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OPEN Promising photocatalytic

and antimicrobial activity of novel
capsaicin coated cobalt ferrite
nanocatalyst
1,2* 2*
Ahmed M. El‑Khawaga , Mohamed A. Elsayed , Yosri A. Fahim 1 &
Rasha E. Shalaby 1,3
In this study, ­CoFe2O4 nanoparticles were prepared by the co-precipitation method then surface
modified with Capsaicin (Capsicum annuum ssp.). The virgin ­CoFe2O4 NPs and Capsaicin-coated
­CoFe2O4 NPs (CPCF NPs) were characterized by XRD, FTIR, SEM, and TEM. The antimicrobial potential
and photocatalytic degradation efficiencies of the prepared samples via Fuchsine basic (FB) were
investigated. The results revealed that ­CoFe2O4 NPs have spherical shapes and their diameter varied
from 18.0 to 30.0 nm with an average particle size of 25.0 nm. Antimicrobial activity was tested
on Gram-positive (S. aureusATCC 52923) and Gram-negative (E. coli ATCC 52922) by disk diffusion
and broth dilution methods to determine the zone of inhibition (ZOI) and minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC), respectively. UV-assisted photocatalytic degradation of FB was examined.
Various parameters affecting the photocatalytic efficiency such as pH, initial concentration of FB,
and dose of nanocatalyst were studied. The in-vitro ZOI and MIC results verified that CPCF NPs were
more active upon Gram-Positive S. aureus ATCC 52923 (23.0 mm ZOI and 0.625 μg/ml MIC) than
Gram-Negative E. coli ATCC 52922 (17.0 mm ZOI and 1.250 μg/ml MIC). Results obtained from the
photocatalytic activity indicated that the maximum FB removal achieving 94.6% in equilibrium was
observed using 20.0 mg of CPCF NPS at pH 9.0. The synthesized CPCF NPs were effective in the
removal of FB and also as potent antimicrobial agent against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria with potential medical and environmental applications.

Nanotechnology, specifically objects smaller than 100 nm, is the science and technology of precisely changing
the molecular structure of matter. The last ten years have seen significant advancements in catalysis known as
"nanocatalysis" and the emergence of a new technological revolution. A popular area of research is nanocatalysis,
which involves using nanoparticles as catalysts in a number of catalysis p ­ rocesses1. Due to the fact that when a
material’s size is reduced to the nanoscale, the surface area is greatly increased and the substance can be evenly
disseminated in solution to produce a homogenous emulsion, nanocatalysts are an appealing replacement for
conventional ­catalysts2. By adjusting the chemical and physical characteristics of nanocatalysts, such as their
size, shape, composition, and morphology, one can significantly boost their catalytic activity, selectivity, and
­stability3. Researchers have received a great attention to the removing of cationic dyes from water because
of the harmful effects they might cause in ­ecosystems4. The presence of these contaminants in water sources
decreases the quality of the water. The global water situation is deteriorating on every country. Wastewater
treatment appears to be an appropriate solution for this ­issue5. As a result, nanocatalysts play an important role
in photocatalytic degradation of dyes, but isolation and recovering them from the reaction media is typically a
difficult, time-consuming, and expensive process due to their extremely small ­size6. Magnetic nanocatalysts can
be quickly extracted from the reaction medium using an external magnet, without a need for more filtration,
centrifugation, or other time-consuming m ­ ethods7. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have a number of superior
properties, including high surface area to bulk ratios, low toxicity, high activity, thermal stability, surface modi-
fication, and ­dispersibility7–10. As a result, they are more appropriate catalysts or supports and more sustainable

1
Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Galala University, Galala City 43511, Suez,
Egypt. 2Chemical Engineering Department, Military Technical College (MTC), Egyptian Armed Forces, Cairo,
Egypt. 3Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt. *email:
[Link]@[Link]; aboelfotoh@[Link]

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than ordinary s­ amples11. Due to their strong anisotropy, high coercivity, moderate saturation magnetization,
good mechanical and excellent chemical stabilities at higher temperature, which are significantly different from
their bulk counterparts, Cobalt ferrite nanoparticles (­ CoFe2O4 NPs) have drawn significant attention among
these magnetic ­nanoparticles12,13. Cobalt ferrites are employed often in sensors, recording devices, magnetic
cards, solar cells, magnetic drug delivery, healthcare, catalysis, and biotechnology because of these p ­ roperties14.
­CoFe2O4 nanoparticles have been synthesized using a variety of preparation methods, including ­microemulsion15,
sol–gel ­techniques16, hydrothermal s­ ynthesis17, solvothermal m ­ ethod18, co-precipitation19 and green synthesis
method by using Plant extract, Bacteria, Fungi and algea as biological agents for generation of n ­ anomaterials20.
Co-precipitation technique is one of these techniques, and it is simple and inexpensive to use to make cobalt
ferrite nanoparticles. Co-precipitation has a variety of advantages including being rapid, simple, versatile, and
­inexpensive21. Unfortunately, because of their high surface energy and strong magnetic dipole interactions, cobalt
ferrites are extremely susceptible to a­ gglomeration22. The best way to date has been found to be the modification
of ferrite nanoparticles using appropriate stabilising coating m ­ aterials23. Use of plant extracts for the synthesis
and coating of nanoparticles has many advantages, such as being cost-effective, eco-friendly, and also taking
place of the process in one setup; also, nanoparticles act as carrier in the transfer of materials into c­ ells24. Medici-
nal plants have therapeutic properties due to the presence of various complex chemical substances of different
compositions, which are found as plant metabolites in certain parts of the ­plants25. Capsaicin, a potent alkaloid,
has the ability to stabilise the surface of cobalt ferrite.
The structure of the capsaicin molecule can be divided into three distinct regions, [A] as a vanillyl group,
[B] as an amide bond, and [C] as a fatty acid chain (Fig. 1)26. Table 1 shows the chemical formula and proper-
ties of ­Capsaicin27,28. In addition to its many physiological and pharmacological advantages (pain relief, cancer
prevention, favourable cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal effects), capsaicin has most recently drawn a lot of
interest due to its antibacterial and anti-virulence potential. A bactericidal activity has been demonstrated against
Helicobacter pylori, and Pseudomonas a­ eruginosa27.
Finally, this paper presents an investigation of Capsaicin—coated C ­ oFe2O4 (CPCF NPs) synthesis in nanomet-
ric sizes by co-precipitation method and the evaluation of the antimicrobial activity and photocatalytic potential
of these structures for the degradation of Fuchsine basic (FB).

Materials and methods

Materials. Ferric nitrate Fe ­(NO3)3·6H2O), Cobalt nitrate (Co ­(NO3)2· 4 ­H2O), Sodium hydroxide, and etha-
nol 96% (v/v) were obtained from (Merck, India). All the chemicals were reagent grade and used without further
purification. Water used throughout the experiment was ultrapure milli-Q water.

Capsaicin extraction from hot pepper (Capsicum annuum ssp). Several organic solvents can be
to extract capsaicin from hot peppers, but only ethanol is appropriate for producing pharmaceutical-grade
­material29,30. The dried and crushed Capsicum annuum ssp. was kept in desiccators and used for obtaining the
­capsaicin31. Extraction was performed using (0.1–0.5 g of powdered plant material was taken for extraction)

Figure 1.  Chemical structure of capsaicin.

Properties
Chemical formula C18H27NO3
Molar mass 305.418 g ­mol−1
Appearance Crystalline white powder
Odor Highly volatile and pungent
Melting point 62–65 °C (144–149 °F; 335–338 K)
Boiling point 210–220 °C (410–428 °F; 483–493 K) 0.01 Torr
Solubility in water 0.0013 g/100 mL
Vapor pressure 1.32 × ­10−8 mm Hg at 25 °C
UV–Vis (λmax) 280 nm

Table 1.  The chemical formula and properties of the Capsaicin molecule.

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with 96% (v/v) ethanol, in a water bath at 40 °C for 5 h. Then, water vacuum filtration for obtaining an ethanol
extract of ­capsaicin31.

Synthesis of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles. Cobalt ferrite nanoparticles (CF NPs) are synthesized via
coprecipitation method as reported previously by Vinosha et al.32. Initially, Cobalt nitrate (0.1 M) and ferric
Nitrate (0.2 M) were dissolved separately in 100 mL of distilled water and stirred to obtain a clear solution. Then
sodium hydroxide (1 M) was added dropwise to achieve pH 9 under continuous stirring. The obtained precipi-
tate was stirred at 80 °C for 3 h. As a result, the brown precipitate was washed thrice with double distilled water
and twice with ethanol. The obtained product was dried at 80 °C for 24 h in an oven to obtain the final product
of ­CoFe2O4 ­nanoparticles33. The sample thus obtained was characterized. Figure 2 illusterate The schematic rep-
resentation of the capsaicin coated Cobalt ferrite magnetic nanoparticles preparation.

Preparation of capsaicin coated cobalt ferrite (CPCF) magnetic nanoparticles. Capsaicin coated
with cobalt ferrite nanoparticles was synthesized by adding an ethanolic capsaicin solution to CF NPs. Firstly,
10 mg of capsaicin was added to ethanolic solution (1 ml of 95% ethanol) then mixed with 100 mg of CF NPs.
The resulting ethanolic mixture was agitated and finnaly placed in a rotatory evaporator until all of the ethanol
had ­evaporated34.

Characterization methods. The surface functionality of the synthesized nanoparticles were confirmed
by FTIR spectra (JASCO FT-IR 3600 Infra-Red spectrometer). All samples were prepared in KBr in the range
of 400–4000 ­cm−1. The phase analysis of the synthesized nano-powder was performed on an X’pert Pro Phillips
X-ray diffractometer. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM, JEOL 3010, Japan) operated
at 300 kV was used to examine the size and morphology of synthesised nanoparticles. The surface structure
of the synthesized magnetic nanoparticles were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) ZEISS,
EVO-MA10, Germany. The coating of C ­ oFe2O4 NPs with Capsaicin was determined using UV–Vis spectroscopy
on an Agilent Cary 60 UV–Vis. spectrophotometer.

Antimicrobial activity and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). The synthesized (CPCF)
nanocomposite, ­CoFe2O4 NPs (20.0 μg/ml) were evaluated for their antimicrobial activity by agar-disc distri-

Figure 2.  The systematic representation of the preparation of (CPCF) NPs.

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bution ­method35, towards Bacterial strains from American Type Culture Collections (ATCC) strains, namely,
Gram-negative (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922) and Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923) bacterial
strains. Conventional antibiotic discs (E) Erythromycin; 20 μg/ml; 6.0 mm diameter), was chosen to determine
the performance of the tested magnetic nanocomposite. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of the
tested samples which have the highest antimicrobial activity was determined by The serial dilutions method of
Luria–Bertani (LB) m­ edium36. For these determinations, The synthesized (CPCF) nanocomposite, and C ­ oFe2O4
NPs (beginning with concentration = 20.0 μg/ml) were applied. The medium broth act as a negative control and
the medium broth inoculated with the examined microbes act as a positive control such. MIC was determined
next 24 h. of incubation at 36.0 ± 1.0 °C37. The resultss are statistically treated by using ONE WAY ANOVA,
Duncan’s multiple series, and the least significant difference (LSD) that are determined by specific software
(SPSS version 15)38.

Photocatalytic degradation of fuchsine basic (FB) using nanocomposite. The CPCF nanocom-
posite (10 mg) obtained as in Section "Preparation of capsaicin coated cobalt ferrite (CPCF) magnetic nanopar-
­ 0 = 10 mg ­l−1, under constant
ticles" was added to 50 ml of an aqueous solution of FB with initial concentration C
stirring at ambient temperature (25 °C) for 30 min in the dark, until adsorption–desorption equilibrium was
attained between FB and the prepared photocatalyst (nanocomposite). After that, a UV lamp was used as a
source of UV light to irradiate the solution containing the nanocatalyst and FB. At constant time intervals of
irradiation, 1 ml of sample was draw outusing a syringe equipped with a filter (2.5 mm pore size). The FB deg-
radation rate was calculated by determining the variation in FB concentration versus irradiation time using a
UV–vis spectrophotometer (Agilent Technologies Cary 60 UV–vis) at λmax = 546 nm. DI water was used as a
reference ­blank39. The percentage degradation was calculated using the following f­ ormula40:
% Degradation = (C0 − Ct )/C0 × 100 (1)

Results and discussion

Characterization of the prepared ­CoFe2O4 NPs and CPCF NPs. The ­CoFe2O4 NPs were prepared
by a chemical co-precipitation method with minor ­modifications32,33,41. The reaction was carried out as in the
equations below:

2Fe3+ + Co2+ → Fe2 Co (OH)8 (2)

Fe2 Co (OH)8 → CoFe2 O4 + 4H2 O (3)

FTIR spectra analysis. FTIR analysis was used to confirm the functional groups on the surface of the synthe-
sized Magnetic NPs. The spectra of pure Co ­Fe2O4 NPs and CPCF NPs were represented in Fig. 3. The stretching
vibration mode associated with the Fe–O bond in the crystalline lattice of C ­ oFe2O4 NPs was attributed to the
presence of strong peaks of ­CoFe2O4 NPs and CPCF NPs at 658 ­cm−1. Furthermore, the band at 515 ­cm−1 was
­ anoparticles42. The IR spectra for the (CPCF) nanocomposite
attributed to the metal oxide bond (Co–O) in the n
show peak at 3485 ­cm which is attributed to the O–H stretching vibrations while at 2935 ­cm−1 is attributed
−1

to the symmetric C–H stretching vibrations. The peaks at 1045 ­cm−1may are attributed to C–O–C stretching of
ether. The peaks at 1633 and 1639 ­cm−1 may be attributed to (C=O) stretching vibrations. Also, the presence of
peaks between (1437–1540 ­cm−1) may be due to (C–C) stretching vibration in the aromatic ­rings43.

Figure 3.  FTIR Spectrum of (a) Co Ferrite NPs (b) Capsaicin coated Co ferrite (CFCP) NPs.

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Figure 4.  XRD pattern of capsaicin coated Co ferrite nanopowder.

XRD analysis. The XRD analysis of Capsaicin coated Co Ferrite (CPCF) nanopowder which was treated
and annealed up to 150 °C for 24 h was presented in (Fig. 4). The obseved diffraction peaks of synthesized
­CoFe2O4 NPs were matched well with the diffraction standard (JCPDS 22-1086), and give persuasive evidence
for the generation of the cubic spinel structure of cobalt ferrite Nanoparticles. The observed diffraction peaks at
2θ = 30.0°, 35.9°, 37.2, 44.0°, 54.0°, 57.0° and 63.0° were corresponded to (220), (311), (222), (400), (422), (511),
and (440) planes of cubic spinel structure of ­CoFe2O4 NPs respectively. The average crystal size was reported to
be 18.35 nm, and the lattice parameter was determined to be 8.439 A. The XRD pattern indicates that the syn-
thesized sample is in the nanoscale range. In addition, the diffraction peaks at 20.25 o and 28.0° corresponded
to ­Capsaicin44, confirming the loading of capsaicin with the synthesized ­CoFe2O4 NPs. The crystallite size of the
synthesized NPs was caculated using Scherrer’s ­Equation45:
D = 0.9/β cos θ (4)
where, D is the crystallite size, λ is the X-ray wavelength used, β is the full width at half maximum (FWHM)
and θ is the diffraction angle. The crystallite size was found to be 18.35 nm at the strongest peak at (311) plane.
Particle size is a crucial factor affecting the performance of nano-photocatalytic materials. The size and shape
­ erformance46. CPCF nano-
of the catalyst influence its surface structure and then resulting in various catalytic p
particles have a large surface area and a broadened band gap, furthermore, they contain more active sites and
display improved photocatalytic activity.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. SEM images of mag-
netic uncoated- C­ oFe2O4 NPs and Capsaicin coated C ­ oFe2O4 (CPCF) NPs are shown in Fig. 5A,B. As indi-
cated in (Fig. 5A), the synthesized ­CoFe2O4 NPs are spherical in shape, uniformly-aggregated and the grain size
ranged between 15 and 25 nm. Also, the SEM Image of the Capsaicin coated ­CoFe2O4 (CPCF) NPs (Fig. 5A),
showed that the coated nanoparticles are also spherical in shape and ranged between 25 and 35 nm.

Figure 5.  SEM images of (A) Nacked Co Ferrite NPs, (B) Capsaicin coated ­CoFe2O4 (CPCF) NPs.

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Figure 6.  TEM images of (A) Nacked ­CoFe2O4 NPs, (B) Capsaicin coated ­CoFe2O4 (CPCF) NPs and (C)
HRTEM image of CPCF nanocomposite with d spacing value = 0.253 nm.

These findings may serve as indirect evidence that the (capsaicin) shells are roughly 10 nm thick and the
magnetic core/shell particles are single crystals with an mean diameter of 30 nm. According to the results, the
(Capsaicin) layer is consistently loaded on C­ oFe2O4 NPs., as indicated in (Fig. 5B).
TEM Images show the Shape and average particle size determination of the prepared NPs (Fig. 6A–C). The
particle size and shape of naked Co F­ e2O4NPs(Fig. 6A) and CPCF NPs (Fig. 6B) show that the all synthesized NPs
shape are spherical and the mean particle size is found to be approximately 18.0 nm. Also, the capsaicin loaded
on Co F ­ e2O4NPs can inhibit particle aggregation without signeficant change in particle size. The lattice fringes
of as-prepared CPCF NPs can be seen obviously in Fig. 6C, the adjacent fringe spacing is about 0.253 nm, cor-
­ e2O4NPs47,48. it can be seen the particles are nano sized and revealed
responding to the (311) lattice planes of Co F
it is in cubic shape and the average particle size of 18 nm which is agree well with the XRD result.

UV–Visible absorption, band gap and photoluminescence (PL) analysis for synthesized CPCF nanocompos-
ite. Optical properties of prepared CPCF nanocomposite was analyzed in the range of 200–800 nm. Optical
absorption was used to evaluate the energy gap of the nanostructures shown in Fig. 7a. As can be seen from
Fig. 7a, the nanocomposite has low absorbance in the visible regions and high absorbance in the ultraviolet
­region49. the UV absorption band is observed in the region 330–500 nm, which originates primarily from the
absorption and scattering of light by the CPCF nanocomposite. The band gap energy was determined from
the absorption spectra using Tauc r­ elation50, as shown in the inset of Fig. 7a, and found to be around 2.9 eV. It
should be mentioned here that with higher band gap energy, the recombination rate of electrons and hole pairs
are retarded, and photocatalytic properties are ­enhanced51.
Figure 7b shows the photoluminescence (PL) spectra of CPCF nanocomposite taken at an excitation wave-
length of 365 nm, The photoluminescence spectrum shows two major peaks, one at 698 nm assigned to the
bandgap ­excitons52 and the other at ~ 780 nm attributed to the surface-related emission (or more delicately, both
surface and interface)53.

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Figure 7.  UV–Visible spectrum and band gap analysis (a), and Photoluminescence (PL) analysis (b) for
synthesized CPCF nanocomposite.

Figure 8.  Antimicrobial activity of ­CoFe2O4 NPs, Free Capsaicin, and CPCF nanocomposite measured as ZOI
(mm) against (A) S. aureus ATCC 52923, (B) E. coli ATCC 52922.

Antimicrobial activity of the synthesized CPCF nanocomposite. It is observed from the disc agar
distribution method that, the synthesized ­CoFe2O4 and Capsaicin represented a qualitative antimicrobial poten-
tial toward the tested bacteria. According to the in-vitro ZOI result, The synthesised CPCF nanocomposite dem-
onstrated its encouraged antibacterial activity against S. aureus (23.5 mm ZOI; Fig. 8A), and E. coli (17.0 mm
ZOI; Fig. 8B) as listed in Table 2. It is worth noting that the antibacterial activity of CPCF nanocomposite was
significantly higher than C­ oFe2O4 NPs, Free Capsaicin, and standard antibacterial agents (Erythromycin; E),

ZOI of ­CoFe2O4 ZOI of capsaicin ZOI of CPCF (10.0 µg/ MIC of CPCF NPs (µg/
Pathogenic bacteria (10.0 µg/ml) (mm) (10.0 µg/ml) (mm) ml) (mm) ml) E
S. aureus 7.5 12.3 23.5 0.625 17.4
E. coli 9.7 10.0 17.0 1.250 11.6

Table 2.  Antimicrobial activities of ­CoFe2O4 NPs, Free capsaicin, and CPCF nanocomposite against gram-
positive and gram-negative bacteria measured as ZOI (mm) and MIC (µg/ml).

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which suggested the possibility of a positive synergy between Capsaicin and ­CoFe2O4 NPs. It’s significant to
suppose that the CPCF nanocomposite was more active against Gram-positive bacteria than Gram-negative
bacteria. Unlike Gram-positive bacteria, which combine highly compact peptidoglycan forms, Gram-negative
­ eptidoglycan54.
bacteria’s cell walls are made up of layers of lipid, lipopolysaccharide, and p
The MIC results of CPCF Nanocomposite against S. aureus and E. coli were 0.625 and 1.250 µg/ml respectively
as mentioned in Table 2.

Mechanism of antimicrobial activity of the synthesized CPCF nanocomposite. The proposed

antibacterial mechanism is depicted schematically in Fig. 9. First, the CPCF nanocomposites wrap around and
adhere to the microbial cells’ outer surface, rupturing their membranes and altering their transport ­capacity55.
Then, all internal components, including plasmid, DNA, and other crucial organelles, are divided by the disper-
sion of the capsaicin-coated cobalt ferrite nanoparticles inside the microbial cell. Ultimately, Cellular toxicity
ultimately results from the oxidative stress brought on by the production of ROS. Finally, nano-composite pre-
vent the transfer of ions to and from microbial ­cells56.

Photocatalytic degradation of fuchsine basic (FB) using magnetite NPs coated with capsai‑
cin. At the max wavelength of 546 nm, the FB removal was measured s­pectrophotometrically57. It can be
observed from Fig. 10a, as the UV irradiation time increased, it was found that the absorption peaks gradually
decreased as a result of photodegradation of FB by the CPCF photocatalyst. The dye degradation percentage
based on the intensity of pure FB dye at 546 nm before and after photocatalytic treatment with CPCF nanoparti-
cles was measured to be 76.8. These results indicate that the higher surface to volume ratio of CPCF nanoparticles
helps to accommodate a higher degree of dye molecular adsorption on their surface, and leads to degradation
upon UV light excitation. Figure 10b shows that the degradation of FB due to photolysis after 5 h was only 12.0%,
while the removal due to adsorption in the dark was around 7.0% after the same amount of time, as shown in
Fig. 10b. The photograph shown in the inset of Fig. 10a was taken right after the photocatalytic reaction after
90 min, and the larger difference in the color of the dye solution between before and after photocatalytic treat-
ment can be seen, which proved that CPCF nanomaterials are efficient photo-catalysts towards organic dyes.

Effect of pH on removal of FB. One of the most important aspects of photocatalysis research is its sensitiv-
ity to solution pH. The influence of starting FB solution pH values was evaluated for 90 min under specified
experimental conditions (10 mg of the prepared nanocomposite, 50 ml of 10 mg/L FB solution, Temp., = 25 °C).
FB removal activity with time at different solution pH (5.0, 7.0, and 9.0) is represented in Fig. 11. The highest
FB Removal % was recorded at pH 5.0. 0.01 g (CPCF NPs) was added to 50 mL to determine the point of zero
charges (PZC) of the CPCF nanocomposite (0.01 M NaCl solution). The pH of the solutions was adjusted to 2, 4,

Figure 9.  Schematic representation of the four main pathways underlying the antibacterial potential of CPCF
nanocomposites: (I) the CPCF nanocomposite adhere to and wrap the microbial cell surface, resulting in
the release of capsaisin, causing membrane damage and altered transport activity. (II) CPCF nanocomposite
penetrate the microbial cells and interact with cellular organelles and biomolecules (such as plasmid DNA,
ribosomes, chromosomal DNA, and mesosomes), affecting the respective cellular machinery. (III) CPCF
nanocomposite creates and increases ROS, leading to cell damage. (IV) CPCF nanocomposite modulate the
cellular signal system and causing cell death. (V) Finally, CFCP nanocomposite blocks the ion transport from
and to the microbial cells.

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Figure 10.  Absorbance reduction of FB with time due to: (a) photocatalysis (using CPCF), (b) % removal of
Photolysis (without CPCF), and Adsorption activity of CPCF (In Dark).

Figure 11.  Showing the variation of FB removal (%) with time at different solution pH (5.0, 7.0 and 9.0)
(10 mg g of CPCF in 50 ml of 10 mg/l FB at 25 °C).

6, 8, 10, and 12 using HCl or NaOH. For 48 h, the samples were agitated at 200 rpm. After magnetic separation,
the pH values of the solutions were determined (CPCF NPs).
The PZC value was calculated by plotting the final pH vs the initial pH. Figure 12 exhibits these findings.
According to Fig. 12, the PZC was found to be at pH 6.9 when there was no significant change between the final
and initial pH values. It indicates that when pH < PZC and pH > PZC, the surface charge of the photocatalyst
(CPCF NPs) is positive and negative, respectively. Furthermore, when the pH of the solution equals the pH of
the PZC, the surface charge of the photocatalyst is neutral, and the electrostatic interaction between the pho-
tocatalyst surface and ions (FB ions) is ­negligible58. As a result, the positive charge of FB is now attracted to the
negative charge on the surface of the CPCF NPs photocatalyst, which enhances the degradation of FB. At pH 5.0,
the degradation of FB dropped. This happens because the net surface charge of the CPCF NPs is positive at this
point and there are repulsive forces between the two positive charges of the FB and the CPCF nanocomposite.

Effect of initial FB concentration. Because the initial FB concentration is so vital in the removal process, the
influence of FB ionic strength was examined by altering the initial FB concentration while remaining the other
reaction conditions unchanged. Figure 13 illustrates the change in removal percentage as a function of contact
time for different initial FB concentrations (5.0, 10.0, and 15.0 mg/l). In accordance with the results, the degra-
dation efficiency is inversely proportional to the concentration of FB, which may be successfully removed in the
presence of the synthesized CPCF nanoccatalyst under UV light irradiation even at high initial concentrations.

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14
13
pH Final
pH Initial
12
11
10
9

pH Final
8
PZC=6.9
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
pH Initial

Figure 12.  Point of zero charges (PZC) of CPCF at different pH.

90
5.0 ppm
80 10.0 ppm
15.0 ppm
70
% Removal of FB

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min)

Figure 13.  The variation of percent removal as a function of contact time at different initial FB concentrations
(10, 20, and 30 mg/l) at pH 9.0 and 10.0 mg CPCF.

Effect of CPCF nanocatalyst dosage on photodegradation efficiency. For studying the effect of CPCF nanocatalyst
dosage on the removal behavior of FB under UV light, the amount of photocatalyst was altered from 5 to 20 mg
without any change in other parameters, as shown in Fig. 14. The results showed the photodegradation efficacy
was increased with increasing the CPCF photocatalyst amount. This direct proportional relationship might be
due to an increase in surface area of CPCF photocatalyst to volume ratio of FB ions in the reaction ­solution59.
Also, the particle size of a photocatalyst is one of the factors that determine the photon utilization efficiency.
Many reports have confirmed the significant effects of particle size on photocatalytic ­activity60,61. It is generally
considered that the grain size of a photocatalyst should be small; i.e., the specific surface area should be large. If
the grain size is small, the transport of photogenerated electrons (­ e−) and holes (­ h+) from the bulk to the surface
becomes ­easier62. Moreover, the surface charge transfer rate will be improved by an increase in the amount of
reactant adsorption. The photoabsorption properties of semiconductors also depend on the particle size in the
nanometer ­range63.
Based on XRD, TEM, and SEM analyses, it is found that the synthesized CPCF nanoparticles shapes are
spherical and the mean particle size is found to be approximately 18.0 nm. Accordingly, CPCF nanoparticles
have a large surface area and a broadened band gap, furthermore, they contain more active sites and display
improved photocatalytic activity.

Kinetic studies. The rate of FB degradation can be determined using the following equation:

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100
5.0 mg
90 10.0 mg
20.0 mg
80

70

% Removal of FB
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min)

Figure 14.  Effect of the photocatalyst dose on the Removal efficency of FB (50 ml FB solution (10 mg/l),
Temp. = 25 °C and pH 9).

Figure 15.  (a) Kinetics plots for linear fitting of data obtained from pseudo-first-order reaction model for FB
degradation under UV light irradiation and initial concentration 10 ppm of FB, 50 mL of 5, 10, and 15 mg of
catalyst dose and (b) Shows a relation of apparent pseudo-first-order rate constants vs. initial concentration of
FB.

−lnCt /CO = −Kt (5)

where, t is the removal time, k is the removal rate constant, and (Ct and C)o are the corresponding initial and
remaining concentrations of FB. Figure 15. represent a relation of (− ln Ct/Co ) vs. t
The results indicated that the kinetics of the removal process followed pseudo-first-order rate laws. Further-
more, as shown in Fig. 15b, an increase in catalyst dosage results in a decrease in the apparent pseudo-first-
order rate constants. This reliance on reaction rate constants on FB concentration is well with the presented
­literature64,65.

Mechanism of photocatalysis of FB. As mentioned in many studies of literature, the possible mechanism is as
­follows66,67. Changing the pH affects photodegradation methods such as hydroxyl radical attack, explicit oxi-
dation by positive holes in the valence band, and explicit reduction by electrons in the conduction band. It is
expected that photocatalytic degradation will occur in the presence of a CPCF photocatalyst because of the gen-
eration of electron–hole pairs on the surface of the used photocatalyst due to UV-irradiation. The holes’ oxida-
tive potential either interacts with the-OH groups to create hydroxyl radicals or oxidises the reactive FB to form
a degradation ­product57. The reactions of FB and the used photocatalyst are given below. (Eqs. 6–9).

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Figure 16.  The possible photocatalytic reaction mechanism for Fuchsine basic (FB) photodegradation via
CPCF nanocomposite.

CPCF NPs + hV → CPCF NPs e− (6)

 + 
CB + hVB

h+ (7)
+
 
VB + CPCF NPs → CPCF NPs Oxidation of the compound

or
.
h+ −
VB + OH → OH (8)

OH· + FB dye → Degradation products (9)

 

Figure 16 illustrates the suggested mechanism of interaction between the produced nanocomposite and FB.
The redox reactions will start once UV light has excited the CPCF NPs. The produced free radicals (such as ­OH·
and ­O2·−) will then decompose FB into minor organic compounds. Since there are currently no publications
concerning the degradation of FB that have been reported, more studies using gas chromatography-mass spec-
trometry (GC–MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) are needed to more clearly study the
degradation products of FB.

Conclusion
CoFe2O4 NPs have been synthesized by a chemical co-precipitation method and characterized by structural
and optical tools. The surface of C
­ oFe2O4 NPs was coated with capsaicin (CAPS) by a direct addition method
to obtain a modified CAPS-CoFe2O4 (CPCF) nanocomposite. The photocatalytic efficiency of the prepared
(CPCF) nanocomposite was tested against Fuchsine basic (FB). Also, various parameters affecting the efficiency
of removal potential such as (pH on degradation of FB, FB initial concentration, and photocatalyst dose) have
been studied. Based on XRD, TEM, and SEM analyses, it is found that C ­ oFe2O3 nanoparticles are located at the
core, while the CAPS are coated in this core, producing CAPS-functionalized C ­ oFe2O4 NPs with particle sizes
varying in from 15.0 to 25.0 nm with average particle size at 18 nm. From FTIR results, the presence of strong
­ oFe2O4 NPs and CPCF NPs at 658 ­cm−1 was attributed to the stretching vibration mode associated
peaks of C
with the Fe–O bond in the crystalline lattice of ­CoFe2O4 NPs. Moreover, the band at 515 ­cm−1 was confirmed as
the metal oxide bond (Co–O) in the nanoparticle structure. Results obtained from the photodegradation of FB
indicated that the maximum FB removal achieving 94.6% in equilibrium was observed using 20.0 mg of CPCF
at pH 9.0. Furthermore, their antimicrobial behavior has been examined against Gram-positive (S. aureus) and
gram-negative (E. coli). The in-vitro ZOI and MIC results verified that CPCF NPs are also active upon Gram-
Positive S. aureus (23.0 mm ZOI and 0.625 ug/ml MIC) than Gram-Negative E. coli (17.0 mm ZOI and 1.250
ug/ml MIC). The synthesized CPCF NPs are promising for potential applications in pharmaceutical uses and
wastewater treatment.

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Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Received: 31 December 2022; Accepted: 25 March 2023

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Author contributions
All authors contribute equally to the development of the manuscript.

Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in coopera-
tion with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to A.M.E.-K. or M.A.E.
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