or
can cause people to become violent and an obsessive trait.
have the desire to see other people suffer.

Psychopaths are cold, calculated, and Individuals w ASPD are impulsive, reactive,
emotionally detached. and prone to emotional outbursts.

Socially, they appear charming, intelligent, Socially, they are often aggressive,
and manipulative. irresponsible, and socially disruptive.

They are more likely to commit planned They are more likely to commit impulsive
crimes, avoiding detection. crimes, leaving evidence behind.

In interpersonal relationships, they are In interpersonal relationships, they struggle

superficially charming, and deceive people to maintain stable relationships due to
for personal gain. impulsivity and aggression.

They have low fear response, and do not They may experience some stress or fear.
feel anxiety or stress easily.

They are very resistant to treatment, as They can sometimes improve with therapy
they see no issue with their behavior. and structured environments.
 41

●​ Origins of Psychopathy
1.​ Theories of psychopathy have been largely dominated over the last couple of
decades by biological approaches.
2.​ One important early approach to understanding psychopathy was the low arousal
hypothesis.
3.​ According to this perspective, psychopaths are characterised by abnormally low
levels of physiological arousal.
4.​ In particular, they show deficits in the capacity to experience fear or anxiety.
5.​ It also means that such individuals are hard to socialise, because they do not
respond to punishment.
6.​ Low physiological arousal has also been hypothesised to be related to a proneness
to boredom and the need for stimulating experiences in order to bring arousal levels
up to optimum levels.
7.​ Consistent with low arousal theory, research suggests that psychopaths have a low
resting heart rate and low electrodermal activity (a physiological measure of arousal
to specific tasks).
8.​ Another important neurobiological model of psychopathy is the violence inhibition
model (VIM).
9.​ For most individuals, witnessing fear or distress in others is emotionally upsetting,
reflecting our capacity for empathy and perspective taking.
10.​According to VIM, it is this capacity that is impaired in individuals with psychopathy:
cues of distress and sadness in others are simply not recognised and hence they
tend to be ignored.
11.​At a neurobiological level, this deficit is hypothesised to reflect impaired amygdala
functioning.
12.​Ultimately, the failure to recognise and respond to distress in others inhibits normal
moral development and may facilitate the particularly ‘cold-blooded’ and sadistic
nature of violence perpetrated by some psychopaths.
13.​The available biological research on brain abnormalities in psychopathy tends to
provide some support for the VIM.
14.​Studies that have used imaging technology to assess brain function support the
contention that psychopaths tend to show impairments in both prefrontal areas and
the amygdala. A number of other brain abnormalities have also been identified, and it
is likely that psychopathy is characterised by multiple neurobiological deficits.
15.​HoweverPsy, some caution should be exercised in the interpretation of these
findings. Most imaging studies use small samples, co-occurring problems such as
alcohol and drug abuse are not always robustly controlled for, and there is often
variation in the way that psychopathy is assessed.

●​ Introduction to Sociopathy
1.​ According to Psychology Today, sociopathy refers to a pattern of antisocial behaviors
and attitudes, including manipulation, deceit, aggression, and a lack of empathy for
others.
2.​ Sociopathy is a non-diagnostic term, and it is not synonymous with "psychopathy,"
though the overlap leads to frequent confusion.
3.​ Sociopathy is sometimes also known as an outdated word for Antisocial Personality
Disorder (ASPD).
 42

4.​ The terms “sociopath” and “psychopath” are confusing because they are often used
interchangeably, but they are not synonyms.
5.​ However, there is a difference: Sociopaths are individuals whose callous, deceitful
behavior is shaped primarily by environmental factors, such as child abuse or
exposure to expedient behavior in others.
6.​ Psychopathy is inborn and immutable.
7.​ Psychopaths are more likely to commit acts of violence. Still, because both
conditions lie on a spectrum, it can be difficult to know which terms best apply.
8.​ Perhaps the most fundamental difference is the fact that sociopaths are able to form
an attachment to a particular individual or group, even if limited in number.
9.​ In contrast, psychopaths are unable to form or maintain genuine bonds.

CH. 2 - JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

 43

●​ Introduction
1.​ According to Bartol, juvenile delinquency is simply any behaviour that violates the
criminal law when perpetrated by individuals who have not yet reached the age of
adulthood, as specified in relevant national or state legislation.
2.​ Juvenile delinquency refers to the violation of law by a child.
3.​ According to the Indian Majority Act, the legal age for being an adult in India is 18
years old.
4.​ Juvenile delinquency is the participation by a minor between the ages of 10 and 17,
in illegal activities.
5.​ When an individual deviates from the course of a normal social life his behaviour is
called 'Delinquenct'.

6.​ Juvenile delinquency consists of two types of behaviours -

a)​ Status offence - Status offence includes drinking, smoking, playing truant, running
away from home etc. These children behave in such a way they are uncontrollable
and are generally treated by the juvenile justice system.
b)​ Delinquency offence - Delinquent offences include that are considered violent involve
murder, rape, armed robbery, aggravated and simple assaults, stalking, menacing,
vandalising etc.
c)​ The following table lists the risk factors for the development of juvenile delinquency -
Level Risk Factor

Individual Low intelligence and school failure

Low self-control or impulsiveness

Low empathy

Attention deficit/Hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD)

Conduct disorder

Family Antisocial parents

Parental conflict

Child abuse and neglect

Harsh or erratic parenting

Lack of parental monitoring and supervision

Social Low socioeconomic status

Association with delinquent peers

Poor school environment

Deprived neighbourhood or community

 44

●​ Causes and Conditions for Juvenile Delinquency

1.​ Economic and Social Factor - Poverty is a major problem that leads to delinquency.
Though there is no direct relationship between the two factors, invariably research
has indicated that high rates of delinquency are attributed to poverty and poor
welfare. Economic crises, political instability, and the weakening of major institutions
(including the State, systems of public education and public assistance, and the
family) are leading causes of delinquency.
2.​ Cultural Factors - Delinquent behaviour often occurs in social settings in which the
norms for acceptable behaviour have broken down. Under such circumstances many
of the common rules that deter people from committing socially unacceptable acts
may lose their relevance for some members of society. They respond to the
traumatizing and destructive changes in the social reality by engaging in rebellious,
deviant or even criminal activities. In both developed and developing countries,
consumer standards created by the media are considerably beyond the capacity of
most families to achieve. Nevertheless, these ideals become a virtual reality for many
young people, some of whom will go to great lengths to maintain a lifestyle they
cannot afford. Because not all population groups have access to the necessary
resources, including education, professional training, satisfactory employment and
income, health services, and adequate housing, there are those who are unable to
achieve their goals by legal means.
3.​ Urbanization - Geographical analysis suggests that countries with more urbanized
populations have higher registered crime rates than do those with strong rural
lifestyles and communities. This may be attributable to the differences in social
control and social cohesion.
4.​ Family - Studies show that children who receive adequate parental supervision are
less likely to engage in criminal activities. Dysfunctional family settings-characterized
by conflict, inadequate parental control, weak internal linkages and integration, and
premature autonomy are closely associated with juvenile delinquency. The absence
of fathers in many low-income families can lead boys to seek patterns of masculinity
in delinquent groups of peers. Adolescents from low-income families often feel
excluded. To raise their self-esteem and improve their status they may choose to join
a juvenile delinquent group. These groups provide equal opportunities to everyone,
favourably distinguishing themselves from school and family, where positions of
authority are occupied by adults. The "criminalization" of the family also has an
impact on the choice of delinquent trajectories.
5.​ Migration - It has also been observed that youngsters from the villages migrate to the
urban areas in search of employment and work that could earn them some money. It
is also noticed that they take up jobs that may not be fitting into their qualifications,
but far lesser than justified, but yet go on with it as it gets them some money. These
also cause frustrations and annoyance in them. Engaging in such jobs makes these
youngsters resort to violence and at times to activities that bring them into conflict
with the law.

6.​ Media - Many researchers have concluded that young people who watch violence
tend to behave more aggressively or violently, particularly when provoked. This is
mainly characteristic of 8-to 12-year-old boys, who are more vulnerable to such
influences. Media brings an individual to violence in the following three ways -
a)​ Movies - Movies that demonstrate violent acts excite spectators, and the
 45

aggressive energy can then be transferred to everyday life, pushing an

individual to engage in physical activity on the streets. This type of influence
is temporary, lasting from several hours to several days.
b)​ Television - It is impossible to find television shows that do not portray such
patterns of violence. As a result, children are continually exposed to the use
of violence in different situations and the number of violent acts on television
appears to be increasing.
c)​ Violence depicted in the media is unreal and has a surrealistic quality;
wounds bleed less, and the real pain and agony resulting from violent actions
are very rarely shown, so the consequences of violent behaviour often seem
negligible.

7.​ Exclusion - The exclusion of some people is gradually increasing with the
accumulation of obstacles, ruptured social ties, unemployment and identity crises.
The symbolic exclusion from society of juveniles who have committed even minor
offences has important implications for the development of delinquent careers.
Studies show that the act of labelling may lead to the self-adoption of a delinquent
image, which later results in delinquent activity.
8.​ Peer Influence - Quite often delinquent groups can counterbalance or compensate
for the imperfections of family and school. A number of studies have shown that
juvenile gang members consider their group a family. For adolescents constantly
facing violence, belonging to a gang can provide protection within the
neighbourhood. In some areas those who are not involved in gangs continually face
the threat of assault, oppression, harassment or extortion on the street or at school.
9.​ Delinquent Identities - Delinquent identity is quite complex and is, in fact, an overlay
of several identities linked to delinquency itself and to a person's ethnicity, race, class
and gender. Delinquent identity is always constructed as an alternative to the
conventional identity of the larger society. Violence and conflict are necessary
elements in the construction of group and delinquent identities. Other factors that
may provide motivation for joining a gang are the possibilities of economic and social
advancement. According to one opinion, urban youth gangs have a stabilizing effect
on communities characterized by a lack of economic and social opportunities.
10.​Substance abuse - It is not that substance abuse causes delinquency or persons
who are identified as delinquents use drugs and intoxicants and mind altering drugs
to get excited etc. At the same time, substance abuse as such is highly and positively
correlated with delinquency. In fact, those youngsters who take to drug abuse etc., do
suffer from many kinds of mental and physical health problems. All these eventually
lead to delinquency.
11.​Boredom - The youngsters often have too much energy and time on hand and could
find it boring and time hanging, and thus he/she may look for some excitement that
would satisfy his/her need for excitement and activities. When these are not
available, his/her tendency is to indulge in some exciting activity which may end up in
delinquency; that is doing something in conflict with the Law or doing something
wrong and not getting caught being kind of an adventure to such youngsters.
12.​Low education - Lack of education and lack of skills are a few of the leading reasons
for these youngsters not getting employment. Thus, as the frustration and
disappointment mount along with the loss of a support system due to leaving the
family cocoon in the village, make the youngster indulge in activities that are
 46

delinquent in nature.
13.​Violence - Here violence refers to the children and youth being subjected to violence
leading to psychological trauma. Such children and youngsters as they grow up
resort to violent behaviours and many other behaviours that bring them into conflict
with the law. Thus, children brought up in families and have been subjected to
violence and abuse, turn up as delinquent as they grow up.

●​ Delinquency Prevention
There may be two kinds of programmes for preventing the juvenile delinquency -
1.​ Individual Programme - Individual programme involves the prevention of delinquency
through counseling, psychotherapy and proper education.
2.​ Environmental programme - Environmental programme involves the employment of
techniques with a view to changing the socio-economic context likely to promote
delinquency.

1.​ Individual Programme

a)​ Clinical Programme - The object of this clinic is to provide aids through Psychiatrists,
Clinical Psychologists and Psychiatric Social workers to help the Juveniles
delinquents in understanding their personality problems.
b)​ Educational Programme - The impacts of educational institutions are very significant
in the countries where almost every child going to school and preventive
programmes can be launched in an effective manner through the schools. Teachers
should not discriminate among the students; they should be treated equally and
provided a moral education which is very helpful to the students for their life stand.
c)​ Parent education - Every community should ensure opportunities for parental
education, which will help make good homes, improve family relationships, and
education and care of children. Some educational programmes inform parents on
how to raise healthy children.
d)​ Recreational programmes - Recreation programs enable youths to mix up with other
adults and children in the community and develop friendship. It is believed that the
energies of youth can be very well channelized into pursuits like sport games and
other healthy activities, which would counteract delinquent among the participants.
e)​ Removal of inferiority complex - Inferiority complex, fear, apprehension may
sometimes lead the child to commit crime under wrong and misplaced
belief/impression of proving himself. Children deserve encouragement to become
confident and good spirited people. They should be able to face various good and
bad phases of life and their failures should not be criticized. Praise, cheer, sympathy
and love should be showered to banish inferiority complex.
f)​ Ending repeat offences - Once out of detention, youths face the challenge of
readjusting to "free" life. For many, youth detainment places a halt in a pattern of
destructive behavior. Once out of prison, the youth must create a pattern of life
separate from criminal activity. To assist in this process, courts have attempted to
implement helpful social services for former inmates and their families. Some of
these are job placement, school follow-up, extended counseling, and extended drug
rehab.

2.​ Environmental Programme

a)​ Community Programmes - The basic aim of community programmes is to reach the
 47

people in need of help instead of people approaching the workers and agencies.
Another significance of this programme is that the participation of the local
community is considered to be more important and the role of professional leadership
is sought to be kept at the minimum level.
b)​ Publicity - The newspapers, magazines, radio, television and motion pictures etc.
should show the juvenile delinquency in proper perspective honestly and should also
present real reports about the various wrong done by the juveniles and analyze its
true causes and also protect the juvenile against false and misleading reporting. The
actual position should be presented and produced before the society about their
delinquent behavior so that they may be properly assessed.
c)​ Parental love and affection - Child needs unconditional, immediate and true love,
care and protection of his mother and father. On account of deprivation of such love
and care the child may develop frustration and dissatisfaction leading to crime. So
parental love, care and protection is very necessary for the child to prevent him from
committing or doing the crime.
d)​ Family Environment - Family factors which may have an influence on offending
includes the level of parental supervision, the way parents discipline a child, parental
conflict or separation, criminal parents or siblings, and the quality of the parent-child
relationship. Many studies have found a strong correlation between a lack of
supervision and offending, and it appears to be the most important family influence
on offending.

CH. 3 - MENTALLY ILL OFFENDERS

 48

●​ Introduction
1.​ Schizophrenia is most commonly associated with mentally ill offenders.

●​ High Risk Mental Disorders for Criminal Behaviour

1.​ ASPD
2.​ Neurodevelopmental disorders like ADHD
3.​ Schizophrenia
4.​ Mania (Crimes like sexual assault and harrassment, high risk taking behaviour)
5.​ Depression (Suicide)
6.​ Anxiety
7.​ OCD
8.​ OCPD (Anal fixation, oedipus or electra complex
9.​ Paraphilias
10.​Trauma (Substance use disorder, hypervigilant, hyperarousal, sense of guilt)
11.​Delusional disorder (Delusions of grandiosity and persecution)
12.​Sleep wake disorders

●​ Pattern
1.​ Commit a crime under the influence of psychotic symptoms.
2.​ Commit a crime due to impulses or compulsions
3.​ Commit a crime under the influence of personality disorders like narcissistic
personality disorder or histrionic personality disorder. Playing the victim card.
Individuals with dependent personality disorder can do self harm or they always try to
impress.
4.​ Offenders with coincidental mental illness not related to the crime.
5.​ Offenders trying to pretend that they are mentally ill or they disassociate or they
become mentally ill. For example, depression after realisation of the crime.

CH. 4 - SERIAL KILLERS AND RAMPAGE KILLERS

 49

●​ Introduction
1.​ There are 3 general types of multiple murderers as follows -
a)​ Serial murderer - A serial murder is usually reserved for incidents in which an
individual (or individuals) kills two or more victims in separate events.
b)​ Spree murderer - Spree murder normally refers to the killing of three or more
individuals without any cooling-off period, usually at two or more locations. A bank
robber who kills some individuals within the bank, flees with hostages, and kills a
number of people while in flight during a statewide chase would be an example of a
spree murderer.
c)​ Mass murderer - Mass murder involves killing three or more persons at a single
location with no cooling-off period between murders.
i.​ Classic mase murderer - A classic mass murderer is someone who kills three
or more in a single location and event, without moving from place to place.
ii.​ Family mass murderer - A family mass murder is when at least three family
members are killed (usually by another family member).

2.​ This classification of murderers is not static because a genocide like the holocaust
cannot be classified into either of the categories.
3.​ Cooling off period is the time interval between consecutive murders, during which the
killer temporarily stops killing.

●​ Serial Murderers
1.​ According to the FBI (2005), a serial murder is usually reserved for incidents in which
an individual (or individuals) kills two or more victims in separate events.
2.​ The cooling off period may be days or weeks, but it is more likely months or years.
3.​ The murders are premeditated and planned, and the offender usually selects victims
with specific characteristics, such as young age, certain hair color, or occupation.
4.​ Many serial killers select victims that apparently are not missed or, if missed, they are
given up as runaways or adults who have left of their own volition.
5.​ An examination of the victim selection of known serial murderers will reveal that
killers prefer the group of people offering easy access, transience, and a tendency to
disappear without seeming to cause much alarm or concern.
6.​ Victims are often prostitutes, runaways, young male drifters, and itinerant farm
workers.
7.​ Young women in or near a university or college campus or the elderly and solitary
poor appear to be the groups next preferred.
8.​ The strongest determining factor in victim selection for both groups—the factor that
victims seem to have in common—is their vulnerability or easy availability.
9.​ Serial murderers rarely break in and kill middle-class strangers in their homes.
10.​It should be pointed out, however, that although serial killers begin their murderous
careers by selecting highly vulnerable victims, they may, as their killings continue,
gain substantially more confidence in their ability to abduct more “challenging”
victims.
11.​Antisocial personality disorder is most commonly associated with serial murderers.

●​ Mass Murderers
1.​ Mass murder involves killing four or more persons at a single location with no
 50

cooling-off period between murders.

2.​ Mass murderers are also known as rampage murderers.
3.​ There are various kinds of mass murder, including those sponsored by some
governmental authority, such as genocide designed to exterminate large groups of
people, often on the basis of religion or ethnicity.
4.​ Another type is mass murder by terrorists, such as occurred in New York City on
September 11, 2001.
5.​ Investigators have traditionally identified two types of mass murder by individuals:
classic and family.
6.​ An example of a classic mass murder is when an individual barricades himself or
herself inside—or walks into—a public building, such as a fast-food restaurant,
randomly killing the patrons and any other individual he or she has contact with. In
these instances, the shooters entered buildings or classrooms claiming most victims
at random and sometimes killing themselves.
7.​ A family mass murder is when at least three family members are killed (usually by
another family member).
8.​ Very often, the perpetrator kills himself or herself, an incident that is classified as a
mass murder/suicide.
9.​ Mass murderers tend to be frustrated, angry people who feel helpless about their
lives.
10.​They are usually between the ages of 35–45, and they are convinced there is little
chance that things will get better for them.
11.​Their personal lives have been a failure by their standards, and they have often
suffered some tragic or serious loss, such as a loss of meaningful employment.
12.​Mass murders are usually carefully planned, sometimes over very long periods of
time.
13.​The targets selected by mass murderers are often—perhaps even most
often—deliberate. They are either symbolic of their discontent (such as their
workplace) or are hated or blamed for the perpetrator’s misfortunes.
14.​Mass murder happens quickly and unpredictably without warning—then the killing is
usually over.
15.​Mass murderers often take a very active interest in guns, especially semi-automatics
that maximize the number of deaths in a short period of time.
16.​Moreover, mass murderers usually plan to die at the scene, either by committing
suicide or by being shot down by law enforcement. There are of course exceptions.
17.​If arrested, they are almost invariably convicted.
18.​Also, mass murderers are often socially isolated and withdrawn people who are
without a strong social network of friends or support. Their isolation is probably due
to some combination of an active dislike of people and their inadequate interpersonal
and social skills.
19.​The mass murder is their chance to get even, to dominate others, to take control, to
call the shots, and to gain recognition.
20.​After studying both, a serial as well as a mass murderer, the following is a table
outlining the differences between a serial and a mass murderer -

Serial murderers Mass murderers

 51

Kills two or more victims in separate events. Kills three or more victims in a single event.

Different locations for each murder. Single location

A cooling off period may exist for days, No cooling off period.
weeks, months or even years.

Victims are chosen based on certain Victims are selected based on personal
characteristics like age, gender or hair grievances.
colour.

Target vulnerable individuals like Target individuals who represent their

prostitutes, runaways, students or the frustrations like a racial group or coworkers.
elderly.

May use strangulation, knives or guns. May use firearms like semi-automatics.

Stops voluntarily or gets caught. Commits suicide after the murder or waits
for the law enforcement to shoot them.

The motive can be for personal gratification, The motive can be for revenge, frustration,
thrill, power or enjoyment. personal grievances, desire for control or
recognition.

May exhibit psychopathy, lack of empathy, May exhibit frustration, aggression, social
desire for dominance, high intelligence and isolation and powerlessness.
manipulation.

Can appear normal in daily life and have Can appear socially isolated, withdrawn
relationships and employment and blend with poor interpersonal skills.
into the society.

●​ Difference Between Single Victim Murderers and Serial Murderers

1.​ There are notable differences in the choice of the victims of single victim murderers
and serial murderers and their method of committing the crimes.
2.​ For example, the victims of single-victim murderers are most often family, friends,
and acquaintances. Serial murderers most often kill strangers with no apparent
consensual relationship between the offender and the victim. The lack of a
relationship in serial murders makes identifying suspects especially difficult.
3.​ Serial offenders tend to prefer more hands on killing through strangulation or beating
with hands or feet, while single-victim offenders prefer guns.
4.​ Single offenders kill most often out of anger and lack of control stemming from
interpersonal conflict and provocation. Some, of course, kill in accordance with a
carefully thought-out plan, but this is believed to be the exceptional case. Serial
homicides, on the other hand, are often deliberate, premeditated, sexually predatory
in nature, and are not usually precipitated by interpersonal disagreements or
provocation.
5.​ Serial homicide offenders also exhibit more planning by moving the victim or body
from one location to another, by using restraints, and by disposing of the body in a
remote location. Single-victim offenders tend to be much less skillful in disposing of
the body.
 52

CH. 5 - SEX OFFENDERS

 53

●​ Adult Sex Offenders

1.​ Offenders who tend to offend against adults are typically referred to as adult sex
offenders or rapists (reflecting the fact that most of the crimes are directed against
women).
2.​ The most obvious characteristic of adult sex offenders is that the vast majority are
male.
3.​ The vast majority of all sexual assaults and other forms of sexual offending that
involve adult victims are also perpetrated by men.
4.​ They are more likely to come from a low socioeconomic background, be
unemployed, and be less educated.
5.​ They are also likely to engage in a wide variety of different types of offence and have
convictions for both sexual and non-sexual offences.
6.​ Adult sex offenders are also more likely to be characterised by adverse
developmental experiences that often involve a history of sexual abuse and exposure
to violence.

●​ Child Sex Offenders

1.​ Individuals who tend to offend against children are variously referred to in the
literature as child sex offenders, child molesters, and paedophiles.
2.​ Child sex offenders, like those that offend against adults, are most likely to be men.
3.​ Generally speaking, compared to adult sex offenders, child sex offenders tend to be
older and better educated with a less extensive and versatile criminal history.
4.​ Furthermore, although both adult and child sex offenders are more likely to have a
history of childhood sexual abuse compared to other types of offender, child sex
offenders are more likely to have experienced sexual abuse than adult sex offenders.
54