Birla Institute of Technology

BIT MESRA

Physics Assignment: Nuclear

physics/Module 3
Guided by: Dr. Pawan Kumar Tiwari

Name: Abhishek Singh

ROLL NO.: BSC/10002/24
1st Semester
Date of Submission: 8 September 2024
 Introduction to Nucleus
• The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and
neutrons at the centre of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest
Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment.

• The nucleus is a collection of particles called protons, which are

positively charged, and neutrons, which are electrically neutral.

• A species of nucleus, known as a nuclide, is represented schematically by

A
ZX where X, the atomic number indicates the number of protons, A, the
mass number, indicates the total number of protons plus neutrons and X
is the chemical symbol of the species.

• A=Number of Nucleon Z= Number of Proton N=Number of neutrons = A-

Z As an example, the chlorine nucleus 17Cl35 has Z=17 protons, A=35
nucleons and N=35-17=18 neutrons

General Properties of Nucleus: Nuclear Size

According to Rutherford's −particle scattering experiment, the distance of the
closest approach of − particle to the nucleus was taken as a measure of nuclear
radius, which is approximately 10-15m. If the nucleus is assumed to be spherical,
an empirical relation is found to hold good between the radius of the nucleus R
and its mass number A.
It is given by R ∝ A1/3 R = r o A1/3 where r o is the constant of proportionality and
is equal to 1.3 F (1 Fermi, F = 10−15 m)

Nuclear Density
The nuclear density N can be calculated from the mass and size of the nucleus.
ρN = Nuclear mass / Nuclear volume
Nuclear mass = AmN
where, A = mass number
and mN = mass of one nucleon and is approximately equal to 1.67 x 10−27 kg
Nuclear volume = 4/3 πR3
ρN = mN / (4/3 πr0 3)
Substituting the known values, the nuclear density is calculated as 1.816 x 10 17 kg m−3 which
is almost a constant for all the nuclei irrespective of its size.
The high value of the nuclear density shows that the nuclear matter is in an extremely
compressed state.
The charge of a nucleus is due to the protons present in it. Each proton has a positive charge
equal to 1.6 x 10−19 C.
The nuclear charge = Ze, where Z is the atomic number.

Atomic Mass Unit

It is convenient to express the mass of a nucleus in atomic mass unit (amu), though the unit
of mass is kg. One atomic mass unit is considered as one twelfth of the mass of carbon atom
12
6C . Carbon of atomic number 6 and mass number 12 has mass equal to 12 amu.

1 amu = 1.66 x 10−27 kg

The mass of a proton, m p = 1.007276 amu This is equal to the difference in mass of the
hydrogen atom which is 1.007825 amu and the mass of electron. The mass of a neutron, m n
= 1.008665 amu
The energy equivalence of one amu can be calculated in electron volt
Einstein's mass energy relation is, E = mc2 Here, m = 1 amu = 1.66 x 10−27 kg
c = 3 x 108 ms−1
E = 1.66 x 10−27 x (3 x 108) 2 J
One electron-volt (eV) is defined as the energy of an electron when it is accelerated through
a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10−19 coulomb x 1 volt 1 eV = 1.6 x 10−19 joule
Hence, E = 1.66 x 10 − 27 x (3 x10 8) 2 / 1.6 x10-19 eV= 931 million electron volt = 931 MeV
Thus, energy equivalent of 1 amu = 931 MeV

Nuclear Mass
As the nucleus contains protons and neutrons, the mass of the nucleus is assumed to be the
mass of its constituents.
Assumed nuclear mass = ZmP + Nmn,
where m p and m n are the mass of a proton and a neutron respectively. However, from the
measurement of mass-by-mass spectrometers, it is found that the mass of a stable nucleus
(m) is less than the total mass of the nucleons.
i.e. mass of a nucleus, m < (Zm p + Nmn) Zm p + NmN - m = ∆m
where ∆m is the mass defect
Thus, the difference in the total mass of the nucleons and the actual mass of the nucleus is
known as the mass defect.
Note: In any mass spectrometer, it is possible to determine only the mass of the atom, which
includes the mass of Z electrons. If M represents the mass of the atom, then the mass defect
can be written as
∆m = ZmP + Nmn + Zme – M
= ZmH + Nmn – M
where mH represents the mass of one hydrogen atom

Classification of Nuclei
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number Z but different
mass number A. The nuclei 1H1, 1H2 and 1H3 are the isotopes of hydrogen. In other words,
isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons. As the atoms of isotopes have identical electronic structure, they have identical
chemical properties and placed in the same location in the periodic table.
Isobars
Isobars are atoms of different elements having the same mass number A, but different
atomic number Z. The nuclei 8O16 and 7N16 represent two isobars. Since isobars are atoms of
different elements, they have different physical and chemical properties.
Isotones
Isotones are atoms of different elements having the same number of neutrons. 6C14 and 8O16
are some examples of isotones.
Isomers
Isomer, in nuclear physics, any of two or more nuclides (species of atomic nuclei) that consist
of the same number of protons and the same number of neutrons but differ in energy and
manner of radioactive decay, and that exist for a measurable interval of time. An example of
a nuclear isomer is 99mTc, an excited state of Technetium-99.
Mirror Nuclei
Nuclei, having the same mass number A, but with the proton and neutron number
interchanged (that is, the number of protons in one is equal to the number of neutrons in
other) are called mirror nuclei.
Examples 4Be7 (Z=4, and N=3), 3Li7 (Z=3 and N=4)

Mass Defect
Mass defect is the difference between the actual atomic mass and the predicted
mass calculated by adding the mass of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
The actual atomic mass is less than the predicted mass calculated by adding the
masses of nucleons.

Binding Energy
When the protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus, the mass that
disappears (mass defect, ∆m) is converted into an equivalent amount of energy
(∆mc2). This energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
A binding energy is generally the energy required to disassemble a whole
system into separate parts. It is known the sum of separate parts has typically a
higher potential energy than a bound system, therefore the bound system is
more stable. A creation of bound system is often accompanied by subsequent
energy release.
We usually distinguish the binding energy according to these levels:
• At atomic level the atomic binding energy of the atom derives from
electromagnetic interaction of electrons in the atomic cloud and
nucleons (protons) in the nucleus. The atomic binding energy is the
energy required to disassemble an atom into free electrons and a
nucleus. This is more commonly known as ionization energy.
• At molecular level the molecular binding energy of the molecule derives
from bond-dissociation energy of atoms in a chemical bond.
• At nuclear level the nuclear binding energy is the energy required to
disassemble (to overcome the strong nuclear force) a nucleus of an atom
into its component parts (protons and neutrons).
Binding energy = [ZmP + Nmn - m] c 2
= ∆mc2
The binding energy of a nucleus determines its stability against disintegration.
In other words, if the binding energy is large, the nucleus is stable and vice
versa.
The binding energy per nucleon is
BE/ A = Binding energy of the nucleus / Total number of nucleons
It is found that the binding energy per nucleon varies from element to element.
A graph is plotted with the mass number A of the nucleus along the X−axis and
binding energy per nucleon along the Y-axis

Explanation of Binding Energy Curve

• The binding energy per nucleon increases sharply with mass number A
up to 20. It increases slowly after A = 20. For A<20, there exists
recurrence of peaks corresponding to those nuclei, whose mass
numbers are multiples of four and they contain not only equal but also
even
• number of protons and neutrons. Example: 2He4, 4Be8, 6C12, 8O16, and
20
10Ne . The curve becomes almost flat for mass number between 40 and
120. Beyond 120, it decreases slowly as A increases.
• The binding energy per nucleon reaches a maximum of MeV at A=56,
corresponding to the iron nucleus (26Fe56). Hence, iron nucleus is the
most stable.
• The average binding energy per nucleon is about 8.5 MeV for nuclei
having mass number ranging between 40 and 120. These elements are
comparatively more stable and non-radioactive.
• For higher mass numbers the curve drops slowly and the BE/A is about
7.6 MeV for uranium. Hence, they are unstable and radioactive.
• The lesser amount of binding energy for lighter and heavier nuclei
explains nuclear fusion and fission respectively. A large amount of
energy will be liberated if lighter nuclei are fused to form heavier one
(fusion) or if heavier nuclei are split into lighter ones (fission).

Calculation of Binding Energy

Say for example if we have a nucleus with Z protons and N neutrons and mass MA,
where A = Z + N then its binding energy in MeV is given by:
Eb (MeV) = (Z*mp + N*mn - MA) * 931.494 MeV/u

Nuclear Binding Energy

• The component parts of nuclei are neutrons and protons, which are collectively
called nucleons. The mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum masses of the
constituent protons and neutrons when separated. The difference is a measure of
the nuclear binding energy which holds the nucleus together. According to the
Einstein relationship (E=m.c2) this binding energy is proportional to this mass
difference and it is known as the mass defect.
• During the nuclear splitting or nuclear fusion, some of the mass of the nucleus gets
converted into huge amounts of energy and thus this mass is removed from the
total mass of the original particles, and the mass is missing in the resulting nucleus.
The nuclear binding energies are enormous, they are on the order of a million times
greater than the electron binding energies of atoms.
• If the splitting releases energy and the fusion releases the energy, so where is the
breaking point? For understanding this issue, it is better to relate the binding energy
to one nucleon, to obtain nuclear binding curve. The binding energy per one
nucleon is not linear. There is a peak in the binding energy curve in the region of
stability near iron and this means that either the breakup of heavier nuclei than iron
or the combining of lighter nuclei than iron will yield energy.
• The reason the trend reverses after iron peak is the growing positive charge of the
nuclei. The electric force has greater range than strong nuclear force. While the
strong nuclear force binds only close neighbours the electric force of each proton
repels the other protons.
 Nuclear Binding Curve
If the splitting releases energy and the fusion releases the energy, so where is the breaking
point?
For understanding this issue, it is better to relate the binding energy to one nucleon, to
obtain nuclear binding curve. The binding energy per one nucleon is not linear. There is a
peak in the binding energy curve in the region of stability near iron and this means that
either the breakup of heavier nuclei than iron or the combining of lighter nuclei than iron
will yield energy. The reason the trend reverses after iron peak is the growing positive charge
of the nuclei. The electric force has greater range than strong nuclear force. While the strong
nuclear force binds only close neighbours the electric force of each proton repels the other
protons.

Nuclear Reaction
In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, a nuclear reaction is semantically
considered to be the process in which two nuclei, or else a nucleus of an atom and a
subatomic particle from outside the atom, collide to produce one or more nuclides
that are different from the nuclide that began the process.

Notation of Nuclear Reaction

Standard nuclear notation shows the chemical symbol, the mass number and the
atomic number of the isotope. If the initial nuclei are denoted by a and b, and the
product nuclei are denoted by c and d, the reaction can be represented by the
equation:
a+b→c+d
 10 + 0n1 → 3Li7 + 2H4 + 2.8 Mev
5B

Instead of using the full equations in the style above, in many situations a compact notation
is used to describe nuclear reactions. This style of the form a (b, c) d is equivalent to a + b
producing c + d. Light particles are often abbreviated in this shorthand, typically p means
proton, n means neutron, d means deuteron, α means an alpha particle or helium-4, β
means beta particle or electron, γ means gamma photon, etc. The reaction above would be
written as 10B(n, α)7Li.

Energetics of Nuclear Reactions – Q-value

In nuclear and particle physics the energetics of nuclear reactions is determined by the Q-
value of that reaction. The Q-value of the reaction is defined as the difference between the
sum of the masses of the initial reactants and the sum of the masses of the final products, in
energy units (usually in MeV).
Consider a typical reaction, in which the projectile a and the target A gives place to two
products, B and b. This can also be expressed in the notation that we used so far, a + A → B +
b, or even in a more compact notation, A(a,b)B
The Q-value of this reaction is given by: Q = [ma + mA – (mb + mB )]c2
which is the same as the excess kinetic energy of the final products: Q = Tfinal – Tinitial
= Tb + TB – (Ta + TA )

Why do Nuclear Reactions Release

Tremendous Amounts of Energy?
During a nuclear reaction (such as a fission or fusion reaction), the mass accounted for by
the nuclear binding energy is released in accordance with the equation E = mc 2.
To simplify, the products formed in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion always have a lower
mass than the reactants. This ‘missing’ mass is converted into energy. A single gram of
matter can release approximately 9,00,00,000 Megajoules of energy.
The mass of an atomic nucleus is always less than the sum of the individual masses of each
subatomic particle that constitutes it (protons and neutrons). This difference in mass is
attributed to nuclear binding energy (often referred to as a mass defect). Nuclear binding
energy can be defined as the energy required to hold all the protons and neutrons within
the nucleus
 Q = 0.0188 amu * 931.481 Mev/amu = 17.5 Mev

Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear physics, nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei
collide at a very high energy and fuse together into a new nucleus, e.g. helium. If light nuclei
are forced together, they will fuse with a yield of energy because the mass of the
combination will be less than the sum of the masses of the individual nuclei. If the combined
nuclear mass is less than that of iron at the peak of the binding energy curve, then the
nuclear particles will be more tightly bound than they were in the lighter nuclei, and that
decrease in mass comes off in the form of energy according to the Albert Einstein
relationship.
Fusion reactions have an energy density many times greater than nuclear fission and fusion
reactions are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions.
The fusion power offers the opportunity of an almost inexhaustible source of energy for
future, but it the fusion technology presents a real scientific and engineering challenges.

Fusion powers the sun/stars

The Sun is a hot star. But all of the heat and light coming from the Sun comes from the
fusion reactions happening inside the core of the Sun. Inside the Sun, the pressure is millions
of times more than the surface of the Earth, and the temperature reaches more than 15
million Kelvin. Massive gravitational forces create these conditions for nuclear fusion. The
Sun burns hydrogen atoms, which fuse together to form helium nuclei, and a small amount
of matter is converted into energy. In its core, the Sun consumes approximately 620 million
metric tons of hydrogen each second. Hydrogen, heated to very high temperatures change
its state from a gaseous state to a plasma state. Normally, fusion is not possible because the
strongly repulsive electrostatic forces between the positively charged nuclei prevent them
from getting close enough together to collide and for fusion to occur. The mechanism, how
to overcome the coulomb barrier is by the temperature and by the pressure. At close
distances the attractive nuclear force allows the nuclei to fuse together.
 Deuterium-Tritium Fusion
The fusion reaction of deuterium and tritium is particularly interesting because of its
potential of providing energy for the future.

3T (d, n) 4He
The reaction yields ~17 MeV of energy per reaction.

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission refers to the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei.
This process can occur through a nuclear reaction or through radioactive decay. Nuclear
fission reactions often release a large amount of energy, which is accompanied by the
emission of neutrons and gamma rays (photons holding huge amounts of energy, enough to
knock electrons out of atoms).
In a nucleus fissions nucleus split into several smaller fragments. These fragments, or fission
products, are about equal to half the original mass. Two or three neutrons are also emitted.
The sum of the masses of these fragments is less than the original mass. This 'missing' mass
(about 0.1 percent of the original mass) has been converted into energy according to
Einstein's equation. Fission can occur when a nucleus of a heavy atom captures a neutron, or
it can happen spontaneously.

Types of Nuclear Fission

• Spontaneous Fission: Nuclei consisting of protons, electrostatic force of repulsion
between them exceeds the nuclear binding force hence nuclei undergo spontaneous
fission
• Induced Fission: When neutron is bombarded on heavy nucleus it makes nucleus
unstable this unstable nucleus undergoes fission and split into two fragments. Such
fission is called as induced fission.

Difference Between Nuclear Fusion and

Fission
 Chain Reaction
A chain reaction is a self-propagating process in which number of neutrons goes
multiplying rapidly almost in geometrical progression during fission till whole of
fissile material is disintegrated. Two type of chain reactions are possible. In one, the
chain reaction is first accelerated so that neutrons are built-up to a certain level and
thereafter the number of fissions producing neutrons is kept constant. This is
controlled chain reaction. Such a controlled used in nuclear reactors. In the other
type the chain reaction. The number of neutrons is allowed to multiply indefinitely
and the entire energy is released all at once. This type of reaction take place in atom
bombs.

Multiplication Factor (k)

The ratio of secondary neutrons produced to the original neutrons is called the
multiplication factor. It is defined as
The fission chain reaction will be critical or steady when k=1, it will be building up
supercritical when k>1 and it will be dying down or subcritical when k<1.

Critical Size and Mass

Critical size of a system containing fissile material is defined as the minimum size for which
the number of neutrons produced in the fission process just balance those lost by leakage
and non-fission capture. The mass of the fissionable material at this size is called the critical
mass.

Slow and Fast Neutron

Nuclear fission can occur when a nucleus is rendered sufficiently unstable by the capture of
a passing neutron. The probability for a fission reaction to take place depends much on how
energetic these neutrons are. The knowledge of their energy’s spectrum is vital for an
understanding of how nuclear reactors work. One classifies these neutrons in groups
according to their energy ranges, the most important being the 'fast' and 'slow' neutrons.
In one of the most remarkable phenomena in nature, a slow neutron can be captured by a
uranium-235 nucleus, rendering it unstable toward nuclear fission. A fast neutron will not be
captured, so neutrons must be slowed down by moderation to increase their capture
probability in fission reactors. A single fission event can yield over 200 million times the
energy of the neutron which triggered it!
 Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of
certain elements. During the fission of U235 a large amount of energy is released. In a
nuclear reactor, the chain reaction is put under control, after some time a steady state is
established. Nuclear reactors consist of five main elements:

• The fissionable material called fuel

• Moderator
• Neutron reflector
• Cooling System
• The safety and control system

Fuel: The commonly used fissionable materials are the uranium isotopes U233, U235, the
thorium isotopes Th232, and the plutonium isotopes Pu239, Pu240 and Pu241.
Moderator: Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so
that they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
Neutron Reflector: By the use of reflectors on the surface of reactors, leakage of neutron
can be reduced and the neutron flux in the interior can be increased. Materials with high
scattering cross-section and low absorption cross section are good reflectors.
Coolant: A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water
reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant.
Control and safety system: The control systems enable the chain reaction to be controlled
and prevent it from spontaneously running away. This is accomplished by pushing the
control rods into the reactor. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as
cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate
of reaction, or to halt it. The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators
which is designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the
effects of radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. It is typically a meter-thick
concrete and steel structure.
Pressure vessel or pressure tubes: Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core
and moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the
coolant through the surrounding moderator.

Controlled Thermonuclear Reaction

A thermonuclear reaction is a type of nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei combine to
form heavier nuclei, releasing a significant amount of energy. This process occurs at
extremely high temperatures, typically in the range of millions of degrees Celsius, where the
kinetic energy of the nuclei is sufficient to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between
them.
In a thermonuclear reaction, the primary fusion reactions involve isotopes of hydrogen, such
as deuterium and tritium, which merge to form helium and release energy. This type of
reaction powers stars, including the sun, and is the basis for experimental fusion energy
research aimed at providing a clean and virtually limitless source of power. Controlled
thermonuclear reactions are designed to be managed and sustained in a laboratory setting
or reactor to harness this energy efficiently.
Basics of Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions

• Fusion Process: Fusion reactions involve merging nuclei of light elements, such as
isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium), to form a heavier nucleus (like
helium). This process releases energy due to the strong nuclear force that binds the
nuclei together.
• Energy Release: The energy produced in fusion reactions comes from the mass
difference between the reactants and the products. According to Einstein's equation
E=mc2, even a small amount of mass can be converted into a large amount of energy.
Achieving Control
❖ High Temperature: To overcome the electrostatic repulsion between the positively
charged nuclei (Coulomb barrier), the fuel must be heated to extremely high
temperatures, typically in the range of millions of degrees Celsius. At these
temperatures, the fuel becomes a plasma, a state of matter where electrons are
separated from nuclei.
❖ Confinement: The hot plasma needs to be kept stable and isolated from the reactor
walls to maintain the necessary conditions for fusion. There are two primary methods for
this:
➢ Magnetic Confinement: Uses magnetic fields to control and contain the plasma.
Devices like the tokamak (e.g., ITER) and the stellarator are examples of magnetic
confinement systems. These devices create strong magnetic fields to prevent the
plasma from touching the walls of the reactor.
➢ Inertial Confinement: Uses lasers or other forms of energy to compress a small pellet
of fusion fuel to extremely high densities and temperatures. The National Ignition
Facility (NIF) in the U.S. is an example of an inertial confinement system.
❖ Sustained Reaction: To make fusion a practical energy source, the reaction must be
sustained over time, producing more energy than is consumed in maintaining the
conditions. This is known as achieving a positive net energy gain.
Applications and Research
❖ Experimental Reactors: Ongoing research projects like ITER aim to demonstrate that
controlled thermonuclear reactions can be sustained and produce more energy than is
required to initiate the reaction.
❖ Future Potential: If successful, controlled thermonuclear fusion could provide a nearly
limitless, clean, and safe source of energy, with minimal environmental impact
compared to fossil fuels or current nuclear fission reactors.
Challenges
❖ Engineering: Creating and maintaining the extreme conditions necessary for fusion is
technically challenging and requires advanced materials and technology.
❖ Cost: The research and development required for controlled fusion are expensive and
complex, and achieving commercial viability is a significant hurdle.
❖ Energy Input vs. Output: Achieving a balance where the energy output from fusion
reactions exceeds the energy input required to maintain the reaction is a major goal and
ongoing challenge in fusion research.
In summary, controlled thermonuclear reactions involve managing and sustaining nuclear
fusion to produce energy efficiently.

Models of Nuclear Structure

❖ Why is the binding energy per nucleon almost constant?
❖ Why do certain nuclei emit α-and β-particles through these particles do not exist inside
the nucleus?
❖ Why are the nuclei containing 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 nucleons most stable?
❖ Like any other quantum mechanical system, a nucleus also exists in its excited states. The
most stable state is the ground state in which the nuclei are generally found.
❖ The precise nature of the forces acting in the nucleus is unknown.
❖ Nuclear model is resorted to for investigation and theoretical prediction of its properties.
❖ Such models may be based on
➢ the extrinsic analogy between the properties of atomic nuclei and those of a liquid
drop
➢ the electron shell of an atoms etc.
❖ The corresponding models are called the liquid drop model and shell model.
❖ Few other models which describe nuclear structures are Collective model and Optical
model

Liquid Drop Model

• The Liquid Drop Model was proposed by the Neils Bohr who observed that there are
certain marked similarities between an atomic nucleus and a liquid drop.
• In the Liquid Drop Model, the forces acting in the nucleus are assumed to be analogical
to the molecular forces in a droplet of some liquid.
• The nucleus is supposed to be spherical in shape in the stable state, just like as liquid
drop is spherical due to the symmetrical surface tension forces.
• The forces of surface tension acts on the surface of the liquid drop. Similarly, there is a
potential barrier at the surface of the nucleus.
• The density of a liquid drop is independent of its volume. Similarly, the density of the
nucleus is independent of its volume.

Merits of Liquid Drop Model

• The liquid drop model accounts for many of the salient features of nuclear matter, such
as the observed binding energies of nuclei and their stability against α and β
disintegration as well as nuclear fission.
• The calculation of atomic masses and binding energies can do with good accuracy with
the liquid drop model.
 Assumptions
• The intermolecular forces in a liquid are short range. Similarly, the nuclear forces are
short range forces.
• The molecules evaporate from liquid drop on raising the temperature of the liquid due to
their increased energy of thermal agitation. Similarly, then energy is given to a nucleus
by bombarding it with nuclear projectiles, a compound nucleus is formed which emits
nuclear radiations almost immediately.
• When a small drop of liquid is allowed to oscillate, it breaks up into two smaller drops of
equal size. The process of nuclear fission is similar and nucleus breaks up into two
smaller nuclei.

Semi-Empirical Formula
Using the model of the nucleus as a liquid drop, we attempt to calculate nuclear binding
energies.
There are five contributions to the binding energy:

• The volume energy is proportional to the number of nucleons.

• The surface energy is the reduction in the binding energy due to nuclear surface effects.
• The Coulomb energy is the repulsion between protons.
• The asymmetry energy is a reduction in binding energy which occurs when there are
more neutrons than protons, and vice versa.
• The pairing energy is somewhat of a “fudge factor” which account for stability of even-
even and evenodd nuclei, and the reduction of stability for odd-odd nuclei.

Semi-Empirical Binding Energy Formula

A set of coefficients that gives a good fit with the data is as follows:

Volume Energy
As a first approximation, we can think of each nucleon in a nucleus as interacting solely with
its neighbours

Hence each interior nucleon in a nucleus has a binding energy of = 12(1/2U) = 6U

If all A nucleons in a nucleus were in the interior, the total binding energy would be E v = 6AU

Surface Energy
Actually of course, some nucleons are on the surface of every Nucleus and therefore have
fewer than 12 neighbours

Coulomb Energy
The repulsion between each pair of protons in a nucleus also contribute toward decreasing
its binding energy.
The coulomb energy EC of a nucleus is the work that must be done to bring together Z
protons from infinity into a spherical aggregate the size of the nucleus

Since there are Z(Z-1)/2 pairs of protons

Where (1/r)av is the value of 1/r averaged over all proton pairs
If the proton is uniformly distributed throughout a nucleus of radius R. (1/r)av is proportional
to 1/R and hence 1/A1/3
Therefore
The coulomb energy is negative because it arises from an effect that oppose nuclear
stability.
The total binding energy Eb of a nucleus

The binding energy per nucleon is

Correction to the Formula

The binding energy formula can be improved by taking into account two effects that do not
fit into the simple liquid drop model, but which make sense in terms of a model that
provides for nuclear energy levels.

Asymmetry Energy
This effect occurs when the neutrons in a nucleus outnumber the protons, which means that
higher energy levels have to be occupied than would be case if N and Z were equal.
Imagine that the neutrons and protons are in a potential well (the nucleus). We will assume
that the well has approximately equally spaced energy levels. Let the spacing be E.
Neutrons and protons are fermions (spin ½ particles). So, the Pauli exclusion principle allows
only 2 p and 2 n in each level.

For a nucleus with a given A, the lowest energy will be when N = Z.

(Z -N = 0)

If we change a proton to a neutron, we increase the energy by 1E

from Z-N = 0 case.

(Now Z-N = 2)

If we change another proton to a neutron … we increase the energy by  E for a total change
of 2E

from Z-N = 0 case.

(Now Z - N = 4)

Another proton to a neutron… we increase the energy by 3  E for a total change of 5  E

from Z - N = 0 case.

(Now Z -N = 6)
Continuing this, we can find the energy shift for a change in Z - N or N - Z.

Z – N or N - Z Total energy Shift (E) (N -Z)2/8

2 1 0.5
4 2 2
6 5 4.5
8 8 8
10 13 12.5
12 18 18
14 25 24.5
16 32 32

We can approximate this energy increase by (N -Z)2/8

It has been found that E decreases with A like A-1. Therefore, we can write the asymmetry
term as
(𝑁 − 𝑍)2 (𝐴 − 2𝑍)2
𝐸𝑎 = −𝑎4 = −𝑎4
𝐴 𝐴

Pairing Energy
The last correction term arises from the tendency of proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur.
Even-even nuclei are the most stable and hence higher binding energies than would
otherwise expect. Thus, such nuclei appear as peaks in the empirical curve of binding energy
per nucleon. At the other extreme, odd- odd nuclei have both unpaired protons and
neutrons and have relatively low binding energies. The pairing energy Ep is positive for even-
even nuclei, 0 for odd-even nuclei and even-odd nuclei, and negative for odd-odd nuclei. It
seems to vary with A as A-3/4. Hence Ep = ( ±,0) a5/A3/4