MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY
PSY 641-G
Course instructor : Miriam Mohan
School of Psychological Sciences
Interface between 2 disciplines
Sociology
Psychology
Social
Psychology
Micro vs Macro Levels of Analysis
◦ People’s experiences are placed within their social and historical contexts
◦ Forces outside of the individual play a much larger role than idiosyncratic individual
characteristics in shaping behaviour
◦ Social facts are properties of the collective environment that shape people’s
behaviours (Durkheim , 1895)
◦ Social norms
◦ Social stratification
◦ Effects of Inequalities associated with class, race, ethnicity, gender on various
outcomes ( Behaviours, attitudes, opportunities).
◦ Units of analysis
Micro-Macro continuum
SSP
PSP SI GPS SSP Sociology
Microlevel Macro level
Adding to the Macro level analysis
Community
Psychology
Sociology
Psychology
Social
Psychology
Definition of Community Psychology
◦ Communities are : “Readily available
mutually supportive network of
relationships on which one could
depend” (Sarason, 1974) 7 core values
Individual and family wellness Social justice
◦ Relationships of individuals with
communities and societies. Collaboration and community
Sense of community
strengths
◦ Involves research + action
◦ Seeks to understand and enhance the Respect for human diversity Empirical grounding
QOL of I, C & S
Citizen participation
◦ Focuses on social settings , systems, and
institutions that influence groups and
organizations and the individuals within
them – using an ecological model.
Understanding community dynamics
Types of communities
◦ Sociological view : Locality based Communities – Traditional concept of communities
◦ Community psychology view : Relational Community – Defined by interpersonal relationships
and a sense of community , not limited by geography.
◦ Both form a spectrum rather than a dichotomy.
Levels of communities : They exist at different ecological levels : microsystems, organizations,
localities, macrosystems.
◦ Communities are related across levels.
◦ Intermediate communities exist that link differing ecological levels
◦ Check your learning : Can we call immediate family or your network of friends a
community? Why or why not?
What do these communities have in common?
In recent years….
◦ Charitable contributions declined steadily,
◦ Shared emotional bond
levelling off recently
◦ Shared identity
◦ Active involvement in local community
◦ Mutual trust organizations has declined
◦ Caring ◦ Forms of citizen participation have
◦ Commitment = Psychological sense of weakened
community (PSoC) (Sarason, 1974)
◦ Community service is increasing among
◦ Individual’s experience of community ties certain demographic groups
(Bess et al , 2002)
◦ Mutual help groups have increased
◦ What do these survey results say about ◦ Online communication has increased
PSoC? ◦ Youth are involved in citizen advocacy
◦ E- activism has increased
Are communities and groups the same?
▪Groups can be quite different from the sum of their parts.
▪People who are interdependent and have mutual
influence on each other.
▪Regular face to face contacts.
▪Current trends include online social groups.
▪How are interactions in online groups similar to offline
groups?
▪And how are they different?
▪2 features include group structure and cohesiveness.
Activity : Rank a typical group from 1 (highest to least)
Rank
The spectators at a college football game.
5 All the students in a group dynamics class.
All people who work as accountants.
A mob of rioters burning stores in the inner city.
Individuals waiting in silence at a bus stop.
1 The Smith family of New York (Mr. Smith, Mrs. Smith, and Jane Smith, their daughter) dining
together.
Five people talking to each other on-line in a computer "chat room."
All the faculty in the department of political science on a Sunday afternoon.
Five adolescent males who hang out together skateboarding on a city corner.
2 A committee deciding the best way to handle a production problem
7 The Rolling Stones fan club
Rank
8 The spectators at a college football game.
5 All the students in a group dynamics class.
10 All people who work as accountants.
9 A mob of rioters burning stores in the inner city.
11 Individuals waiting in silence at a bus stop.
1 The Smith family of New York (Mr. Smith, Mrs. Smith, and Jane Smith, their daughter) dining together.
4 Five people talking to each other on-line in a computer "chat room."
6 All the faculty in the department of political science on a Sunday afternoon.
3 Five adolescent males who hang out together skateboarding on a city corner.
2 A committee deciding the best way to handle a production problem
7 The Rolling Stones fan club
Aspect Group
◦ Groups vary Community
in the extent to which they are seen as distinct entities, such as whether they
have rigidOften
Purpose boundaries that make them distinct
task- or goal-oriented from other
Focused groups.
on shared identity, values, and
belonging based on culture or history
◦ In other words, some groups seem more “groupy” i.e. Entitative than others (Hamilton et
Interaction Can be short-term or based on Continuous, ongoing interactions with
al., 2011).
specific tasks ; level of interaction emotional ties ; long term interaction, sense of
varies ; can be long term also place
◦ On the very low end of this dimension would be people attending a concert or working
Scope Smaller or more specific; Has norms, Larger and more inclusive ; varied roles and
out near each other in a gym. These often are not considered real groups.
roles binding norms
◦ Such assemblages are sometimes called collectives—people engaging in a common
activity but
Connection Mayhaving little direct
be temporary interaction withDeep,
or impersonal eachemotional,
other (Milgram & Toch,connections
and long-term 1969)
based on task and goal between members
Differentiate : Group or Community?
◦ A football team
◦ religious congregation
◦ an online forum
◦ a study group
◦ a work project team
◦ A village
◦ group of friends who meet for a specific activity.
◦ a neighbourhood
◦ a cultural group
◦ book club
◦ a sports team
Revisiting PSoC -McMillan & Chavis (1986); McMillan (1996)
Integration and Shared
Membership Influence Fulfilment of emotional
needs connection
Boundaries
Common symbols Mutual Shared values Shared
Emotional safety influence of dramatic
Personal community on moments,
investment individuals , Satisfying
needs, celebrations,
Sense of individuals on rituals
belonging, community exchanging
Identification with resources
the community
Group activity :
Frame questions to understand PSoC better.
❑Choose a community in your life that has a strong , positive, shared
sense of community.
❑ Consider questions about the community based on the model you
learnt earlier.
Has your education in Psychology been
individualistic? How or how not?
Why know history? How do you think this
applies to Indian context?
A brief overview of history :
What it means for the field.
1 2 3
Social movements Community Mental 1965 Inaugural
and Protests for health Movement : conference that led
stopping violence, A national to the creation of
Widespread
atmosphere
Conference
Swampscott
Socially conscious
deinstitutionalization
securing rights and movement for the field.
enacting acts most efficient and
against injustice cost effective
treatment of
mental illness in
community settings
THE FIRST DECADE: 1965-1975
THE SECOND DECADE: 1975-1985
Prevention
(Cowen)
More advocacy
stance for Empowerment
community (Rappaport)
psychologists
1st professional
Empowerment organization of
Ecological community
of the poor perspective psychologists
and otherwise (Trickett , outside of North
disadvantaged Kelly) America
occurred in 1983.
THE THIRD DECADE: 1985-1995
◦ Community psychologists enter an even wider range of domains,
including schools, work sites, religious organizations, voluntary
associations, and government.
◦ Theory and Methods (1988 conference)
◦ Implementation of research
◦ Actualizing CP values - social problem of homelessness, need to
empower the disenfranchised
THE FOURTH DECADE: 1995-2005
◦ More participatory approach to research
◦ Active participation of community members in P, I,
E of research
◦ Refinement of the theories and methodologies
that can guide participatory research (Conference
on Community Research at Loyola University,
2002)
◦ Sam Tsemberis on Housing First :
[Link]
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THE FIFTH DECADE TO THE PRESENT
◦ European Community Psychology Association (2005)
◦ Internationalization of the field – PRTT
◦ “International Conference on Community Psychology” was held in 2006 in
San Juan, Puerto Rico.
◦ Articles in the special issue of AJCP included
◦ a genealogical analysis of the influence of 10 key founders of the field (Fowler
& Toro, 2008a)
◦ an account of “trailblazing” women in Community Psychology (Ayala-Alcantar
et al., 2008), and
◦ documentation of the development of Community Psychology in different
regions of the world.
◦ Theories and methods of the field of Community Psychology are
increasingly trying to capture a systems perspective or the mutual
interdependencies
◦ More attention is being directed to mixing qualitative and quantitative
research methods in order to provide a deeper exploration of
contextual factors
◦ “Giving psychology away”
PRESENT STATUS
Caselet 1
◦ In a small township neighbourhood, many teenagers are at risk of dropping out of
school, engaging in criminal activity (dealing with drugs, getting into gang fights,
robbery etc.) and facing mental health challenges. A local community organization
is concerned about an increasing number of youths who are failing in the larger
system.
◦ Identify the issues and the gaps/ needs that are to be addressed in this community.
◦ Brainstorm some community psychology core values to understand the challenges
faced by youth.
◦ What roles can community psychologists play in designing and implementing
interventions in this context?
◦ What community led resources could be used to identify solutions?
Social change – Reasons, Types , Challenges
• Spontaneous or unplanned
social change
Changing / Diverse populations • Planned social change
Social justice
Resistance
Perception of declining or scarce resources
Accountability and cost-effectiveness Groupism
Technological changes Lack of conscientization
Community conflict
Confrontational
Dissatisfaction with traditional services Conceptualization of
social systems
5 principles of social change (Jason, 2013) :Is this enough ?
Determine Identify the Measure
Build
the nature holders of Be patient your
coalitions
of change power successes
Social workers and Community psychologists
Social workers Community psychologists
Scope Provide direct services to I, F & C Understand and address
to navigate challenges and psychological and social factors
improve well-being that affect I & C
Level Works at various settings such as Use large scale interventions at
healthcare, Schools, social service community level for PRE or PRO/
agencies, private practice to Uses research to study social
address issues. systems, community dynamics,
and how these influence
How they help? Employs practical strategies and Emphasizes empowerment, social
interventions – offering therapy, justice, systemic change through
case management and advocacy. collaborations with O, P, C
Qualification MSW , LCSW or therapy based PhD or PsyD – Academic research
work
Clinical psychologists and Community psychologists
Clinical psychologists Community psychologists
Focus on internal and individual variables Groups of people, external social and
environmental impacts – communities ; Social
ecology , public policy, prevention and promotion
Clinical skills : Testing and assessment, diagnosis Skills : Community research skills, understand
and psychotherapy community problems from a holistic perspective,
relating to community members, systemic
understanding , resourceful and solution oriented.
Hospitals, health clinics, group or private practice, Urban planners, govt offices, public health dept,
university or research setting community centres, schools, program evaluation
agencies, universities and research centres.
Pathology prevention, health promotion Effective interventions for human good,
understanding phenomena from a psychological
perspective.
Community psychologists as agents of social change
Role of community psychologists
◦ A question of identity : Personal, Political, Professional selves are
intertwined
◙Journey of conscientization
◙Praxis
◙Reflexivity : Unpacks privilege, awareness of values , experiences,
power and personal biographies
◙Accountability
Community psychologists as insiders and outsiders
■Values and beliefs matters but
so do professional credentials
Health
Insiders : University,
research, government Education
policy settings
To change status quo in
systems
Outsiders : External
evaluators , consultants , Child welfare
Interventionists , Citizens
Children’s mental health ,
Counselling etc
Community psychologist as a professional (Nelson et al, 2004;
Thomas, Neil and Robertson, 1997)
Domains Competencies Skills
Core/Foundational Assumptions
Values
Principles and Theories
Professional praxis Personal effectiveness
Partnership and
Collaboration
Technical competencies
What pedagogical principles can promote these competencies ?
Scope of CP interventions
◦ Ameliorative : Aim to promote well-being – First order change
◦ Transformative : Changing power relationships and striving to eliminate oppression
– Second order change & Third order change
◦ Can be contrasted against several dimensions :
◦ FRAMING OF ISSUES AND PROBLEMS
◦ VALUES
◦ LEVELS OF ANALYSIS
◦ PREVENTION FOCUS
◦ DESIRED OUTCOMES
◦ INTERVENTION PROCESS
◦ ROLES OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGISTS
3 kinds of settings for community interventions
• CH-MH agencies, Independent living centres,
Human services Department of Public health, Child and family
services
Alternative • Women’s shelters, Resource centres for
terminally ill persons, Self help groups,
settings Immigrant and refugee advocacy centres
Social change • Public interest research group, Social policy
institute, Political parties, Trade and labour
settings unions
PERSPECTIVE
“Bundle of beliefs, a mindset that we each
embrace determining how we see one
another, our experiences, and possibilities
or lack thereof.” (Lori Desautels)
Multicultural issues in Community Psychology
The concept of diversity
• Diversity has become a defining characteristic
of our social and cultural worlds. We are
confronted everyday with challenges of
defining ourselves, categorising ourselves.
• The sensitivity towards diversity is increasing.
◦ Eg : Use of diversity in education, in
workplace, in therapy
• Humans are not an exception to diversity.
• Murray in 1949 came up with some guidelines in the
study of human behaviour-
◦ The behaviour of one person is like the behaviour
of all human beings.
◦ The behaviour of one person is like the behaviour
of some human beings.
◦ The behaviour of one person is unique and
different from any other human being.
Intraindividual differences
◦ This term has two meanings
◦ The way different traits and personality characteristics are
structured in each subject in such a way as to form a
personal and individual profile . Eg: A may be less in
extroversion but have high numerical ability; less artistic
but high imagination.
◦ The difference may occur in a subject facing the same
situation at two different moments in time.
Interindividual differences
◦ Refer to the position occupied by the subject in
relation to others when compared to the different
traits.
Intergroup differences
◦ The concept of group here is never static. The
individual may belong at different times to different
groups. The most traditional classification is-
◦ Real and natural vs. abstract/ theoretical variables
Psychology of diversity
Basic psychological processes that are triggered
❖ when we encounter people who are different from us in
significant and salient ways
❖ when we experience being treated differently by others
because of our social status.
❖ In dynamics of mental representation
❖ In social interaction across individuals, institutions, and
cultures, and how differential bases of power, privilege,
and status affect these interactions.
❖ In the effects of diverse contexts on the thoughts,
actions, and feelings of people in them
• Diversity extends beyond well-known dimensions and include
marginalized and oppressed.
• The social cultural and geographic boundaries have given way to
increasingly complex representations of identity. This creates
new questions for social scientists.
• Structural and functional aspects
• These identities we possess and express are associated with
social categories that either celebrate differences or look at
differences as a source of threat.
• Intersectionality : Diverse ways in which our cultural backgrounds
and experiences can influence our view of the world and our
practices. (Videos on intersectionality)
◦ [Link]
◦ [Link]
Types of diversity
▪ Diversity refers to social difference, or differences among people
▪ A Taxonomy of Diversity
▪ Scott Page (2007) provides a useful taxonomy for distinguishing among different
types of diversity.
▪ 4 main diversity categories:
(1) Cognitive diversity reflects differences in patterns of thinking, analysis, perception,
and point of view, including:
▪ Perspectives: ways of representing and understanding the world around us.
▪ Heuristics: thinking tools or strategies for solving personal problems or
achieving desired goals.
▪ Interpretations: creating categories into which we place and give meaning to
things, events, experiences.
▪ Predictions: inferences we make about what goes with or causes what.
(2) Identity diversity represents differences among people based on sex, gender orientation,
religion, race, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, immigrant status, and so on that are reflected
in their affinity for and identification with those social categories.
(3) Demographic diversity occurs when differences among people are based on social
categories or social roles without regard to their psychological salience for the person.
These differences usually consist of the same categories as identity diversity.
(4) Preference diversity reflects differences in taste and values, including:
• Fundamental preferences: the outcomes we value or prefer.
• Instrumental preferences: the means by which we pursue preferred outcomes
▪ Another useful taxonomy is provided by Milem (2003). He proposes three
interrelated ways to view diversity:
▪ structural diversity (numerical and proportional representation)
▪ diversity-related initiatives (cultural awareness workshops, ethnic studies courses,
etc.), and
▪ diversity interactions (exchanges between and among people who are different).
Dimensions of diversity by Loden & Rosener (1991) (adapted from Rijamampianina and
Carmichael ,2005)
But how do we make sense of
this diversity?
1. Diversity as a Demographic Concern
▪ The range or proportion of social differences that are
represented in a group of people, organization, or
situation.
▪ Social differences is not limited to our thinking about
other people and their differences.
▪ Social categories are rich with information about a
person’s characteristics and behavior, and the concept of
diversity is influenced by the kind of information we
associate with dimensions of social difference.
▪ Psychologists and demographers share a common
interest in social categories but differ in their focus
2. Diversity as an Ideological Concern
▪ Refer to qualities that should be present in a diverse society.
▪ Ideological perspectives on diversity tend to be one of three types:
the melting pot, multiculturalism, and color-blindness.
1. The Melting Pot
▪ “How unfortunate, especially in a democracy, that we fail
to note how insistently diversity also points to unity.”
(Edgar Beckham)
▪ Melting pot ideal involves the acceptance of others’
difference if they are (or perceived to be) otherwise
devoted to the majority-group values and goals, such as
working hard and being a responsible citizen.
▪ Blended into a single social and cultural product
▪ Critiques :
▪ Assimilationist values
2. Multiculturalism
▪ Beliefs or ideals that promote the recognition,
appreciation, celebration, and preservation of social
difference.
▪ Patches of people, each with a distinct cultural or national
heritage, become sewn into a large social quilt while at
the same time uniting them for a superordinate purpose.
▪ Critiques :
▪ Identity politics takes priority in the “quilt-making”
enterprise.
◦ What does it mean to be multicultural?
◦ Experience of having been exposed to and having internalized two or more cultures
◦ Those who display multicultural competence, that is, display cultural behaviors such as language
use, choice of friends, media preferences, value systems, and so forth, that are representative of
two or more cultures .
◦ Multicultural individuals are also those who self-label (e.g., “I am multicultural”) or for whom
group self-categorization (e.g., “I am American” and “I am Chinese”; “I am Chinese-American”)
reflects their cultural pluralism.
◦ Lastly, multicultural individuals can also be those who report acculturation attitudes supportive of
an integration or biculturalism strategy (Berry, 2003; e.g., endorsing the statement “I prefer to
have both national and ethnic friends”).
◦ Does being multicultural mean the same as multicultural identity?
◦ Multicultural identity is the condition of having attachments with
and loyalties toward these different cultures
Summary :
◦ Individuals navigate and adapt to multiple cultural identities
◦ Processes shape their behaviour and mental health.
◦ Other complexities that arise from multicultural experiences : acculturation, identity
negotiation, impact of cultural diversity on social interaction , personality and
psychological well-being
◦ Monocultural vs Multicultural environment
◦ Challenges : identity struggle, cultural conflict,
◦ Benefits : cognitive complexity, adaptability, creativity.
Who is multicultural? (Berry, 2003; Padilla, 2006)
• There are many definitions of multiculturalism, ranging from general
(i.e., based on demographic characteristics) to psychologically
specific conceptualizations (e.g., cultural identifications or
orientations).
• Those who are mixed-race and mixed-ethnic
• Those who have lived in more than one country (such as expatriates,
international students, immigrants, refugees, and sojourners)
• Those reared with at least one other culture in addition tothe
dominant mainstream culture (such as children of immigrants or
colonized people)
• Those in intercultural relationships may all be considered
multicultural
[Link]-Blindness
▪ Attempts to consider people strictly as individuals,
ignoring or de-emphasizing racial or ethnic group
membership.
▪ Diversity is a valuable goal but greater diversity should
be achieved by making decisions based on factors other
than race
▪ Assimilationist hope: that people from racial minority
groups will downplay their racial and ethnic differences
and adapt to mainstream norms (Wolsko, Park, & Judd,
2006).
Critiques :
▪ Erasing, or attempting to erase, race from one’s thinking
about individuals blinds perceivers to the ways racial bias
and discrimination is generated and maintained by
institutions, policies, and traditions (Wingfield, 2015).
▪ Moreover, being color-blind also implies being blind to
one’s own race. Eg: European American people.
Check your learning :
▪ Melting pot, multiculturalist, and color-blindness
notions of diversity have different implications for
individuals from minority groups.
▪ In melting pot and color-blind ideologies what is
the status of minorities?
▪ In a multicultural society what is the status of
minorities?
▪ Discuss : Which ideology is better for minorities?
[Link] as a Political Concern
▪ Diversity in a political perspective refers to particular
social groups who have experienced disadvantage and
discrimination
▪ There are limitations of this :
▪ We construct diversity through our perceptions,
beliefs, expectations, and behavior toward people
based on social dimensions ; how is this limiting?
▪ Political usage of diversity focuses too much attention
on social differences that are visible. Although some
social differences are visible, others are not so obvious.
▪ Psychological and political approaches to diversity,
however, share an important feature—the recognition
that there is a greater psychological burden
associated with being a member of some social
categories than others and some of this burden is
attributable to past oppression and injustice.
Now how would you depict the following
Definitions concepts using this analogy :
Equality : Ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity (to
make the most of their lives and talents
Equity : Freedom from bias or favoritism.
Justice : All people should have equal access to wealth, health, well-
being, justice, privileges, and opportunity, regardless of their legal,
political, economic, or other circumstances.
• We believe in merit, equality of opportunity, and
fairness. What are the challenges to this ?
• Political and economic power is unevenly distributed in
society but social hierarchy is normal (Sidanius & Pratto,
1999).
• Groups vary in their ability to make decisions that affect
the well-being of others.
• A group may have considerable influence that can
disadvantage less-powerful groups, and advantage their
own group.
4. Diversity and Concern for Social Justice
▪ As the diversity of a community increases, so does
the potential for some groups of people to be
disadvantaged relative to other groups.
▪ What is social justice?
▪ In a socially just community, the accomplishments
and well-being of some people are not won at the
expense of others
▪ Social justice exists when all the groups of people
in a society are afforded the same rights and
opportunities and when their life outcomes are
not unfairly constrained by prejudice and
discrimination.
Conclusion :
Goals of a psychological study of diversity
Framework for culturally centered interventions
◦ ADDRESSING Framework (Hays, 2008) + 11th category ( Okazaki &
(Bernal & Saez- Santiago, 2006)
Saw, 2011).
Language (native language skills) Carrier of culture and meaning
◦ Cultural sensitivity : Awareness
Personal relationships
or appreciation for intragroup and
Similarities and differences
intergroup differences (video)
Metaphors Ways in which meaning and concepts are conveyed
◦ Recognition of cultural and social factors allows for
Cultural knowledge Traditions , customs and values
◦ challenge existing conceptions, choose goals and lifestyle, resource
Theoretical model for and
distribution intervention Psychological
allocation, accurately bases for action the true diversity of
characterizing
society,
Intervention goalsavoid comparisonsNeed with for
mainstream cultural
agreement on what is standards,
to be accomplished
designing culturally appropriate and effective interventions.
Intervention methods Culturally sensitive and respectful of the community
◦ 10 guidelines : APA (2017) Multicultural guidelines : An ecological
Consideration of context Historic, social, economic and political setting
approach to context, identity and intersectionality.
important to the person, setting and community
Ethics - Article discussion
Ethical issues in CP
◦ A community psychologist is working with a community to develop an intervention to
address youth violence. He involves a local advocacy group which represents a significant
portion of the community youth. underrepresented; he realizes it may not be representative
of the entire youth population such as immigrant youth or LGBTQ+youth a and youth with
disabilities. Despite knowing they are under represented; he still goes ahead as they are
more organized and have more access to resources.
◦ What is the ethical dilemma ?
◦ How can perspectives be balanced?
◦ What steps can be taken to ensure that intervention is equitable?
◦ A community psychologist is leading a PAR project in low-income neighbourhood. The goal
of the neighbourhood is to identify mental health needs and develop community based
interventions. He conducts a meeting to gather inputs and recruit participants. Language
barriers exist. Some were pressured to participate because of their social relationshio with
the community leaders who organized the meeting.
◦ Ethical dilemma ?
◦ How can we ensure that consent is genuinely obtained and participants are not coerced?
◦ What strategies can be used to ensure that they comprehend research goals and their rights?
◦ Other issues :
◦ Confidentiality vs community disclosure
◦ Cultural sensitivity and intervention design
◦ Exploitation of vulnerable populations