Genotype : refers to the actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage genotype is
expressed in observable and measurable features and is known as PHENOTYPE. Phenotype
includes physical traits such as height, weight, eye and skin colour, as well as some
psychological traits (such as intelligence, creativity and personality). these observable
features of an individual are the result of interaction between the environment and the
inherited traits
*genes provide a unique pattern and time table for the development of an individual. But
genes don’t exist in isolation. Development occurs within and in relation to the environment
(the surroundings/ environment) of the person
Environmental influences: environment provided by the family, school, peers etc shapes the
person.
Sandra Scarr(1992) believes that the environment provided by parents for their children
depends to some extent on their own genetic pre disposition. Eg- intelligent parents would
provide their children with books to read. This would most likely lead to the child becoming
a good reader too. A child’s genotype (such as being cooperative and attentive) is likely to
result in teachers and parents giving more positive responses to them, as compared to
children who are inattentive.
*Children themselves choose certain environments based on their genotype. Eg. A child may
perform well in music because of his/her genotype. He/she will seek and spend more time in
an environment which will enable him/her to perform.
Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of Development
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development emphasizes the role of environmental
factors in the development of an individual.
According to him, a child’s development is affected by the world around
her/him (could be the conversations s/he has with her/his playmates, or the social
and economic life circumstances.)
Research shows that children in impoverished environments mostly have un-
stimulating environment-which lacks books, magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences
such as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., have parents who are ineffective as role
models, and live in overcrowded and noisy surroundings. As a result of these
conditions, children are at a disadvantage and have difficulties in learning.
i. The microsystem is the immediate environment/setting in which the individual
lives. It is in these settings where the child directly interacts with social
agents – the family, peers, teachers, and neighborhood.
ii. The mesosystem consists of relations between the components of the Microsystem.
For example, how a child’s parents relate to the teachers, or how the parents view the
adolescent’s friends, are likely to influence an individual’s relationships with others.
iii. The exosystem includes events in social settings where the child does not participate
directly, but they influence the childs’ experiences in the immediate context. For
example, the transfer of father or mother may cause tension among the parents which
might affect their interactions with the child or the general facilities available to the
child like quality of schooling, libraries, medical care, means of entertainment, etc.
iv. Macrosystem includes the culture in which the individual lives.
v. Chronosystem involves events in the individual’s life course, and socio-historical
circumstances of the time such as, divorce of parents or parents’ economic setback,
and their effect on the child.
Sinha’s Model
1. Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an ecological model for understanding the
development of children in Indian context.
2. Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms of two concentric layers
a) Upper layer
b) Surrounding layer
3. The “upper and the more visible layers” consist of home, school, peer groups, and so on.
The most important ecological factors influencing development of the child in the visible
upper layer constitute the:
i. Home, its conditions in terms of overcrowding, space available to each
member, toys, technological devices used, etc.,
ii. Nature and quality of schooling, facilities to which the child is exposed, and
iii. Nature of interactions and activities undertaken with peer groups from childhood
onwards.
These factors constantly interact with one another.
4. These are embedded in a larger setting, the “surrounding layers”. The elements of the
surrounding layer of ecology constitute the:
i. general geographical environment: It includes space and facilities for play and other
activities available outside the home including general congestion of the
locality and density of population,
ii. institutional setting: provided by caste, class, and other factors, and
iii. General amenities available to the child like drinking water, electricity, means of
entertainment and so on.
The visible and the surrounding layer factors interact with one another and may have
different consequences for development in different people. The ecological environment can
change or alter during any time of the individual’s life-span. Therefore, to understand
differences in the functioning of an individual, it is important to see the individual in the
context of her/ his experiences
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
1) human life proceeds through various stages
2) developmental stages are assumed to be temporary. They are often characterized by a
dominant feature or a leading characteristic which gives each period its uniqueness.
3) In each stage, the person progresses towards an assumed goal- a state or an ability that
he/she must achieve in the same order as other persons, before progressing to the next
stage in the sequence. Each individual differs from the other in terms of the time and
rate of development from one stage to the next.
4) Certain patterns of behavior and certain skills are learned more easily and successfully
during certain stages. these achievements of a person become the social expectations
of that stage of development. These are called developmental tasks.
PRE NATAL STAGE
Is the period from conception to birth. Typically lasts for 40 weeks. Genotype guides the
development from pre-natal period and till after birth.
1) Both genes and environment affect our development.
2) Development during this stage is also affected by maternal characteristics-such as
mothers age, nutrition, emotional state, disease or infection carried by mother. Eg.
HIV, genital herpes.
3) Teratogens: are environment agents that cause deviations in normal development and
can lead to abnormalities and even death. Common teratogens are – drugs(cocaine),
infections, radiations(x-rays), toxins (pollutants, carbon mono oxide, lead.
INFANCY (0 TO 2 YRS)
Just before birth newborns have most but not all brain cells. Neural connections among these
cells develop at a rapid rate.
Motor development
Reflexes: are automatic, built in responses to stimuli. They are genetically carried survival
mechanism and are the building blocks for motor development.
1) Movement of the newborn are governed by reflexes. They act as adaptive mechanisms
before the baby has had the chance to learn various responses. Some reflexes are
present throughout the life-like, coughing, sneezing, yawning. Others disappear as the
brain functions develop.
2) As brain develops, physical development also happens. Muscles and nervous system
mature. Basic motor skills are-grasping , sitting , crawling, walking, running.
Sensory development
1) Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli rather than others-such as faces. These
preferences change over time.
2) Vision: a newborn’s vision is lower than the adult vision. By 6 months, vision
improves. By 1 yr, vision is almost the same as that of an adult (20/20). Current
research suggests that newborns may be able to differentiate between red and white
colors. Full color vision develops by 3 months of age.
3) Hearing: infants can hear right after birth. As they grow , they are better able to
recognize the direction of sound.
4) Newborns respond to touch and can feel pain.
5) Smell and taste capacities are present in newborns
Cognitive development
1. Piaget believed that children actively construct their understanding of the
world. As children grow, info in learned and they adapt the thinking to include
new ideas etc. (table 4.2).
2. He believed that a child’s mind passes through a series of stages of thought,
from infancy to adolescence. Each stage is more advanced than the other.
3. The child experiences the world through senses and interaction with objects,
through looking, hearing, touching, grasping.
4. Newborns live in the present and focus on the immediate sensory experience.
What’s out of sight is out of mind. Eg. If a toy with which child was playing is
hidden in front of him, the infant would react as if nothing has happened, i.e.,
he will not search for the toy. By 8 months, child starts pursuing the object
partially covered in his/ her presence. They lack object permanence. They are
unaware that an object will continue to exist even when it is not visible to
them.
Socio-emotional development
a. Infants prefer familiar faces and respond to parent’s presence by cooing and
gurgling.
b. They show preference for mother’s company. When frightened by new
situations, they cry or show distress.
c. Attachment: refers to the close emotional bond of affection that develops
between infants and parents.
Harlow and Harlow (1962) did a study where baby monkeys were separated from their
mothers after 8 hours of birth. They were placed in experimental chambers and were reared
by substitute mothers-one made of wire and the other of cloth. Half of the baby monkeys
were fed by the cloth mother, and the other half by wire mother. Irrespective of which mother
they were fed by, they showed a preference for the cloth mother and spent a lot of time with
her. Thus, this demonstrates that providing nourishment or feeding was not crucial for
attachment. Contact –comfort was vital for attachment to develop. Human Babies also form
an attachment with their parents/ caregivers who respond to their signals of love and affection
d. Erikson(1968) believed that the first year of life is vital for development of
attachment. It represents the stage of developing trust or mistrust. Trust
develops in infant when physical comfort is provided and when parents are
responsive, accepting and sensitive. If parents are insensitive and show
dissatisfaction and find fault with child, it creates a feeling of self-doubt in
child.
CHILDHOOD (2-11)
1) Child’s growth slows down during early childhood. Child develops physically and
gains weight, height and learns to walk, jump etc. Child has increased physical
capacities and can perform tasks independently, set goals and meet adult expectations.
2) Child’s social world expands to the family and adults nearby and at school. He begins
to acquire concepts of good and bad.
2. Physical
development
3. 1. Early
development follows 2
principles-
4. -Development
proceeds
cephalocaudally (from
head to tail
region) :child gains
control over the
5. upper body before
the lower part.
6. -Development
proceeds
Proximodistally:
Growth proceeds from
center of body and
moves
7. towards extremities.
Child gains control
over torso before the
extremities.
8. 2. As child grows,
body fat decreases,
the trunk part
lengthens and they
look slimmer.
9. 3. Brain and head
grow more rapidly
than other parts of
body. Growth and
development of brain
10. helps in
maturation of abilities.
11. 4. In middle and
late childhood, child
increases substantially
in size and strength.
Increase in size of
12. some body
organs, skeletal and
muscular systems lead
to increase in weight.
13. Motor
development (table
4.3 NCERT )
14. 1. Two main types
of skills develop-
15. -gross motor skills:
involve use of arms,
legs. [Link],
jumping, walking
16. -fine motor skills:
finger dexterity, eye-
hand coordination. Eg.
Holding a pencil,
thread beads.
17. Preference for
hand develops in early
childhood
18. Physical
development
19. 1. Early
development follows 2
principles-
20. -Development
proceeds
cephalocaudally (from
head to tail
region) :child gains
control over the
21. upper body before
the lower part.
22. -Development
proceeds
Proximodistally:
Growth proceeds from
center of body and
moves
23. towards
extremities. Child
gains control over
torso before the
extremities.
24. 2. As child grows,
body fat decreases,
the trunk part
lengthens and they
look slimmer.
25. 3. Brain and head
grow more rapidly
than other parts of
body. Growth and
development of brain
26. helps in
maturation of abilities.
27. 4. In middle and
late childhood, child
increases substantially
in size and strength.
Increase in size of
28. some body
organs, skeletal and
muscular systems lead
to increase in weight.
29. Motor
development (table
4.3 NCERT )
30. 1. Two main types
of skills develop-
31. -gross motor skills:
involve use of arms,
legs. [Link],
jumping, walking
32. -fine motor skills:
finger dexterity, eye-
hand coordination. Eg.
Holding a pencil,
thread beads.
33. Preference for
hand develops in early
childhood.
34. Physical
development
35. 1. Early
development follows 2
principles-
36. -Development
proceeds
cephalocaudally (from
head to tail
region) :child gains
control over the
37. upper body before
the lower part.
38. -Development
proceeds
Proximodistally:
Growth proceeds from
center of body and
moves
39. towards
extremities. Child
gains control over
torso before the
extremities.
40. 2. As child grows,
body fat decreases,
the trunk part
lengthens and they
look slimmer.
41. 3. Brain and head
grow more rapidly
than other parts of
body. Growth and
development of brain
42. helps in
maturation of abilities.
43. 4. In middle and
late childhood, child
increases substantially
in size and strength.
Increase in size of
44. some body
organs, skeletal and
muscular systems lead
to increase in weight.
45. Motor
development (table
4.3 NCERT )
46. 1. Two main types
of skills develop-
47. -gross motor skills:
involve use of arms,
legs. [Link],
jumping, walking
48. -fine motor skills:
finger dexterity, eye-
hand coordination. Eg.
Holding a pencil,
thread beads.
49. Preference for
hand develops in early
childhood.
Physical development
1. Early development follows 2 principles-
-Development proceeds cephalocaudally (from head to tail region) :child gains control
over the upper body before the lower part.
-Development proceeds Proximodistally: Growth proceeds from center of body and
moves towards extremities. Child gains control over torso before the extremities.
2. As child grows, body fat decreases, the trunk part lengthens and they look slimmer.
3. Brain and head grow more rapidly than other parts of body. Growth and development of
brain helps in maturation of abilities.
4. In middle and late childhood, child increases substantially in size and strength. Increase in
size of some body organs, skeletal and muscular systems lead to increase in weight.
Motor development (table 4.3 NCERT )
1. Two main types of skills develop-
-gross motor skills: involve use of arms, legs. [Link], jumping, walking
-fine motor skills: finger dexterity, eye-hand coordination. Eg. Holding a pencil,
thread beads. Preference for hand develops in early childhood.
Cognitive Development
1. In early childhood, cognitive development focuses on Piaget’s stage of pre operational
thought.
Some important features of this stage are:
1) Child gains ability to mentally represent an object that is not physically present.
Child’s ability to engage in symbolic thought helps to expand the mental world.
2) Egocentrism: (self-focus) Child sees world only in terms of their own selves and are
unable to appreciate other’s viewpoint.
3) Animism: child views all things as living. They assign life like qualities to in animate
objects. Eg. If a child falls down on the road while running, he may say “road hurt
me”.
4) Intuitive thought: around 4 to 7 years of age child wants answers to all his question.
These questions help child to know why things are the way they are.
5) Centration: refers to the process of focusing on a single feature for understanding an
event and ignoring other features.
6) 2. Concrete
operational thought
7) i. Develops during 7
to 11 years of age.
8) ii. Intuitive thought
is replaced by logical
thought.
9) iii. Concrete
operational thought is
made up of
operations. Operations
refer to mental
10) actions that allow
child to do mentally
what was done
physically before.
11) iv. Concrete
operations allow child
to focus on different
features and not just
focus on one
12) aspect of an
object. This helps the
child to admire the
fact that there are
different
13) perspectives of
looking at things. This
results in the decline
of egocentrism in
child.
14) v. Thinking
becomes flexible, child
can think about
alternatives to solve
problems or
15) mentally retrace
steps if required
2. Concrete operational thought
1) Develops during 7 to 11 years of age.
2) Intuitive thought is replaced by logical thought.
3) Concrete operational thought is made up of operations. Operations refer to mental
actions that allow child to do mentally what was done physically before.
4) Concrete operations allow child to focus on different features and not just focus on
one aspect of an object. This helps the child to admire the fact that there are different
perspectives of looking at things. This results in the decline of egocentrism in child.
5) Thinking becomes flexible, child can think about alternatives to solve problems or
mentally retrace steps if required
Socio-emotional development
1) Self, gender and moral development occur. Child develops a sense of who he is and
who he wants to be identified with, because of socialization.
2) A sense of independence starts to develop which makes children do things in their
own way.
3) Acc. to Erikson , the way parents respond to a child’s self-initiated activities , lead to
development of either a sense of initiative or guilt
4) Self-understanding in a early childhood is limited to defining oneself through physical
characteristics (eg. I’m tall , I’m a boy).
5) Middle and late childhood: child is likely to define oneself through internal features
such as I’m smart and I’m popular. Child’s self-description also includes social
aspects of self, such as references to social groups (like being a member of school’s
music band, religious group etc)
6) Child’s self-understanding also includes social comparison. He is likely to think about
what he can or can’t do in comparison with others. This developmental shift helps
child to know and establish his own differences from that of others. When child enters
school, their world expands beyond family. They are able to interact with their age
mates, peers. These interactions shape the development.
7) Moral Development
8) 1. Child learns to
differentiate between
rightness and
wrongness of human
acts.
9) 2. According to
Kohlberg, children
pass through various
stages of moral
development.
10) i. He interviewed
children in which they
were presented with
stories. In these
stories the
11) characters faced
moral dilemmas.
Children were asked,
what the character in
that situation
12) should do, and
why.
13) ii. According to
him children below 9
years of age think in
terms of external
authority, [Link]
14) child believes that
actions are wrong
because he is
punished and right
because he is
rewarded.
15) iii. As the child
grows he develops
moral reasoning
through a set of rule
of others such as
16) parents, laws of
society. The child
accepts these rules
and adheres to them.
These rules are
17) internalized so as
to win the approval
from others and not
only to avoid
punishment.
18) Moral thinking at
this stage is somewhat
rigid. But, as child
grows he/she
gradually develops a
19) personal moral
code.
20) 3. By the end of
childhood language
develops, child can
reason logically,
becomes more
21) involved in social
systems (family, peers
and school) and
develops skills of
coordination and
balance
Moral Development
1. Child learns to differentiate between rightness and wrongness of human acts.
2. According to Kohlberg, children pass through various stages of moral development.
i. He interviewed children in which they were presented with stories. In these stories the
characters faced moral dilemmas. Children were asked, what the character in that
situation should do, and why.
ii. According to him children below 9 years of age think in terms of external authority,
[Link] child believes that actions are wrong because he is punished and right because
he is rewarded.
iii. As the child grows he develops moral reasoning through a set of rule of others such as
parents, laws of society. The child accepts these rules and adheres to them. These
rules are internalized so as to win the approval from others and not only to avoid
punishment.
Moral thinking at this stage is somewhat rigid. But, as child grows he/she gradually develops
a personal moral code.
3. By the end of childhood language develops, child can reason logically, becomes more
involved in social systems (family, peers and school) and develops skills of coordination and
balance.