Personality and Individual

Differences
 Definition of Personality

Personality - A relatively stable set of characteristics

that influences an individual’s behavior
 Personality

➢ The sum total of ways in which

an individual reacts to and
interacts with others
➢ Most often described in terms
of measurable traits that a
person exhibits, such as shy,
aggressive, submissive, lazy,
ambitious, loyal and timid
 WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
The Dynamic Organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustments to his
environment.
What is Personality?
The dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment. - Gordon Allport.
➢ Personality refers to an individual's enduring pattern of behaviors,
thoughts, and emotions.
➢ personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings
and behaviors that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality
arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout
life.
➢ Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of
characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her
cognitions , motivations, and behaviors in various situations.
➢Measuring Personality
– Helpful in hiring decisions
– Most common method: self-reporting surveys
– Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent assessment of personality –
often better predictors
Personality Traits
Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s
behavior
– The more consistent the characteristic and the more
frequently it occurs in diverse situations, the more
important the trait.

➢Two dominant frameworks used to describe

personality:
– Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI®)
– Big Five Model
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®
Key personality components:

Myers-Briggs Extroversion/Introversion (E/I) –

Type Indicator® Social interaction
assessment is the
best known and Sensing/Intuiting (S/I) –
most trusted Collection of information
personality tool
available today Thinking/Feeling (T/F) –
Evaluation of information

Judging/Perceiving (J/P) –
Decision making
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
➢ Most widely used instrument in the world.
➢ Participants are classified on four axes to determine one of
16 possible personality types, such as ENTJ.

Sociable and Extroverted Introverted Quiet and

Assertive (E) (I) Shy

Practical and Sensing Intuitive Unconscious

Orderly (S) (N) Processes

Use Reason Thinking Feeling Uses Values

and Logic (T) (F) & Emotions

Want Order Perceiving Flexible and

Judging (J)
(P) Spontaneous
& Structure
 E – I Dichotomy: Source of Energy
➢ Most people who prefer ➢ Most people who prefer
Extraversion Introversion
– Prefer action over – Prefer reflection over
reflection action
• May act quickly w/out • May not take action at all
thinking – Attuned to inner world
– Attuned to external – Prefer to communicate in
environments writing
– Prefer to communicate by – Learn best through
talking thorough mental practice
– Learn best through doing and reflection
or discussing – Private and contained
– Sociable and expressive – Enjoy working alone or in
– Enjoy working in groups pairs
What is your E – I preference?

➢ Exercise
– When you are going to a large
party, what do you do?

– What do you consider a large

party or group?
 S – N Dichotomy: Take in Information
➢ Most people who ➢ Most people who
prefer Sensing prefer Intuition
– Emphasize the pragmatic – Emphasize the theoretical
– Prefer facts & details/ – Prefer general concepts/
specific information high-level plans
– Oriented to present – Oriented to future
possibilities
realities
– Value imagination
– Value realism
– See trends and patterns in
– Observe and remember specific data
specifics through 5 senses – Use a “sixth” sense
– Build carefully and – Move quickly to
thoroughly to conclusions conclusions, follow
– Trust experience hunches
– Trust inspiration
What is your S-N preference?

➢ Exercise
– How did you decide
whom to support?
 T – F Dichotomy: Decision Making
➢ Most people who ➢ Most people who
prefer Thinking prefer Feeling
– Analytical – Empathetic
– Use cause-and-effect – Guided by personal values
reasoning – Assess impact of decisions
– Solve problems with logic on people
– Strive for objective – Strive for harmony and
standard of truth positive interactions
– Reasonable – Compassionate
– Search for flaws in an – Search for point of
argument agreement in an argument
– Fair – want everyone – Fair – want everyone
treated equally treated as an individual

Which is worse: working in an environment that lacks

logic or an environment that lacks harmony?
What is your T-F Preference?

➢ Exercise
– Little League Coach for
the championship game
and you can only take
11 of 13 players to the
game.

– What do you do? How

do you choose?
 J – P Dichotomy: Lifestyle
➢ Most people who ➢ Most people who
prefer Judging prefer Perceiving
– Scheduled/Organized – Spontaneous/Flexible
– Strive to finish one project – Start many projects but
before starting another may have trouble finishing
– Like to have things decided them
• May decide things too – Like things loose and open
quickly to change
– Try to avoid last-minute • May decide things too
stresses; finish tasks well slowly
before deadline – Feel energized by last-
– Try to limit surprises minute pressures; finish
– See routines as effective tasks at the deadline
– Enjoy surprises
– See routines as limiting

Which is worse: “winging it” or adhering to a schedule?

What is your J-P Preference?

➢ Exercise
– Sending you on a
vacation with $5,000
– What do you do? How
do you go about it?
The Types and Their Uses
➢ Each of the sixteen possible combinations has a name,
for instance:
– Visionaries (INTJ) – original, stubborn, and driven.
– Organizers (ESTJ) – realistic, logical, analytical, and
businesslike.
– Conceptualizer (ENTP) – entrepreneurial, innovative,
individualistic, and resourceful.

➢ Research results on validity mixed.

– MBTI® is a good tool for self-awareness and counseling.
– Should not be used as a selection test for job candidates.
 Examples of MBTI® Types
Type Description
INFJ (introvert, intuitive, Quietly forceful, conscientious, and concerned for others. Such
feeling, judgmental) people succeed by perseverance, originality, and the desire to
do whatever is needed or wanted. They are often highly
respected for their uncompromising principles.
ESTP (extrovert, Blunt and sometimes insensitive. Such people are matter-of-fact
sensing, thinking, and do not run back, worry or hurry. They enjoy whatever comes
perceptive) along. They work best with real things that can be assembled or
disassembled.
ISFP (introvert, sensing, Sensitive, kind, modest, shy, and quietly friendly. Such people
feeling, perceptive) strongly dislike run back disagreements and will avoid them.
They are loyal followers and quite often are relaxed about
getting things done.
ENTJ (extrovert, Warm, friendly, candid, and decisive; also usually skilled in
intuitive, thinking, anything that requires reasoning and intelligent talk, but may
judgmental) sometimes overestimate what they are capable of doing.
 Occupational Trends by Type

ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ

Management Education Religion Scientific or
Administration Health care Counseling technical fields
Law enforcement Religious settings Teaching Computers
Accounting Arts Law

ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

Skilled trades Health care Counseling Scientific or
Technical fields Business Writing technical fields
Agriculture Law enforcement Arts
Law Enforcement
Military

ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

Marketing Health care Counseling Science
Skilled trades Teaching Teaching Management
Business Coaching Religion Technology
Law enforcement Childcare worker Arts Arts
Applied technology Skilled trades

ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

Management Education Religion Management
Administration Health care Arts Leadership
Law enforcement Religion Teaching

Source: From Introduction to Type and Careers, A.L. Hammer, 1993,

Consulting Psychologists Press
The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions

• Sociable, gregarious, and assertive

Extroversion

• Good-natured, cooperative, and

Agreeableness trusting

• Responsible, dependable,
Conscientiousness persistent, and organized

• Calm, self-confident, secure under

Emotional stress (positive), versus nervous,
Stability depressed, and insecure under stress
(negative)
Openness to • Curious, imaginative, artistic,
Experience and sensitive
 [Link]:

THIS TRAIT CONSIDERS YOUR SOCIABILITY, POSITIVE

EMOTIONALITY, ASSERTIVENESS, AND ACTIVITY OR ENERGY LEVEL.
 Extroversion
Positive:
1. I am the life of the party.
2. I don't mind being the center of attention.
3. I feel comfortable around people.
4. I start conversation.
5. I talk to a lot of different people at parties.

Negative:
1. I don't talk a lot.
2. I keep in the background.
3. I think a lot before I speak or act.
4. I don't like to draw attention to myself.
5. I am quiet around strangers.
6. I have no intention of talking in large
crowds.
•Extraverts: Sociable, talkative, assertive,
and open to establishing new
relationships – Bart Simpson.

Introverts: Less sociable, talkative, and

assertive and more reluctant to begin new
relationships – Harry Potter.
[Link]
A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative
rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards
others. It is also a measure of one's trusting and
helpful nature, and whether a person is
generally well tempered or not.
 Agreeableness

Positive:
1. I am interested in people.
2. I sympathize with others’ feelings.
3. I take time out for others.
4. I feel others’ emotions.
5. I make people feel at ease.
6. I have a soft heart.
Negative:
1. I am not really interested in others.
2. I am not interested in other people’s problem.
3. I don’t like think other people.
4. I insult people.
5. I feel little concern for others.
Agreeable : Gentle, cooperative, forgiving,
understanding, and good-natured in their
dealings with others.

Less agreeable : Irritable, short-tempered,

uncooperative, and generally antagonistic
toward other people.
 Big Five Personality Traits

➢ Managers high in agreeableness are likable,

affectionate and care about others

➢ Managers with low agreeableness may be

distrustful, unsympathetic, uncooperative and
antagonistic
 [Link]:

A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned
rather than spontaneous behavior; organized, and dependable.
 Conscientiousness

Positive:

1 I am always prepared.
2. I pay attention to details.
3 I get chores done right away.
4. I like order.
5. I follow a schedule.
6 I am exacting in my work

Negative:
1. I am not a responsible.
2. I am not a dependable .
3. I don’t want to organize any program.
4. I leave my belongings around.
Conscientious : Focus on relatively few goals
at one time are likely to be organized,
systematic, careful, thorough, responsible,
and self-disciplined – Robocop.

Less conscientious : Pursue a wider array of

goals, and are more disorganized, careless,
and irresponsible, less thorough and less self-
disciplined – Iron Man.
 Big Five Personality Traits

➢ Managers high in this trait are organized and self-

disciplined

➢ Managers low in this trait lack direction and self-

discipline.
 [Link] stability:

The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such

as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability. Neuroticism
also refers to the degree of emotional stability and impulse
control and is sometimes referred to by its low pole,
"emotional stability".
Emotional Stability:

✓ Calm ✓ Nervous
✓ Depressed
✓ Self-confident
✓ Insecure
✓ Secure
Emotionally stable : Relatively poised, calm,
resilient, and secure. Better handle job stress
pressure, and tension – James Bond 007.

Emotionally not stable : Excitable, insecure,

reactive, and subject to extreme mood
swings. Less stable – Woody Allen.
 [Link] to Experience:

Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and

variety of experience. Openness reflects the degree of intellectual
curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a person
has. It is also described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or
independent, and depicts a personal preference for a variety of activities
over a strict routine. Some disagreement remains about how to interpret
the openness factor, which is sometimes called "intellect" rather than
openness to experience.
 Openness to Experience:

Positive:
1. I have vivid imagination.
2. I have excellent ideas .
3. I am quick to understand things.
4. I spend time reflecting on things.

Negative:
1.I am not interested in abstractions.
2. I do not have a good imagination.
3.I have difficulty understanding
abstract ideas.
Open to experience: Willing to listen to new
ideas and to change their own ideas, beliefs,
and attitudes in response to new
information. Have broad interests and to be
curious, imaginative, and creative –
Einstein.
Less open to experience : Tend to be less
receptive to new ideas and less willing to
change their minds. They have fewer and
narrower interests and to be less curious
and creative – Spoke.
 Big Five Personality Traits

➢Managers who are high in openness to experience

may be especially likely to take risks and be
innovative in their planning and decision making

➢Managers who are low in this trait may be less prone

to take risks and be more conservative in their
planning and decision making
Measures
The Big five Model (With High-low Scores):
Low Scores High Scores
Loner Joiner
Extroversion Quiet Talkative
Passive Active
Reserved Affectionate
Suspicious Trusting
Agreeableness Critical Lenient
Ruthless Soft-hearted
Irritable Good natured
Negligent Conscientious
Conscientiousness Lazy Hard – working
Disorganized Well-Organized
Late Punctual
Calm Worried
Emotional Stability Even tempered Temperamental
Comfortable Self conscious
Unemotional Emotional
Down to earth Imaginative
Openness to Experience Uncreative Creative
Conventional Original
Uncurious Curious
 The Dark Triad
➢ Machiavellianism
– A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes
that ends justify the means.
– High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade
more than they are persuaded. Flourish when:
• Have direct interaction
• Work with minimal rules and regulations
• Emotions distract others
➢ Narcissism
– An arrogant, entitled, self-important
person who needs excessive admiration.
– Less effective in their jobs.
➢ Psychopathy The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a
lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm.
Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
➢ Core Self-Evaluation
– The degree to which people like or dislike themselves
– Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance
➢ Self-monitoring A personality trait that measures an individual’s
ability to adjust their behaviour to external, situational factors
– The ability to adjust behavior to meet external, situational
factors.
– High monitors conform more and are more likely to become
leaders.

➢ Proactive Personality
– Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action,
and perseveres to completion
– Creates positive change in the environment
 What Are Values?
48

➢ A broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs

over others.
➢ Values have to do with what we consider good and
bad.
➢ Values are motivational and very general.
Values
Values
Basic convictions that a specific
mode of conduct or end-state of
existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence.

Value System
A hierarchy based on a ranking of
an individual’s values in terms of
their intensity.
Importance of Values
➢ Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and
behaviors
➢ Influence our perception of the world around us
➢ Represent interpretations of “right” and “wrong”
➢ Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred
over others
Classifying Values – Rokeach Value Survey
➢ Terminal Values
– Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person
would like to achieve during his or her lifetime
➢ Instrumental Values
– Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving
one’s terminal values

➢ People in same occupations or categories tend to hold

similar values
– But values vary between groups
– Value differences make it difficult for groups to negotiate
and may create conflict
Values in the Rokeach Survey
 Areas Need to be focused

I. MBTI
II. Big Five Model
III. Values