Emotion

classification

Emotion classification, the means by which one may distinguish or contrast one
emotion from another, is a contested issue in emotion research and in affective
science. Researchers have approached the classification of emotions from one of
two fundamental viewpoints:

1. that emotions are discrete and

fundamentally different
constructs
2. that emotions can be
characterized on a dimensional
basis in groupings
 Colored intaglio prints by Charles Le Brun and J.
Pass depicting the facial expressions of sixteen
emotions

Emotions as discrete
categories
In discrete emotion theory, all humans are thought to have an innate set of basic
emotions that are cross-culturally recognizable. These basic emotions are described
as "discrete" because they are believed to be distinguishable by an individual's facial
expression and biological processes.[1] Theorists have conducted studies to
determine which emotions are basic. A popular example is Paul Ekman and his
colleagues' cross-cultural study of 1992, in which they concluded that the six basic
emotions are anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.[2] Ekman
explains that there are particular characteristics attached to each of these emotions,
allowing them to be expressed in varying degrees in a non-verbal manner.[3][4] Each
emotion acts as a discrete category rather than an individual emotional state.[5]
Simplicity debate
Humans' subjective experience is that emotions are clearly recognizable in ourselves
and others. This apparent ease of recognition has led to the identification of a
number of emotions that are said to be basic, and universal among all people.
However, a debate among experts has questioned this understanding of what
emotions are. There has been recent discussion of the progression on the different
views of emotion over the years.[6]

On "basic emotion" accounts, activation of an emotion, such as anger, sadness, or

fear, is "triggered" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the
perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of
different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A
theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional
signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion
a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology.
Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the
eliciting event should not be necessary to deduce what the person is feeling from
observing the biological signatures.[5]

On "constructionist" accounts, the emotion a person feels in response to a stimulus or

event is "constructed" from more elemental biological and psychological ingredients.
Two hypothesized ingredients are "core affect" (characterized by, e.g., hedonic
valence and physiological arousal) and conceptual knowledge (such as the semantic
meaning of the emotion labels themselves, e.g., the word "anger"). A theme common
to many constructionist theories is that different emotions do not have specific
locations in the nervous system or distinct physiological signatures, and that context
is central to the emotion a person feels because of the accessibility of different
concepts afforded by different contexts.[7]

Dimensional models of
emotion
For both theoretical and practical reasons, researchers define emotions according to
one or more dimensions. In his philosophical treatise, The Passions of the Soul,
Descartes defines and investigates the six primary passions (Wonder, love, hate,
desire, joy, and sadness). In 1897, Wilhelm Max Wundt, the father of modern
psychology, proposed that emotions can be described by three dimensions:
"pleasurable versus unpleasurable", "arousing or subduing", and "strain or
relaxation".[8] In 1954, Harold Schlosberg named three dimensions of emotion:
"pleasantness–unpleasantness", "attention–rejection" and "level of activation".[9]

Dimensional models of emotion attempt to conceptualize human emotions by

defining where they lie in two or three dimensions. Most dimensional models
incorporate valence and arousal or intensity dimensions. Dimensional models of
emotion suggest that a common and interconnected neurophysiological system is
responsible for all affective states.[10] These models contrast theories of basic
emotion, which propose that different emotions arise from separate neural
systems.[10] Several dimensional models of emotion have been developed, though
there are just a few that remain as the dominant models currently accepted by
most.[11] The two-dimensional models that are most prominent are the circumplex
model, the vector model, and the Positive Activation – Negative Activation (PANA)
model.[11]

Circumplex model

Circumplex model of emotion has two

axes: Valence and Arousal
The circumplex model of emotion was developed by James Russell.[12] This model
suggests that emotions are distributed in a two-dimensional circular space,
containing arousal and valence dimensions. Arousal represents the vertical axis and
valence represents the horizontal axis, while the center of the circle represents a
neutral valence and a medium level of arousal.[11] In this model, emotional states can
be represented at any level of valence and arousal, or at a neutral level of one or both
of these factors. Circumplex models have been used most commonly to test stimuli
of emotion words, emotional facial expressions, and affective states.[13]

Russell and Lisa Feldman Barrett describe their modified circumplex model as
representative of core affect, or the most elementary feelings that are not necessarily
directed toward anything. Different prototypical emotional episodes, or clear
emotions that are evoked or directed by specific objects, can be plotted on the
circumplex, according to their levels of arousal and pleasure.[14]

Vector model

The vector model of emotion

suggests that emotions are
structured in terms of arousal and
valence. A positive valence represents
appetitive motivation and negative
valence represents defensive
motivation.[15]

The vector model of emotion appeared in 1992.[16] This two-dimensional model

consists of vectors that point in two directions representing a "boomerang" shape
The model assumes that there is always an underlying arousal dimension, and that
valence determines the direction in which a particular emotion lies. For example, a
positive valence would shift the emotion up the top vector and a negative valence
would shift the emotion down the bottom vector.[11] In this model, high arousal states
are differentiated by their valence, whereas low arousal states are more neutral and
are represented near the meeting point of the vectors. Vector models have been most
widely used in the testing of word and picture stimuli.[13]

Positive activation – negative

activation (P.A.N.A.) model
The positive activation – negative activation (P.A.N.A.) or "consensual" model of
emotion, originally created by Watson and Tellegen in 1985,[17] suggests that positive
affect and negative affect are two separate systems. Similar to the vector model,
states of higher arousal tend to be defined by their valence, and states of lower
arousal tend to be more neutral in terms of valence.[11] In the P.A.N.A. model, the
vertical axis represents low to high positive affect and the horizontal axis represents
low to high negative affect. The dimensions of valence and arousal lay at a 45-degree
rotation over these axes.[17]

Plutchik's model
Robert Plutchik offers a three-dimensional model that is a hybrid of both basic-
complex categories and dimensional theories. It arranges emotions in concentric
circles where inner circles are more basic and outer circles more complex. Notably,
outer circles are also formed by blending the inner circle emotions. Plutchik's model,
as Russell's, emanates from a circumplex representation, where emotional words
were plotted based on similarity.[18] There are numerous emotions, which appear in
several intensities and can be combined in various ways to form emotional
"dyads".[19][20][21][22][23]

PAD emotional state model

The PAD emotional state model is a psychological model developed by Albert
Mehrabian and James A. Russell to describe and measure emotional states. PAD
uses three numerical dimensions to represent all emotions.[24][25] The PAD
dimensions are Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance.

The Pleasure-Displeasure Scale

measures how pleasant an emotion
may be. For instance, both anger
and fear are unpleasant emotions,
and score high on the displeasure
scale. However, joy is a pleasant
emotion.[24]
The Arousal-Nonarousal Scale
measures how energized or
soporific one feels. It is not the
intensity of the emotion—for grief
and depression can be low arousal
intense feelings. While both anger
and rage are unpleasant emotions,
rage has a higher intensity or a
higher arousal state. However
boredom, which is also an
unpleasant state, has a low arousal
value.[24]
The Dominance-Submissiveness
Scale represents the controlling
and dominant nature of the
emotion. For instance, while both
fear and anger are unpleasant
emotions, anger is a dominant
 emotion, while fear is a submissive
emotion.[24]

Criticisms

Cultural considerations
Ethnographic and cross-cultural studies of emotions have shown the variety of ways
in which emotions differ with cultures. Because of these differences, many cross-
cultural psychologists and anthropologists challenge the idea of universal
classifications of emotions altogether. Cultural differences have been observed in the
way in which emotions are valued, expressed, and regulated. The social norms for
emotions, such as the frequency with or circumstances in which they are expressed,
also vary drastically.[26][27] For example, the demonstration of anger is encouraged by
Kaluli people, but condemned by Utku Inuit.[28]

The largest piece of evidence that disputes the universality of emotions is language.
Differences within languages directly correlate to differences in emotion taxonomy.
Languages differ in that they categorize emotions based on different components.
Some may categorize by event types, whereas others categorize by action readiness.
Furthermore, emotion taxonomies vary due to the differing implications emotions
have in different languages.[26] That being said, not all English words have equivalents
in all other languages and vice versa, indicating that there are words for emotions
present in some languages but not in others.[29] Emotions such as the schadenfreude
in German and saudade in Portuguese are commonly expressed in emotions in their
respective languages, but lack an English equivalent.

Some languages do not differentiate between emotions that are considered to be the
basic emotions in English. For instance, certain African languages have one word for
both anger and sadness, and others for shame and fear. There is ethnographic
evidence that even challenges the universality of the category "emotions" because
certain cultures lack a specific word relating to the English word "emotions".[27]

Lists of emotions
Emotions are categorized into various affects, which correspond to the current
situation.[30] An affect is the range of feeling experienced.[31] Both positive and
negative emotions are needed in our daily lives.[32] Many theories of emotion have
been proposed,[33] with contrasting views.[34]

Basic emotions

William James in 1890 proposed

four basic emotions: fear, grief,
love, and rage, based on bodily
involvement.[35]
Paul Ekman identified six basic
emotions: anger, disgust, fear,
happiness, sadness and
surprise.[36] Wallace V. Friesen and
Phoebe C. Ellsworth worked with
him on the same basic structure.[37]
The emotions can be linked to
facial expressions. In the 1990s,
Ekman proposed an expanded list
of basic emotions, including a
range of positive and negative
emotions that are not all encoded
in facial muscles.[38] The newly
included emotions are: amusement,
contempt, contentment,
embarrassment, excitement, guilt,
pride in achievement, relief,
satisfaction, sensory pleasure, and
shame.[38]
Richard and Bernice Lazarus in
1996 expanded the list to 15
emotions: aesthetic experience,
anger, anxiety, compassion,
depression, envy, fright, gratitude,
guilt, happiness, hope, jealousy,
love, pride, relief, sadness, and
shame, in the book Passion and
Reason.[39][40]
Researchers[41] at University of
California, Berkeley identified 27
categories of emotion: admiration,
adoration, aesthetic appreciation,
amusement, anger, anxiety, awe,
awkwardness, boredom, calmness,
confusion, craving, disgust,
 empathic pain, entrancement,
excitement, fear, horror, interest, joy,
nostalgia, relief, romance, sadness,
satisfaction, sexual desire and
surprise.[42] This was based on
2185 short videos intended to elicit
a certain emotion. These were then
modeled onto a "map" of
emotions.[43]

Contrasting basic emotions

A 2009 review[44] of theories of emotion identifies and contrasts fundamental
emotions according to three key criteria for mental experiences that:

1. have a strongly motivating

subjective quality like pleasure
or pain;
 2. are a response to some event or
object that is either real or
imagined;
3. motivate particular kinds of
behavior.
The combination of these attributes distinguishes emotions from sensations, feelings
and moods.

Kind of emotion Positive emotions Negative emotions

Interest, curiosity,
Indifference, habituation, boredom
enthusiasm
Related to object
Attraction, desire,
properties Aversion, disgust, revulsion
admiration

Surprise, amusement Alarm, panic

Future appraisal Hope, excitement Fear, anxiety, dread

Gratitude, thankfulness Anger, rage

Joy, elation, triumph,

Sorrow, grief
Event-related jubilation

Patience Frustration, restlessness

Contentment Discontentment, disappointment

Self-appraisal Humility, modesty Pride, arrogance

Avarice, greed, miserliness, envy,

Charity
Social jealousy

Sympathy Cruelty

Cathected Love Hate

Emotion dynamics
Researchers distinguish several emotion dynamics, most commonly how intense
(mean level), variable (fluctuations), inert (temporal dependency), instable (magnitude
of moment-to-moment fluctuations), or differentiated someone's emotions are (the
specificity of granularity of emotions), and whether and how an emotion augments or
blunts other emotions.[45] Meta-analytic reviews show systematic developmental
changes in emotion dynamics throughout childhood and adolescence and substantial
between-person differences.[45]

HUMAINE's proposal for EARL

The emotion annotation and representation language (EARL) proposed by the Human-
Machine Interaction Network on Emotion (HUMAINE) classifies 48 emotions.[46]

Negative and forceful

Anger
Annoyance
Contempt
Disgust
Irritation
Negative and not in control
Anxiety
Embarrassment
Fear
Helplessness
Powerlessness
Worry
Negative thoughts
Doubt
Envy
Frustration
Guilt
Shame
Negative and passive
Boredom
Despair
Disappointment
Hurt
Sadness
Agitation
Stress
Shock
Tension
Positive and lively
Amusement
Delight
Elation
Excitement
Happiness
Joy
Pleasure
Caring
Affection
Empathy
Friendliness
Love
Positive thoughts
Pride
Courage
Hope
Humility
Satisfaction
Trust
Quiet positive
Calmness
Contentment
Relaxation
Relief
Serenity
 Reactive
Interest
Politeness
Surprise

Parrott's emotions by groups

A tree-structured list of emotions was described in Shaver et al. (1987),[47] and also
featured in Parrott (2001).[48]
Primary Secondary
Tertiary emotion
emotion emotion

Adoration · Fondness · Liking · Attraction · Caring ·

Affection
Tenderness · Compassion · Sentimentality

Love Lust/Sexual
Desire · Passion · Infatuation
desire

Longing Longing

Amusement · Bliss · Gaiety · Glee · Jolliness · Joviality ·

Cheerfulness Joy · Delight · Enjoyment · Gladness · Happiness ·
Jubilation · Elation · Satisfaction · Ecstasy · Euphoria

Zest Enthusiasm · Zeal · Excitement · Thrill · Exhilaration

Joy Contentment Pleasure

Pride Triumph

Optimism Eagerness · Hope

Enthrallment Enthrallment · Rapture

Relief Relief

Surprise Surprise Amazement · Astonishment

Aggravation · Agitation · Annoyance · Grouchy · Grumpy ·

Irritability
Crosspatch

Exasperation Frustration

Anger · Outrage · Fury · Wrath · Hostility · Ferocity ·

Anger Rage Bitterness · Hatred · Scorn · Spite · Vengefulness · Dislike ·
Resentment

Disgust Revulsion · Contempt · Loathing

Envy Jealousy

Torment Torment

Sadness Suffering Agony · Anguish · Hurt

Depression · Despair · Gloom · Glumness · Unhappiness ·

Sadness
Grief · Sorrow · Woe · Misery · Melancholy

Disappointment Dismay · Displeasure

Shame Guilt · Regret · Remorse

 Neglect Alienation · Defeatism · Dejection · Embarrassment ·
Homesickness · Humiliation · Insecurity · Insult · Isolation ·
Loneliness · Rejection

Sympathy Pity · Mono no aware · Sympathy

Alarm · Shock · Fear · Fright · Horror · Terror · Panic ·

Horror
Hysteria · Mortification
Fear
Anxiety · Suspense · Uneasiness · Apprehension (fear) ·
Nervousness
Worry · Distress · Dread

Plutchik's wheel of emotions

Plutchik's original emotion wheel

 A diagram depicting the primary, secondary,
and tertiary dyads

In 1980, Robert Plutchik diagrammed a wheel of eight emotions: joy, trust, fear,
surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and anticipation, inspired by his Ten
Postulates.[49][50] Plutchik also theorized twenty-four "Primary", "Secondary", and
"Tertiary" dyads (feelings composed of two emotions).[51][52][53][54][55][56][57] The wheel
emotions can be paired in four groups:

Primary dyad = one petal apart =

Love = Joy + Trust
Secondary dyad = two petals apart
= Envy = Sadness + Anger
Tertiary dyad = three petals apart =
Shame = Fear + Disgust
Opposite emotions = four petals
apart = Anticipation ∉ Surprise
There are also triads, emotions formed from 3 primary emotions, though Plutchik
never describes in any detail what the triads might be.[58] This leads to a combination
of 24 dyads and 32 triads, making 56 emotions at 1 intensity level.[59] Emotions can
be mild or intense;[60] for example, distraction is a mild form of surprise, and rage is
an intense form of anger. The kinds of relation between each pair of emotions are:
Emotions and opposites

Basic Basic Intense Intense

Mild emotion Mild opposite
emotion opposite emotion opposite

Pensiveness, Joy, Sadness, Grief,

Serenity Ecstasy, Elation
Gloominess Cheerfulness Dejection Sorrow

Acceptance, Boredom, Disgust, Admiration, Loathing,

Trust
Tolerance Dislike Aversion Adoration Revulsion

Apprehension, Annoyance,
Fear, Fright Anger, Hostility Terror, Panic Rage, Fury
Dismay Irritation

Distraction, Interest, Anticipation, Amazement,

Surprise Vigilance
Uncertainty Attentiveness Expectancy Astonishment
Dyads (Combinations)

Human feelings Emotions Opposite feelings Emotions

Anticipation + Disapproval,
Optimism, Courage Surprise + Sadness
Joy Disappointment

Anticipation +
Hope, Fatalism Unbelief, Shock Surprise + Disgust
Trust

Anticipation +
Anxiety, Dread Outrage, Hate Surprise + Anger
Fear

Love, Friendliness Joy + Trust Remorse, Misery Sadness + Disgust

Guilt, Excitement Joy + Fear Envy, Sullenness Sadness + Anger

Sadness +
Delight, Doom Joy + Surprise Pessimism
Anticipation

Submission, Modesty Trust + Fear Contempt, Scorn Disgust + Anger

Disgust +
Curiosity Trust + Surprise Cynicism
Anticipation

Sentimentality, Morbidness,
Trust + Sadness Disgust + Joy
Resignation Derisiveness

Aggressiveness, Anger +
Awe, Alarm Fear + Surprise
Vengeance Anticipation

Despair Fear + Sadness Pride, Victory Anger + Joy

Shame, Prudishness Fear + Disgust Dominance Anger + Trust

Opposite combinations[54]

Human feelings Emotions

Bittersweetness Joy + Sadness

Ambivalence Trust + Disgust

Frozenness Fear + Anger

Confusion Surprise + Anticipation

Similar emotions in the wheel are adjacent to each other.[61] Anger, Anticipation, Joy,
and Trust are positive in valence, while Fear, Surprise, Sadness, and Disgust are
negative in valence. Anger is classified as a "positive" emotion because it involves
" d" l [62] h l b l f
someone's territory.[63] The emotion dyads each have half-opposites and exact
opposites:[64]

Anticipation, Joy, Surprise, Sadness

+ Sadness Joy

Anticipation Pessimism Optimism

Surprise Disapproval Delight

Joy, Trust, Sadness, Disgust

+ Disgust Trust

Joy Morbidness Love

Sadness Remorse Sentimentality

Trust, Fear, Disgust, Anger

+ Fear Anger

Trust Submission Dominance

Disgust Shame Contempt

Fear, Surprise, Anger, Anticipation

+ Surprise Anticipation

Anger Outrage Aggressiveness

Fear Awe Anxiety

Trust, Surprise, Disgust, Anticipation

+ Surprise Anticipation

Trust Curiosity Hope

Disgust Unbelief Cynicism

Joy, Fear, Sadness, Anger

+ Fear Anger

Joy Guilt Pride

Sadness Despair Envy

Six emotion axes
MIT researchers [65] published a paper titled "An Affective Model of Interplay Between
Emotions and Learning: Reengineering Educational Pedagogy—Building a Learning
Companion" that lists six axes of emotions with different opposite emotions, and
different emotions coming from ranges.[65]

Emotional flow

Axis -1.0 -0.5 0 0 +0.5

Anxiety –
Anxiety Worry Discomfort Comfort Hopeful Con
Confidence

Boredom –
Ennui Boredom Indifference Interest Curiosity Intri
Fascination

Frustration –
Frustration Puzzlement Confusion Insight Enlightenment Epip
Euphoria

Dispirited –
Dispirited Disappointed Dissatisfied Satisfied Thrilled Enth
Encouraged

Terror –
Terror Dread Apprehension Calm Anticipatory Exci
Enchantment

Humiliation Self-
Humiliated Embarrassed Pleased Satisfied Prou
– Pride conscious

They also made a model labeling phases of learning emotions.[65]

Negative Affect Positive Affect

Constructive Disappointment, Puzzlement, Awe, Satisfaction,

Learning Confusion Curiosity

Frustration, Discard, Hopefulness, Fresh

Un-learning
Misconceptions research
The Book of Human Emotions
Tiffany Watt Smith listed 154 different worldwide emotions and feelings.[66]

A
Abhiman
Acedia
Amae
Ambiguphobia
Anger
Anticipation
Anxiety
Apathy
L’appel du vide
Awumbuk
B
Bafflement
Basorexia
Befuddlement
Bewilderment
Boredom
Brabant
Broodiness
C
Calm
Carefree
Cheerfulness
Cheesed (off)
Claustrophobia
Collywobbles, the
Comfort
Compassion
Compersion
Confidence
Contempt
Contentment
Courage
 Curiosity
Cyberchondria
D
Delight
Dépaysement
Desire
Despair
Disappear, the desire to
Disappointment
Disgruntlement
Disgust
Dismay
Dolce far niente
Dread
E
Ecstasy
Embarrassment
Empathy
Envy
Euphoria
Exasperation
Excitement
F
Fago
Fear
Feeling good (about yourself)
Formal feeling, a
Fraud, feeling like a
Frustration
G
Gezelligheid
Gladsomeness
Glee
Gratitude
Greng jai
Grief
Guilt
H
Han
Happiness
Hatred
Heebie-Jeebies, the
Hiraeth
Hoard, the urge to
Homefulness
Homesickness
Hopefulness
Huff, in a
Humble, feeling
Humiliation
Hunger
 Hwyl
I
Ijirashi
Ikstuarpok
Ilinx
Impatience
Indignation
Inhabitiveness
Insulted, feeling
Irritation
J
Jealousy
Joy
K
Kaukokaipuu
L
Liget[67]
Litost
Loneliness
Love
M
Malu
Man
Matutolypea
Mehameha
Melancholy
Miffed, a bit
Mono no aware
Morbid curiosity
Mudita
N
Nakhes
Nginyiwarrarringu
Nostalgia
O
Oime
Overwhelmed, feeling
P
Panic
Paranoia
Perversity
Peur des espaces
Philoprogenitiveness
Pique, a fit of
Pity
Postal, going
Pride
Pronoia
R
Rage
Regret
Relief
Reluctance
Remorse
Reproachfulness
Resentment
Ringxiety
Rivalry
Road rage
Ruinenlust
S
Sadness
Satisfaction
Saudade
Schadenfreude
Self-pity
Shame
Shock
Smugness
Song
Surprise
Suspicion
T
Technostress
Terror
Torschlusspanik
Toska
Triumph
U
Umpty
Uncertainty
V
Vengefulness
Vergüenza ajena
Viraha
Vulnerability
 W
Wanderlust
Warm glow
Wonder
Worry
Z
Żal

Mapping facial
expressions
Scientists map twenty-one different facial emotions[68][69] expanded from Paul
Ekman's six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise:

Fearful Angry Surprised Disgusted

Happy Happily Surprised Happily Disgusted

Sad Sadly Fearful Sadly Angry Sadly Surprised Sadly Disgusted

Appalled Fearfully Angry Fearfully Surprised Fearfully Disgusted

Awed Angrily Surprised Angrily Disgusted

Hatred Disgustedly Surprised

See also

Aesthetic emotions
Affect measures
Affective neuroscience
Alexithymia
Emotion and memory
Emotional granularity
List of virtues
Mood (psychology)
Moral emotions
Social emotions
Unipolar emotions
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