DESIGN OF SOLAR POWERED EV CHARGING STATION WITH HYBRID ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM AND P

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

As the world increasingly shifts toward cleaner and more sustainable modes of
transportation, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a vital solution to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. However, the growing number of EVs brings
forth a parallel need for efficient and eco-friendly charging infrastructure. Traditional
charging stations, which rely heavily on electricity from conventional grids, often contradict
the environmental goals they are meant to support. This has led to a pressing need to explore
renewable energy alternatives for powering EV charging networks.

Among renewable energy sources, photovoltaic (PV) solar energy presents a highly
promising option. It offers the advantage of being abundant, environmentally clean, and
increasingly cost-effective. However, integrating solar energy into EV charging systems is
not without its challenges. Solar energy is inherently variable, depending on weather
conditions and the time of day, which can lead to inconsistencies in power supply. Therefore,
the key lies not only in using PV energy but in managing it efficiently to meet the fluctuating
demands of EV charging.

This project focuses on developing a refined management strategy for EV charging

stations powered by photovoltaic energy. The primary aim is to enhance energy efficiency,
improve system responsiveness, and ensure reliability even in the face of variable solar input.
By utilizing smart grid technologies, advanced control algorithms, and predictive data
analysis, the proposed strategy will help in making real-time decisions on energy allocation,
storage utilization, and user prioritization.

Ultimately, this project endeavours to create a more intelligent and sustainable EV

charging ecosystem. By harnessing solar power through improved energy management, the
solution aims to reduce carbon emissions, lower operational costs, and promote the
widespread adoption of electric vehicles. It supports the global vision of smart energy
systems and contributes meaningfully to the advancement of green mobility infrastructure.

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 DESIGN OF SOLAR POWERED EV CHARGING STATION WITH HYBRID ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM AND P

Through this initiative, the project aspires to contribute to the broader goals of sustainable
transportation and smart city development. By leveraging solar power more effectively, the
proposed strategy not only lowers operational costs and environmental impact but also
ensures that EV users experience convenient, fast, and eco-friendly charging solutions.
Ultimately, this research will serve as a stepping stone towards building intelligent,
decentralized, and self-sufficient energy infrastructures for the future of mobility.

By implementing such a strategy, this initiative supports not only the growth of electric
mobility but also the broader vision of sustainable energy ecosystems. It lays the groundwork
for energy-efficient urban development, reduces dependence on grid electricity, and promotes
the utilization of clean, decentralized energy sources. Ultimately, the project aspires to serve
as a model for future smart charging networks that align with both environmental goals and
user expectations.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The main objectives this project is given below:-

 To integrate Photo Voltaic system into EV charging stations.

 To integrate hybrid energy storage system including both batteries and super
capacitors in EV charging station.

 To simulate EV fast charging by using PV power and grid power.

 To reduce voltage sag and burden on grid during peak load demand using D-
STATCOM.

1.3 LITRATURE SURVEY

The literature survey done during the project research include.
“Simulation of an Electric Vehicle Charging Station Supplied by Photovoltaic
Energy” [1] about integration of Photo Voltaic system into charging station. It also
explains the advantages of integration.
“An improved energy management strategy for a dc microgrid including electric
vehicle fast charging stations” [2] integration of grid with EV charging station and the

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problems faced by integration it with grid. It also explains about V2G and G2V methods
to manage grid.
“Research on the Design of Bidirectional DC/DC Converter Power Allocation
Strategy for Super capacitor and Battery Hybrid Energy Storage” [3] power
distribution strategy of the composite power supply and the model of the composite
power supply system is built and analysed.
“Modelling and Simulation of DSTATCOM for Power Quality Improvement in
Distribution System Using MATLAB Simulink Tool” [4] DSTATCOM is developed
for the compensating reactive power demanded by non-linear and unbalanced load. Also,
power factor of the source is improved and the Total Harmonic Distortion in the source
currents is reduced.

1.4 OVERVIEW

The project can be classified into four main systems which includes: -

 Photo Voltaic System Converts sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic (PV)
panels, this voltage is boosted to required DC bus voltage. Perturb & Observe method
is used for MPPT control.
 Energy Storage System Stores excess energy from Photo Voltaic system through bi-
direction Buck-Boost converter. It is later used to charge EVs and provide backup
power and grid stability.
 EV Charging System Supplies electric power to fast charge electric vehicles (EVs)
efficiently through the Buck converter. Level-3 fast charging method is utilized.
 Grid Connection is used to charge the EVs and Through D-STATCOM we can
improve power quality by regulating voltage and reactive power. Helps in stabilizing
the grid and reducing harmonics.

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Fig 1.1:- Block diagrams of the systems

A. Photo Voltaic (PV) System

This system harnesses solar energy using photovoltaic panels to generate electricity.
In the EV charging setup, the PV system:

Reduces dependence on grid electricity.

Provides a clean and renewable energy source.

Helps power the EV charging station directly or charge the energy storage system.

Contributes to cost savings and energy efficiency over time.

B. Energy Storage System

This system stores excess energy generated by the PV system or taken from the grid
during off-peak hours. Its role includes:

Ensuring uninterrupted charging services even during low sunlight or grid failures.

Reducing peak load on the grid by supplying stored energy during high demand. Improving
the station’s energy reliability and autonomy.

C. Grid Integration through D-STATCOM

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The D-STATCOM (Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator) enhances power

quality and supports grid stability. It functions by:

Reducing voltage sag and compensating reactive power.

Handling peak demand more efficiently.

Making the EV station a more grid-friendly load, especially when multiple fast chargers
operate simultaneously.

D. EV Fast Charging System

This is the main user-facing component that charges electric vehicles rapidly. Key
points include:

Uses high-power DC fast chargers for quicker charging times.

Needs a stable and sufficient power supply (hence, importance of the above three systems).

Designed for compatibility with multiple EV models and connector types.

Supports smart features like user authentication, billing, and energy monitoring.

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CHAPTER 2

E.V. CHARGING STATION

2.1. INTRODUCTION

An EV Charging Station is an infrastructure that supplies electrical power to recharge

electric vehicles (EVs), including cars, bikes, and buses. With the global shift toward clean
mobility, these stations are becoming essential components of sustainable transport networks.
Electric vehicle charging stations, also known as Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE),
are a vital part of the infrastructure needed to support the growing adoption of electric
vehicles (EVs). They provide the electrical energy required to recharge the batteries of plug-
in EVs, including cars, motorcycles, and buses. They serve as the connection point between
the electrical grid and the EV, providing the necessary power to replenish the vehicle's
battery. As the global shift towards sustainable transportation accelerates, understanding the
fundamentals of EV charging stations becomes increasingly crucial for individuals,
businesses, and policymakers alike. At its heart, an EV charging station's primary function is
to safely and efficiently transfer electrical energy from the power grid to an electric vehicle's
battery. This seemingly simple task involves various technical considerations, safety
protocols, and evolving technologies to cater to different charging needs and locations.
Electric vehicle charging stations are more than just "plugs" for cars. They represent a vital
link in the electric mobility ecosystem, enabling the practical and convenient use of EVs. As
technology advances and infrastructure expands, these charging points will become
increasingly integrated into our daily lives, playing a crucial role in the transition towards a
cleaner and more sustainable transportation future in Hyderabad, Telangana, India, and across
the globe. Understanding their fundamentals is the first step towards embracing this electric
revolution.

2.2. TYPES OF EV CHARGING

EVs can be charged using either Alternating Current (AC) or Direct Current (DC).

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 AC Charging: The charging station supplies AC power to the vehicle's onboard

charger, which then converts it to DC to charge the battery. AC charging is typically
slower.

 DC Charging (Rapid Charging): The charging station has a built-in AC-to-DC

converter and directly supplies DC power to the vehicle's battery, bypassing the
onboard charger. This allows for much faster charging times.

Electric vehicle (EV) charging is categorized into three main levels: Level 1, Level 2, and
Level 3 (DC Fast Charging). Each level differs in terms of voltage, charging speed,
installation requirements, and ideal usage scenarios

 Level 1 charging: -is the most basic and widely accessible form of EV charging. It
uses a standard 120-volt household outlet and typically requires no special equipment.
While convenient, Level 1 is also the slowest, adding only about 3 to 5 miles of range
per hour of charging. It is best suited for overnight charging at home, especially for
users with short daily commutes.
 Level 2 charging: -is significantly faster and uses a 240-volt power source, similar to
what is used for large household appliances like dryers or ovens. These chargers can
deliver 10 to 60 miles of range per hour, depending on the vehicle and charger
capacity. Level 2 chargers are common in homes, workplaces, parking lots, and public
charging locations. They often require a dedicated charging unit to be installed and are
ideal for both residential and commercial use.
 Level 3 charging: -also known as DC Fast Charging, provides the fastest charging
option available. Unlike Levels 1 and 2, which use alternating current (AC), Level 3
chargers supply direct current (DC) directly to the vehicle’s battery. These chargers
operate at 400 volts or higher and can charge an EV up to 80% in 20 to 40 minutes,
depending on the battery size and charging capability. Level 3 chargers are primarily
found at highway rest stops, commercial charging hubs, and high-traffic urban areas.
However, they are more expensive to install and are typically not used for home
charging. Each level of charging serves different needs, and the choice depends on
factors such as daily travel distance, charging location, and vehicle compatibility. As
EV technology continues to improve, these charging levels are evolving to become
faster, more efficient, and more accessible.

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2.3 COMPONENTS OF AN EV CHARGING STATION

Fig: -2.1 Charging Infrastructure

1. Power Supply Unit – This unit is source of electricity (grid, solar, or hybrid). The
main function of this system is to supply electric energy to the system.

2. Charge Controller – this unit manages voltage/current flow and ensures safe
charging. Its function is to control the power flow through the charger.

3. Connector & Cable – this is a physical medium between the charger and EV. The
connector and cables are used to connect the power supply too the electric vehicle.

4. User Interface – It consists of display, payment systems, and app/website

integration. It acts as an interface for different activities like, knowing charging
status and payment etc.

5. Energy Storage System (optional) – It consists of batteries to store and release

energy as needed.

2.4 TECHNOLOGIES USED IN EV CHARGING: -

EV charging technologies are evolving rapidly, aimed at improving speed, efficiency, and
grid integration. The key technologies include:

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a. Charging Hardware: Depending on the level (1, 2, or 3), charging stations are
equipped with appropriate connectors like Type 1, Type 2, CHAdeMO, CCS, or Tesla
proprietary connectors. Fast chargers use DC technology, while Levels 1 and 2 use.
b. AC Smart Charging: Intelligent charging systems use communication protocols like
OCPP (Open Charge Point Protocol) to interact with EVs and back-end systems.
These enable real-time monitoring, load balancing, remote diagnostics, demand-
response management, and automated billing.
c. Renewable Integration: Many modern stations integrate solar photovoltaic (PV)
panels, wind turbines, and battery energy storage systems (BESS) to reduce grid
dependence and enhance sustainability.
d. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): This emerging technology allows EVs to discharge energy
back into the grid during peak times, turning EVs into mobile energy assets.
e. Mobile & App-based Management: Charging stations often offer digital services
like mobile apps for locator maps, payments, reservations, and status alerts,
improving convenience and user engagement.
f. Wireless Charging: Inductive charging technology is being developed to enable
wireless, contactless charging—especially useful for public transportation or dynamic
charging lanes.

2.5 EV CHARGING STATION INFRASTRUCTURE: -

Electric vehicle (EV) charging station infrastructure refers to the physical and digital
components required to support EV charging services. It includes the charging hardware,
energy supply connections, control systems, billing mechanisms, user interfaces, and often
energy storage solutions. The infrastructure also encompasses the electrical grid
interconnection, software management systems, and safety protocols to ensure smooth and
secure operation. Charging stations can range from simple residential setups to complex
multi-port public or commercial stations integrated with smart energy system. A robust
charging infrastructure involves multiple elements: power supply lines (AC/DC),
transformers, protection units, smart meters, and communication modules. In addition,
infrastructure must be scalable to support future expansion as EV adoption grows. The
planning also includes

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Fig: -2.2 EV charging station

considerations for maintenance access, vehicle maneuverability, parking arrangements, and

weather protection in outdoor installations.

2.6 LOCATION PLANNING FOR CHARGING STATIONS: -

Strategic location planning is essential for building an efficient and accessible EV

charging network. Factors influencing site selection include:

 Traffic Flow and Usage Patterns: High-traffic areas like shopping malls, highways,
office complexes, and urban centers are prime locations for public charging stations.
Fast chargers are best placed along intercity highways, while Level 2 chargers suit
urban and residential areas.
 Power Availability and Grid Capacity: A site must have the necessary electrical
infrastructure to support multiple charging units without overloading the local grid.
Proximity to substations or the possibility of installing renewable systems is also
evaluated.
 Accessibility and Safety: Stations should be easy to access, well-lit, secure, and
preferably under surveillance. Clear signage and dedicated EV parking spots are
crucial for usability.
 Proximity to Amenities: For user convenience, charging stations are often placed
near restrooms, cafes, restaurants, or lounges—especially important for DC fast
charging where wait times are longer.
 Cost and Regulations: Land acquisition, construction costs, zoning laws, and local
government incentives also play a major role in deciding suitable locations. Urban
planning authorities often collaborate with private entities to streamline installations.

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 Future Expansion: Ideal locations should have space and infrastructure support to
scale up as EV adoption increases. This includes potential to add more chargers,
integrate renewable energy, or introduce V2G capabilities.

A well-developed EV charging station infrastructure, empowered by smart and

renewable technologies and supported by strategic location planning, is vital to accelerating
the electric mobility transition. As EV adoption rises, the focus must shift from basic
installations to intelligent, user-friendly, and energy-efficient networks that can scale
sustainably. With ongoing innovation in hardware, software, and planning tools, the future of
EV charging is set to be cleaner, smarter, and seamlessly integrated into our daily lives.

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CHAPTER-3
SOLAR ENERGY INTEGRATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar Energy Integration is a crucial area of research in the field of electrical power
engineering. With the increasing demand for clean and sustainable energy sources, it is
becoming increasingly important to integrate renewable energy into the grid. This creates a
challenge for grid operators who must balance supply and demand to maintain a stable
power supply. To overcome this challenge, researchers are developing new energy storage
systems and optimizing the use of existing infrastructure to better manage fluctuating energy
supply. One of the key areas of research in solar energy integration is the development of new
energy storage systems. Energy storage systems can help to balance the supply and demand
of solar energy, ensuring that excess energy generated during peak periods is stored and can
be used when demand is high. There are a variety of energy storage technologies being
researched, including batteries, pumped hydro storage, and compressed air energy storage.
Another area of research is focused on optimizing the use of existing infrastructure to better
manage fluctuating energy supply. This includes the use of demand response programs,
which encourage consumers to adjust their energy usage in response to fluctuations in energy
supply. For example, a consumer may choose to charge their electric vehicle during a period
of excess renewable energy supply, rather than during peak demand periods. In
addition to developing new energy storage systems and optimizing the use of existing
infrastructure, researchers are also focused on developing new technologies for the
efficient and reliable transmission and distribution of renewable energy. This includes
the development of new high-voltage transmission lines and the integration of renewable
energy into the smart grid. Overall, the integration of renewable energy into the grid is a
complex and ongoing area of research in electrical power engineering. By developing new
energy storage systems, optimizing the use of existing infrastructure, and developing new
transmission and distribution technologies, researchers are working to ensure that renewable
energy can be integrated into the grid in a way that is efficient, reliable, and sustainable.

As the global demand for energy continues to rise, the urgent need to transition
towards sustainable and low-carbon energy sources has become increasingly clear. Solar

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energy offers a viable solution to mitigate the environmental impacts associated with
conventional fossil fuel-based energy systems. However, the successful adoption of
renewable energy technologies requires careful integration into existing power grids,
infrastructures, and markets. Solar systems are variable and decentralized, posing unique
technical, operational, and economic challenges. Effective integration must therefore address
issues such as intermittency, grid stability, energy storage, demand management, and
regulatory frameworks.

Advancements in smart grid technologies, energy storage systems, forecasting

techniques, and demand-side management strategies are playing a critical role in overcoming
these challenges. Additionally, supportive policy environments and investment in grid
modernization are essential to facilitate higher penetrations of renewable. Achieving
successful renewable energy integration is not only about technological innovation but also
about rethinking energy markets, consumer behavior, and system planning. By fostering a
flexible, resilient, and adaptive energy infrastructure, societies can unlock the full potential of
renewables, ensuring a cleaner, more sustainable, and more secure energy future.

3.2 SOLAR PANELS

3.2.1 Introduction
The transition to renewable energy sources is critical for achieving global
sustainability goals, reducing carbon emissions, and combating climate change.
Among various renewable technologies, solar panels (photovoltaic systems) play a
pivotal role due to their versatility, scalability, and declining costs. Integrating solar
energy into existing energy systems helps diversify the energy mix, enhances energy
security, and supports the move toward cleaner power generation.

3.2.2 Working Principle of Solar Panels

Solar panels are devices that convert sunlight into electricity using the
photovoltaic effect. When sunlight hits a solar cell, it excites electrons, creating an
electric current. Panels are typically composed of silicon-based solar cells, interconnected
to form modules capable of generating substantial electricity for residential, commercial,
and industrial uses.

Key Components:

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 Photovoltaic cells (silicon wafers)

 Inverter (converts DC to AC)
 Battery storage systems (optional, for storing excess power)
 Charge controller (manages energy flow)
 3.2.3 Importance of Solar Panels in Renewable Energy Integration
 Scalability: Solar panels can be installed from small rooftops to large utility-
scale solar farms, making them highly adaptable to energy needs.
 Decentralization: Promotes localized energy production, reducing transmission
losses and improving grid resilience.
 Energy Independence: Reduces reliance on imported fuels and enhances
national energy security.
 Environmental Benefits: Produces no greenhouse gas emissions during
operation, helping to mitigate climate change.
 Economic Growth: Stimulates job creation in manufacturing, installation, and
maintenance sectors.
 Cost-Effectiveness: Technological advancements and mass production have
significantly reduced the cost of solar panels.

3.2.4 Challenges in Integration

While solar panels offer numerous benefits, their integration into existing power grids
presents some challenges:

 Intermittency: Solar energy is variable, depending on weather and daylight

conditions.
 Storage Requirements: Efficient storage systems are necessary to manage
energy supply during non-sunny periods.
 Grid Stability: High penetration of solar power can cause voltage fluctuations
and grid management issues.
 Land Use: Large solar farms require substantial land areas, which may impact
ecosystems.

3.2.5 Solutions for Effective Integration

To maximize the potential of solar energy, several strategies are employed:

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 Smart Grids: Use of advanced communication and control technologies to

balance supply and demand in real-time.
 Hybrid Systems: Combining solar power with other renewables like wind or
with conventional sources.
 Energy Storage Systems: Batteries and other storage technologies to ensure
consistent energy availability.
 Demand Response Programs: Encouraging consumers to shift energy use to
periods of high solar generation.

3.3 CONVERTERS
3.3.1 Introduction

Firstly, three basic types of dc-dc converter circuits − buck, boost and buck-boost, are
presented. Then, the expressions for the output voltage in the above circuits, with inductive
(R-L) and battery (or back emf = E), i.e., R-L-E, load, are derived, assuming continuous
conduction. The different control strategies employed are briefly described.

3.3.2. DC-DC Converters:-

There are three basic types of dc-dc converter circuits, termed as buck, boost and
buck-boost. In all of these circuits, a power device is used as a switch. This device earlier
used was a thyristor, which is turned on by a pulse fed at its gate. In all these circuits, the
thyristor is connected in series with load to a dc supply, or a positive (forward) voltage is
applied between anode and cathode terminals. The thyristor turns off, when the current
decreases below the holding current, or a reverse (negative) voltage is applied between anode
and cathode terminals. So, a thyristor is to be force-commutated, for which additional circuit
is to be used, where another thyristor is often used. Later, GTOs came into the market, which
can also be turned off by a negative current fed at its gate, unlike thyristors, requiring proper
control circuit. The turn on and turn-off times of GTOs are lower than those of thyristors. So,
the frequency used in GTO based choppers can be increased, thus reducing the size of filters.
Earlier, dc-dc converters were called ‘choppers’, where thyristors or GTOs are used. It may
be noted here that buck converter (dc-dc) is called as ‘step-down chopper’, whereas boost
converter (dc-dc) is a ‘step-up chopper’

3.3.3 Buck Converters (dc-dc) :-

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A buck converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. Only a switch is shown, for which a device
as described earlier belonging to transistor family is used. Also, a diode (termed as
freewheeling) is used to allow the load current to flow through it, when the switch (i.e., a
device) is turned off. The load is inductive (R-L) one. In some cases, a battery (or back emf)
is connected in series with the load (inductive). Due to the load inductance, the load current
must be allowed a path, which is provided by the diode; otherwise, i.e., in the absence of the
above diode, the high induced emf of the inductance, as the load current tends to decrease,
may cause damage to the switching device. If the switching device used is a thyristor, this
circuit is called as a step-down chopper, as the output voltage is normally lower than the input
voltage. Similarly, this dc-dc converter is termed as buck one, due to reason given later.

Fig:- 3.1 Buck converter (dc-dc) diagram and outputs

The output voltage and current waveforms of the circuit are shown . The output voltage is
same as the input voltage, i.e., Vo = Vs when the switch is on, during the period, Ton ≥ t ≥
0 . The switch is turned on at t = 0 , and then turned off at t = Ton. This is on called on period.
During the next time interval, T ≥ t ≥Ton, the output voltage is zero, i.e., ,Vo = 0 as the diode,
Df now conducts. The off period is on Toff = T - Ton, with the time period being T= Ton +
Toff. The frequency is f = 1/T . With T kept as constant, the average value of the output
voltage is,

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The duty ratio k = ( Ton/T ) = [Ton/( Ton + Toff )], its range being . Normally, due to turn-on
delay of the device used, the duty ratio (k) is not zero, but has some positive value. Similarly,
due to requirement of turn-off time of the device, the duty ratio (k) is less than 1.0. So, the
range of duty ratio is reduced. It may be noted that the output voltage is lower than the input
voltage. Also, the average output voltage increases, as the duty ratio is increased. So, a
variable dc output voltage is obtained from a constant dc input voltage. The load current is
assumed to be continuous as shown in Fig. The load current increases in the on period, as the
input voltage appears across the load, and it (load current) decreases in the off period, as it
flows in the diode, but is positive at the end of the time period, T.

3.3.4 Boost Converters (dc-dc)

A boost converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. Only a switch is shown, for which a device
belonging to transistor family is generally used. Also, a diode is used in series with the load.
The load is of the same type as given earlier. The inductance of the load is small. An
inductance, L is assumed in series with the input supply. The position of the switch and diode
in this circuit may be noted, as compared to their position in the buck converter

Fig: -3.2 Boost converter diagram and wave forms

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The operation of the circuit is explained. Firstly, the switch, S (i.e., the device) is put on (or
turned on) during the period, Ton ≥ t ≥ 0, the on period being Ton. The output voltage is zero
( Vo = 0 ), if no battery (back emf) is connected in series with the load, and also as stated
earlier, the load inductance is small. The current from the source ( i ) flows in the inductance
L. The value of current increases linearly with time in this interval, with ( di/dt ) being
positive. As the current through L increases, the polarity of the induced emf is taken as say,
positive, the left-hand side of L being positive. The equation for the circuit is,

Vs = L*di/dt or di/dt=Vs/L

The switch, S is put off during the period, T ≥ t ≥Ton , the off period being . Toff = T - Ton
is the time period. As the current through L decreases, with its direction being in the same
direction as shown (same as in the earlier case), the induced emf reverses, the left-hand side
of L being negative. So, the induced emf (taken as negative in the equation given later) is
added with the supply voltage, being of the same polarity, thus, keeping the current ( i=io) in
the same direction. The current decreases linearly in the time interval, Toff, as the output
voltage is assumed to be nearly constant at Vo = Vs, with ( d i/d s ) being negative, as Vs <
Vo, which is derived later

The equation for the circuit is,

Vs = Vo + L*di/dt or di/dt= (Vs-Vo)/L

The output voltage is

The time period is T =Ton +Toff, and the duty ratio is,

k = (TON / T) = [TON / (TON + TOFF)], with its range as 1.0 ³ k ³ 0.0. The ON time interval
is

TON = k T. As stated in the previous case, the range of k is reduced. This is, because the

minimum value is higher than the minimum (0.0), and the maximum value is lower than the
maximum (1.0), for reasons given there, which are also valid here. As shown, the source

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current is assumed to be continuous. The expression for the output voltage can be obtained by
using other procedures.

In this case, the output voltage is higher than the input voltage, as contrasted with the
previous case of buck converter (dc-dc). So, this is called boost converter (dc-dc), when a
self-commutated device is used as a switch. Instead, if thyristor is used in its place, this is
termed as step-up chopper. The variation (range) of the output voltage can be easily
computed.

3.3.5 Bidirectional buck boost converter: -

A bidirectional buck-boost converter can function in both buck (step-down) and boost (step-
up) modes, allowing power to flow in either direction between a DC source and a load. It
achieves this by utilizing specific switching schemes and control strategies to manage the
flow of power. In buck mode, it reduces voltage, while in boost mode, it increases it.

Buck Mode:

 In buck mode, the converter steps down the voltage, meaning the output voltage is
lower than the input voltage.

 This is achieved by switching a power switch on and off, which controls the flow of
current through an inductor and a diode.

 When the switch is on, energy is stored in the inductor, and when it's off, the inductor
transfers that stored energy to the output, effectively stepping down the voltage.

 For example, if the input voltage is 72VDC and the output is 48VDC, the converter
would be operating in buck mode, as it's stepping down the voltage.

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Fig:-3.3 Buck mode in bidirectional converter

Boost Mode:

 In boost mode, the converter steps up the voltage, making the output voltage higher
than the input voltage.

 This is achieved by using a different combination of switches and diodes, with the
inductor and capacitor playing key roles.

 During the switches on time, energy is stored in the inductor, and when it's off, the
inductor's energy, along with the input voltage, is transferred to the output, boosting
the voltage.

 For instance, if the input voltage is 48VDC and the output is 72VDC, the converter
would be in boost mode, as it's increasing the voltage.

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Fig:- 3.4 Boost mode in bidirectional converter

Bidirectional Operation:

 The key to bidirectional operation lies in the ability to switch between buck and boost
modes, controlled by the switching scheme and control logic.

 This allows the converter to handle both charging and discharging operations, such as
charging a battery from a solar panel (buck mode) and discharging the battery to a load
(boost mode).

 Some applications of bidirectional converters include battery charging and discharging,

renewable energy systems, and regenerative braking in electric vehicles.

Fig:-3.5 Bidirectional buck boost converter

3.4. MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKER:

The maximum power point tracker tries to obtain maximum power at the out-put and
load further adjusts itself to obtain maximum power point. Maximum power usually depends
upon the voltage and the current output of the array. This voltage and current further depends
upon the insolation and the temperature available. For varying insolation and temperature
conditions, the operating point of a SPV system shifts from the maximum power point.
Therefore, in order to obtain maximum power at the output, an electronic maximum power
point tracker is imposed between the solar array and the grid which is usually controlled by

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an MPPT controller. Generally, in order to provide maximum power to load either at lower
current higher voltage is provided or at higher current lower voltage is provided. With the
help of simulation of a single solar cell, open circuit voltage, short circuit current and power
are obtained which are further plotted to obtain PV and IV characteristics. Three cases are
then discussed to see the behavior of PV and IV characteristics for different values of
insolation and temperature. The simulation circuit of a solar cell is shown in Fig.

Fig: -3.6 Simulation circuit of a solar cell.

Case 1: Insolation increased from 600 to 1000. When insolation is increased than the
maximum power point, the maximum power and the short circuit current also increases as
shown in Fig.3.4 .2 and Fig.3.4.3.

Fig: -3.7 IV & PV characteristics for increasing insolation.

Case 2: Temperature increased from 50°C to 75°C. With increase in temperature both
the open circuit voltage and the maximum power point of a solar cell falls resulting in the
reduction in maximum power as shown in Fig.3.4.4 and Fig.3.4.5

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Fig: -3.8 I-V &PV Characteristics for increasing temperature

Case 3: Both insolation and temperature increased from 600 and 50°C to 1000 and
75°C respectively. With increase in insolation as well as temperature, both the short circuit
current and the maximum power increases as shown in fig.

Fig: -3.9 IV &PV Characteristics of photovoltaic system with change in temperature and
insolation

3.4.1. DC-DC Boost converter

In PV system, DC-DC boost converter is called as a maximum power point

tracker as maximum power is obtained at its output terminals. The main elements of
this converter are inductor, diode and an IGBT/Diode switch. Its switching is
generally controlled by an MPPT controller by using PWM technique. This converter
is generally known as a step-up converter as it raises the output voltage. Where Vo,
Vin and Dare the output voltage, input voltage and duty cycle of the DC-DC boost

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converter respectively. Simulation diagram of DC-DC boost converter with MPPT

controller is shown in Fig.3.4.6

Fig: -3.10 DC-DC boost converter as MPPT with MPPT controller.

3.4.2. MPPT Controller

The maximum output power depends upon insolation and temperature which
varies throughout the year, so MPPT controller issued to find maximum power point from a
solar array so that a maximum power is developed at the output under varying insolation and
temperature. Under normal conditions (No partial shading) the algorithms used by an MPPT
Controller for finding maximum power point are Perturb and observe algorithm, Incremental
Conductance algorithm and Ripple Co-relation algorithm. Perturb and Observe is an iterative
algorithm used by an MPPT controller to obtain maximum power point. This algorithm is
applicable only when the insolation is uniform. It senses the arrays output voltage V and the
output current I. The power P is then calculated using the relation;

P = V*I

The graph represents PV characteristic with one local or global maxima called as maximum
power point as partial shading condition is not considered. This PV curve is divided into three
regions named as MPP region where dP/dV = 0, left hand region where dP/dV > 0 and right-
hand region where dP/dV < 0. Therefore, in the left-hand region if the voltage is increased,
power increases and if voltage is decreased, power also decreases thus maintaining dP/dV >
0. In the right-hand region if the voltage is increased, power decreases and if voltage is
decreased, power increases thus maintaining dP/dV < 0. At the MPP region, dP/dV = 0and
maximum power point is obtained.

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Fig: -3.11 PV characteristics under normal condition.

Perturb and observe method uses this logic and perturbs the arrays output voltage and
observes the change in power to determine whether it lies in the left, right or MPP region and
if it lies in left or right region then it proceeds towards maximum power point accordingly.
The first step is to sample the instantaneous voltage V(k) and current I(k) of the array and
then instantaneous power P(k) is calculated using (2). The P(k) is then compared to P(k-1)
sample and its difference is represented by ΔP. Similarly, ΔV is calculated by subtracting
V(k-1) sample from V(k). ΔP and ΔV are the numerator and the denominator of the slope
dP/dV respectively. The flow chart of perturb and observe method is shown in Fig. Now the
aim is to check whether the operating point is moving towards or away from the MPPT and
whether the perturbation or reference voltage V ref should be increased or decreased to reach
the maximum power point where the slope is zero. It is briefly explained in below mentioned
four cases

Case 1: If both ΔP and ΔV are positive, slope is positive indicating that the operating point
lies in the left-hand region and is trying to approach the MPP, therefore the array's reference
voltage V ref is increased so that the operating point reaches the maximum power point.

Case 2: If ΔP is positive and ΔV is negative, slope is negative indicating that the operating
point lies in the right-hand region and is trying to approach the MPP, therefore the array's
reference voltage V ref decreases so that the operating point reaches the maximum power
point.

Case 3: If both ΔP and ΔV are negative, slope is positive indicating that the operating point
lies in the left-hand region and is trying to move away from the MPP, therefore the array's
reference voltage V ref is increased so that the operating point reaches the maximum power
point.

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Case 4: If ΔP is negative and ΔV is positive, slope is negative indicating that the operating
point lies in the right-hand region and is moving away from the MPP, therefore the array's
reference voltage V ref is decreased so that the operating point reaches the maximum power
point.

This perturbation in the voltage is applied until maximum power point region is reached
i.e. dP/dV = 0.

Fig.3.12 Flow chart of Perturb and Observe algorithm.

The perturb and observe method is widely used in PV system because it has reasonable
dynamics and steady state MPPT tracking, analog and digital implication are possible and
also it has low hardware and software complexity. However, there are certain limitations of
this method. One of them is its power oscillations around the maximum power point. The
magnitude of these oscillations can be reduced by the perturbation step size but it results in
slowing down of tracking speed of MPP. In addition, a small step size causes a slower
response to the irradiance changes. Another drawback of this algorithm is that it does not
operate under partial shading condition.

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CHAPTER-4

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy applications, managing energy

effectively is crucial for ensuring optimal performance, safety, and sustainability. As these
systems often involve multiple sources of energy—such as batteries, supercapacitors, fuel
cells, and solar panels—an advanced control mechanism is required to handle the energy flow
between these sources and the load. This is where the Energy Management System (EMS)
plays a vital role.

The EMS acts as the central brain of the power system, continuously analysing real-
time parameters such as current load demand, source availability, state of charge (SOC) of
energy storage units, and system efficiency. Based on these parameters, it makes decisions on
when and how to charge or discharge each energy source. In electric vehicle applications, this
includes managing transitions between acceleration, cruising, and braking modes, ensuring
that the most efficient energy source is utilized at any given moment.

The EMS ensures synchronized operation of all energy components in the system. It
controls energy flow paths, optimizes charge-discharge cycles, prevents component
overloading, and ensures power quality. The EMS also helps prolong the lifespan of storage
devices by reducing stress on any single source and distributing energy demands intelligently.
It contributes to safety, efficiency, and the long-term reliability of the vehicle’s energy
system.

4.1.1 Types of energy storage system:

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Fig:-4.1 Types of energy storage system

1. Electrochemical Storage:
 Batteries:
These store energy in a chemical form that can be converted back into electricity.
Examples: Lithium-ion, lead-acid, solid-state, and flow batteries.
Applications: Portable devices, electric vehicles, and grid-scale energy storage.
 Supercapacitors:
These store energy electrostatically, offering fast charging and discharging capabilities.
2. Electromagnetic Storage:
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) uses magnetic fields to store
energy.
3. Thermal Storage:
 Sensible Heat Storage:
Stores energy by heating or cooling a material (e.g., water, rocks, molten salts).
 Latent Heat Storage:
Stores energy by using phase change materials (PCMs) that absorb or release energy
during a phase transition (e.g., melting or freezing).
 Cryogenic Energy Storage:
Stores energy by using very cold materials like liquid nitrogen or liquid air.
4. Mechanical Storage:
 Pumped Hydro Storage: Stores energy by pumping water uphill to a reservoir
and then releasing it to generate electricity when needed.
 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES): Stores energy by compressing air and
storing it in underground caverns or tanks, then releasing it to generate
electricity.
 Flywheel Energy Storage: Stores energy in the kinetic energy of a rotating
flywheel.
5. Chemical Storage:

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 Hydrogen Storage: Stores energy in the form of hydrogen, which can be used in
fuel cells or burned to generate electricity.
 Power-to-Gas: Converts excess electricity into chemical fuels (e.g., methane) for
later use.
 Biofuels: Stores energy in the form of organic matter that can be burned for
energy.

4.2 BATTERIES

Fig:-4.2 Battery with its components

Batteries are the backbone of energy storage in electric vehicles due to their ability to
store large amounts of energy and provide consistent output over an extended period. Among
the various types of batteries, Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries dominate EV applications
because of their high energy density, efficiency, and rechargeability. They offer a favourable
balance between weight and energy capacity, making them well-suited for vehicular
applications.

Each battery pack in an EV typically contains several individual cells arranged in

series-parallel configurations to achieve the desired voltage and capacity. These cells are
monitored and protected by a Battery Management System (BMS), which ensures safety by
preventing overcharging, deep discharging, overheating, and cell imbalance. The BMS works
hand-in-hand with the EMS to maintain battery health and performance during vehicle
operation.

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However, batteries have limitations in handling sudden and rapid changes in power
demand. High current surges, such as during rapid acceleration or regenerative braking, can
stress the battery, causing heat generation and accelerated degradation. To address this, hybrid
systems integrate supercapacitors to support the battery during such events, allowing the
battery to operate within a stable and controlled range. This coordination enhances battery
lifespan and system efficiency.

4.2.1 TYPES OF BATTERY

I. Primary Battery (or) Primary cells

In these cells, the electrode and the electrode reactions cannot be reserved by
passing an external electrical energy. The reactions occur only once and after use they
become dead. Therefore, they are not chargeable.
Example : Dry cell, mercury cell.

II. Secondary Battery (or) Secondary cells

In these cells, the electrode reactions can be reversed by passing an external
electrical energy. Therefore, they can be recharged by passing electric current and used
again and again. These are also called Storage cells (or) Accumulators.
Example : Lead acid storage cell, Nickel - cadmium cell.

Fig: -4.3 Types of the batteries

a. Lead-Acid Battery
• This battery is the first commercial secondary battery that dominated the market for
more than a century. In this battery lead and lead oxide are converted to lead sulfate.
Sulphuric acid which is the electrolyte in this battery acts as a reactant and ionic
transport carrier.

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• The lead-acid battery has not had good energy density so it is mainly used as an
auxiliary battery in vehicles to power the internal circuit and to start the motor(starter)
of vehicles. Since this battery is in use for more than 150 years, the technologies
involved are matured and up to 98% of this battery is recycled.
b. Nickel-Cadmium Battery
• Nickel-Cadmium battery has comparatively more energy density than Lead-Acid
battery. The anode is made up of Nickel and the cathode is made up of Nickel-oxide
and an aqueous alkali solution is used as an electrolyte.
1. Ni-Cd supports ultra-fast charging
2. Good cycle life
3. Wide range of temperature operability
• But Ni-Cd has a memory effect means it does not fully discharge itself and Cadmium
is a toxic metal. It is no longer in use.
c. Nickel-metal Hydride
• Ni-MH batteries have 2-3 times more energy density than Ni-Cd. Long battery life
(more than 1000 when the depth of discharge is 100 % and nearly 1,000,000 when the
depth of discharge at 10%.
• Wide range of temperature operating (up to − 30 to + 70 °C)
• Flexible in cell size, can be cylindrical, prismatic
• Comparatively less memory effect than Ni-Cd battery.
d. Li-ion battery
Li-ion battery is the most widely used battery in Electric vehicles. Its unique features
make it different from the other secondary batteries as it has
• The high energy density (120-300 Wh/kg)
• High Cycle life (300- 800), no memory effects (incomplete discharge e.g. in NiMH /
NiCd battery this happens)

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• low self-discharge rate works on the principle of Intercalation (ions get stored in the
void of electrodes) and Li metal availability (200 billion tons including seawater).

TABLE 4.1 :- Comparison of different batteries with their parameters

• Ease of modeling g.; it can be cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch shapes.
• Li-ion battery is used by almost all major OEMs of EVs Tesla, Tata Motors,
Volkswagen
III. Flow battery (or) Fuel cell
In these cells, the reactants, products and electrolytes are continuously passing
through the cell. In this chemical energy gets converted into electrical energy.
Example : Hydrogen - oxygen fuel cell.

Advantages of Batteries:
1) High energy density for long driving ranges.
2) Lightweight and compact design suitable for EVs.
3) Long cycle life when operated within safe limits.
4) Low self-discharge rate, maintaining stored energy effectively.
5) Scalable in configuration for different voltage and capacity needs.
Disadvantages of Batteries:
1) Limited ability to respond to fast-changing load demands.
2) Performance degradation over time due to aging and usage.
3) Sensitivity to high temperatures and overcharging.

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4) Lower power density compared to supercapacitors.

5) Expensive to replace or repair in case of damage or faults.
6)
4.3 SUPERCAPACITORS

Fig:-4. supercapacitor sectional view

Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors, are energy storage devices known for
their high-power density and rapid charge/discharge capabilities. Unlike batteries that rely on
electrochemical reactions, supercapacitors store energy electrostatically, allowing them to
respond almost instantaneously to power demands. This makes them ideal for applications
requiring quick bursts of energy or immediate response times.

In hybrid electric vehicle systems, supercapacitors are often paired with batteries to
handle transient power events such as sudden acceleration or regenerative braking. While the
battery provides continuous energy for driving, the supercapacitor can deliver or absorb sharp
power spikes, thereby reducing the strain on the battery. This synergy improves overall
system performance and contributes to energy efficiency.

Though supercapacitors have a lower energy density compared to batteries, their

extremely long cycle life and minimal performance degradation over time make them a
reliable option for long-term operation. They are especially effective in applications where
frequent, short-term energy exchanges are needed. The inclusion of supercapacitors in EV
systems not only improves dynamic response but also supports the battery in maintaining
thermal and electrical stability.

The fundamental formula for the energy stored in a supercapacitor is

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E = 1/2 * C * V^2,

where E is energy, C is capacitance, and V is voltage

Advantages of Supercapacitors:

1) Extremely fast charging and discharging capability.

2) High power density makes them suitable for peak power support.
3) Millions of operational cycles without significant wear.
4) Highly efficient energy conversion with minimal heat generation.
5) Performs reliably in a wide temperature range.
Disadvantages of Supercapacitors:

1) Low energy density—not suitable for long-term energy supply.

2) Higher self-discharge rate than batteries.
3) Requires voltage balancing circuits when connected in series.
4) Costlier per unit of energy stored.
5) Needs additional power electronics for integration with other sources.

4.4 HYBRID EMS SYSTEMS

 Definition:
HESS are systems that integrate multiple energy storage technologies (like batteries,
supercapacitors, flywheels, or fuel cells) to achieve a synergistic effect and overcome
the limitations of individual technologies.
 Purpose:
The goal is to create a more versatile and efficient energy storage solution that can
handle a wider range of power and energy demands.
 Complementary Strengths:
By combining different technologies, HESS can address challenges like:
o Energy Density: Some technologies excel at storing large amounts of energy,
while others are better at delivering power quickly.
o Response Time: Some technologies can respond quickly to rapid changes in
demand, while others are more suited for long-term storage.

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o Lifespan and Cost: Combining technologies can potentially improve the

overall lifespan and reduce the cost of the storage system.
Advantages:
1) Enhanced Efficiency: By allocating the right task to the appropriate source (battery for
steady load, supercapacitor for bursts), the system minimizes losses.
2) Battery Life Extension: The hybrid approach reduces stress on the battery, increasing
its service life and performance consistency.
3) Improved Dynamic Response: Supercapacitors can immediately react to changes in
load, ensuring stable operation during transient conditions.
4) Regenerative Braking Utilization: Supercapacitors can quickly store braking energy,
which would otherwise be lost, and release it during acceleration.
5) Flexible Energy Control: EMS allows real-time adjustment of energy flow based on
operating conditions and objectives.
Disadvantages:
1) Increased System Complexity: More components and control strategies are needed,
making the system harder to design and maintain.
2) Higher Initial Cost: The cost of integrating multiple energy storage devices, power
electronics, and controllers can be significant.
3) Space and Weight Considerations: Additional components such as supercapacitors and
converters increase the size and weight of the vehicle.
4) Advanced Control Requirement: Effective operation depends on sophisticated
algorithms and continuous monitoring, which requires advanced hardware and software.

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CHAPTER-5

D-STATCOM

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The D-STATCOM is basically one of the custom power devices. It is nothing but a
STATCOM but used at the Distribution level. The D-STATCOM is a voltage or current
source inverter based custom power device connected in shunt with the power system. It is
connected near the load at the distribution systems. The key component of the D-STATCOM
is a power VSC that is based on high power electronics technologies. Basically, the D-
STATCOM system is comprised of three main parts: a VSC, a set of coupling reactors and a
controller. The basic principle of a D-STATCOM installed in a power system is the
generation of a controllable ac voltage source by a voltage source converter (VSC) connected
to a dc capacitor (energy storage device). The ac voltage source, in general, appears behind a
transformer leakage reactance. The active and reactive power transfer between the power
system and the D-STATCOM is caused by the voltage difference across this reactance.

The D-STATCOM is connected in shunt with the power networks at customer side,
where the voltage-quality problem is a concern. All required voltages and currents are
measured and are fed into the controller to be compared with the commands. The controller
then performs feedback control and outputs a set of switching signals to drive the main
semiconductor switches (IGBTs, which are used at the distribution level) of the power
converter accordingly. The ac voltage control is achieved by firing angle control. Ideally the
output voltage of the VSC is in phase with the bus voltage. In steady state, the dc side
capacitance is maintained at a fixed voltage and there is no real power exchange, except for
losses

5.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE

Basically, the DSTATCOM system is comprised of three main parts: a Voltage Source
Converter (VSC), a set of coupling reactors and a controller. The basic principle of a
DSTATCOM installed in a power system is the generation of a controllable ac voltage source
by a voltage source inverter (VSI) connected to a dc capacitor (energy storage device). The ac

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voltage source, in general, appears behind a transformer leakage reactance. The active and
reactive power transfer between the power system and the DSTATCOM is caused by the
voltage difference across this reactance. The DSTATCOM is connected to the power
networks where the voltage-quality problem is a concern. All required voltages and currents
are measured and are fed into the controller to be compared with the commands. The
controller then performs feedback control and outputs a set of switching signals to drive the
main semiconductor switches (IGBT’s, which are used at the distribution level) of the power
converter accordingly.

Fig:-5.1 Block diagram of D-statcom

The AC voltage control is achieved by firing angle control. Ideally the output voltage
of the VSI is in phase with the bus (where the DSTATCOM is connected.) voltage. In steady
state, the dc side capacitance is maintained at a fixed voltage and there is no real power
exchange, except for losses. The DSTATCOM differs from other reactive power generating
devices (such as shunt Capacitors, Static VAR Compensators etc.) in the sense that the ability
for energy storage is not a rigid necessity but is only required for System unbalance or
harmonic absorption.

There are two control objectives implemented in the DSTATCOM. One is the ac
voltage regulation of the power system at the bus where the DSTATCOM is connected. And
the other is dc voltage control across the capacitor inside the DSTATCOM. It is widely
known that shunt reactive power injection can be used to control the bus voltage. In

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conventional control scheme, there are two voltage regulators designed for these purposes.
AC voltage regulator for bus voltage control and dc voltage regulator for capacitor voltage
control. In the simplest strategy, both the regulators are proportional integral (PI) type
controllers.

5.3 TYPES OF D-STATCOM’s

The DSTATCOM topologies can be classified based on the number of switching devices, use
of transformers for isolation, use of transformers for neutral current compensation, etc. These
DSTATCOMs are developed to meet the requirements of different applications such as three-
phase three-wire and three phase four-wire distribution systems.

Fig:5.2 Types of D-statcom

Three-phase three-wire DSTATCOMs are used for the power quality improvement in
three-phase three-wire distribution system for the compensation of consumer loads. The
topologies for the three-phase three-wire DSTATCOMs are classified as non-isolated VSC
and isolated VSC-based DSTATCOMs.

1) Non-isolated VSC-Based DSTATCOMs: Three-leg VSC based topology is based

on two-leg VSC with split capacitors is advantageous due to the use of a smaller number of
switching devices. Non-isolated types use no transformer in between. Due to no isolation, it

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may result in stability issue. However, the control and regulation of equal dc voltages of dc
capacitors and requirement of quite high dc bus voltages are major problems. And the non-
isolated type is classified into two types i.e. three leg voltage source converter and two-leg
VSC with split capacitors. The main difference in their construction is based on the number
of switches and capacitors .

2) Isolated VSC-Based DSTATCOMs: Three single-phase VSCs as three-phase

three-wire DSTATCOM is reported but the use of more switching devices makes this
topology less attractive. Two other isolated topologies of DSTATCOM using star/delta
transformer. The star/delta transformer is required in this case with kilovolt ampere rating
equal to the required reactive power injection. But the transformer provides isolation from the
system and also provides the flexibility to use an “off-the-shelf” VSC for the desired
application. However, many other configurations using different transformers may be used in
this type of DSTATCOM.

5.4 CONTROL STRATEGIES

Satisfactory performance, fast response, flexible and easy implementation are the main
objectives of any compensation scheme. The control strategy of D-STATCOM is mainly
implemented in the following steps:-

 Measurements of system variables and signal conditioning

 Extraction of reference compensating signals
 Generation of firing angles for switching devices

Basically, all the above steps will be applied in every control scheme but methods of
measurement of signal variables, extraction of reference, and generation of firing pulses will
be different for different control schemes. Two control schemes are implemented and
compared here are Phase Shift Control and Decoupled Current Control.

A) Phase Shift Control

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In this control algorithm the voltage regulation is achieved in a D-STATCOM by the

measurement of the RMS voltage at the load point and no reactive power measurements are
required. Figure 4 shows the block diagram of the implemented scheme

Fig:-5.3 Phase shift control method of D-statcom

Sinusoidal PWM technique is used which is simple and gives a good response. The
error signal obtained by comparing the measured system RMS voltage and the reference
voltage, is fed to a PI controller which generates the angle which decides the necessary phase
shift between the output voltage of the VSC and the AC terminal voltage. This angle is
summed with the phase angle of the balanced supply voltages, assumed to be equally spaced
at 120 degrees, to produce the desired synchronizing signal required to operate the PWM
generator. In this algorithm the DC voltage is maintained constant using a separate dc source.

B) Decoupled Current Control p-q Theory

This algorithm requires the measurement of instantaneous values of three phase

voltage and current. Figure 5 shows the block diagram representation of the control scheme.
The compensation is achieved by the control of direct axis and quadrature axis currents and .
Using the definition of the instantaneous reactive power theory for a balanced three phase
three wire system, the quadrature component of the voltage is always zero, the real (P) and
the reactive power (Q) injected into the system by the D-STATCOM can be expressed under
the dq reference frame as:

P = Vd Id +Vq Iq

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Q = Vq Iq + Vd Iq

Fig:-5.4 Decoupled current control method of D-statcom

Since Vq = 0, id and iq completely describes the instantaneous value of real and

reactive powers produced by the D-STATCOM when the system voltage remains constant.
Therefore, the instantaneous three phase current measured is transformed by abc to dq0
transformation block. The decoupled d-axis component id and q-axis component iq are
regulated by two separate PI regulators. The instantaneous id reference and the instantaneous
iq reference are obtained by the control of the dc voltage and the terminal voltage measured.
Thus, instantaneous current tracking control is achieved using four PI regulators. A Phase
Locked Loop (PLL) is used to synchronize the control loop to the ac supply so as to operate
in the abc to dq0 reference frame.

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CHAPTER-6

MATLAB SIMULATION
6.1 DC Fast charging circuit in SIMULINK

Dc fast charging circuit is simulated using MATLAB SIMULINK with DC level 3 fast
charging. This circuit mainly includes both buck converter and its control circuit
implemented using a PI (Proportional-Integral) controller in a Simulink environment. The
buck converter is used to convert the 3000 volts from the dc bus to 450 volts for charging the
EV battery. The battery represents the EV battery which is charged with a level 3 DC fast
charging with a voltage of 450 volts and 334 amps. The Simulink model for fast charging
circuit is shown below.

Fig:-6.1 Simulink model for fast charging

The output graphs of the DC fast EV Charging station are shown below which shows the ev
charging with 450 volts and 334 ampers of current

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Fig:-6.2 Output graphs of ev charging station

6.2 Photo Voltaic system circuit in SIMULINK

The photo voltaic circuit is used to integrate renewable energy with the charging stations. The
main components of the Photo Voltaic system include solar array of require power delivery,
boost converter to step up the dc voltage to required DC Bus voltage and Maximum Power
Point Tracking Controller to control the boost converter.

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Fig:-6.3 Simulink model of a photo voltaic system

The output of the Photo Voltaic system is represented in the graph below. Which shows that
the maximum power of 500 kilo watts is drawn out from the solar panels and the ripple free
waveforms are derived by tuning PI controller for our need.

Fig:-6.4 Output graphs of photo voltaic system

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6.3 Energy Management system circuit in SIMULINK

Energy management system is used to integrate the renewable energy with EV charging
station. The renewable energy generated may not always be completely utilised, to store the
energy when not in use , we use energy management system. The energy management system
we used is a hybrid system which uses both super capacitors and batteries to store energy.
The super capacitors are used for their high-power dense applications and batteries for high
energy storage. We used constant current control method for controlling the charging and
discharging of the battery and super capacitor. A bidirectional non isolated buck boost
converter is used to step down the dc voltage to charge them at 540v dc and while
discharging the power is boosted to the required dc bus voltage.

Fig:-6.5 Simulink diagram of an energy management system

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The output graphs of the energy management system include both battery and super
capacitors charging and discharging.

Fig:-6.6 Output graphs of battery in energy management system

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Fig:-6.7 Output graphs of super capacitor in Ems

6.4 D-Statcom circuit in SIMULINK

The D-Statcom is used to compensate the reactive power for the grid. This system is
used for countering the reactive power needs of the 3-phase grid. Connecting a charging
station to the grid will result in many harmonics induction and sudden load stability issues.
These issues are countered by using Dstatcom. Which supplies the reactive power to the load
and reduce the burden on the grid. This circuit uses a 3-Phase voltage source inverter ,
Decoupled Current Control for controlling the D-statcom circuit and power measurement
circuit for measuring the load , grid and d-statcom circuit. The load conned is of 3-phase ac
load of 200kwatts and 100kvar.

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Fig:-6.8 Simulink diagram of a D-statcom

The output waveforms of the dstatcom include the Active and reactive power usage and
delivery of load , grid and D-statcom. They are shown below.

Fig:-6.9 Output graphs of active power in D-statcom

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Fig:-6.10 Output graphs of reactive power in D-statcom

6.5 Integration of the systems

The four systems are integrated to get the desired operation of the systems. Integration is
done with certain changes in the systems.

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Fig :- 6.11 Simulink circuit of integrated system

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the growing demand for electric vehicles has necessitated the
development of smart, sustainable, and grid-friendly charging infrastructure. While fast-
changing technologies improve convenience for EV users, they also place significant stress
on the power grid, causing issues such as voltage instability, power losses, and increased peak
demand. These challenges highlight the urgent need for integrating renewable energy sources
and intelligent power management systems into EV charging stations.

The proposed EV charging station, powered by photovoltaic energy and supported by

a hybrid energy storage system, offers an effective solution to mitigate these issues. The
system employs a boost converter for solar energy extraction, a buck converter to regulate EV
charging, and a bidirectional converter to stabilize DC bus voltage. The use of a D-
STATCOM further enhances the system’s ability to counter voltage sags and swells, thereby
improving the quality and reliability of power supplied to the EVs and the grid.

Overall, this integrated approach not only promotes the use of clean energy for
transportation but also strengthens the electrical grid's capacity to accommodate the growing
EV load. The design encourages energy efficiency, enhances grid resilience, and supports the
broader goal of transitioning to a low-carbon, sustainable energy future. Future work can
focus on real-time optimization, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) interaction, and scaling the system for
larger community or commercial EV hubs.

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REFERENCES

1. Ahmad, Fareed, et al. "Optimal location of electric vehicle charging station and its
impact on distribution network: A review." Energy Reports 8 (2022): 2314 2333.

2. Atawi IE, Hendawi E, Zaid SA. Analysis and Design of a Standalone Electric Vehicle
Charging Station Supplied by Photovoltaic Energy.

3. M. Nour, H. Ramadan, A. Ali, and C. Farkas, “Impacts of plug-in electric vehicles

charging on low voltage distribution network,” in 2018 International Conference on
Innovative Trends in Computer (ITCE), 2018, pp. 357–362.

4. A. K. Karmaker, S. Roy, and M. R. Ahmed, “Analysis of the impact of electric vehicle

charging station on power quality issues,” in 2019 International Conference on
Electrical, Computer and Communication Engineering (ECCE), 2019, pp. 1–6.

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