TOPIC 1

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

WEATHER HAZARDS

- these are extreme weather conditions which cause danger and discomfort to human life, their
property and livestock.

- weather conditions become hazards when they are extreme.

- weather hazards include floods, tropical cyclones, droughts, lightning and heatwaves.

Floods

- flooding involves the overflowing of water from a river, lake, or other bodies of water causing
dsstruction of property, crops or infrastructure

Causes of floods

Floods can be caused by:-

- bursting of dams

- high rainfall intensity of long duration

- melting of snow

- stream bank cultivation

- deforestation

The effects of flood

- Loss of human life

- Property and infrastructure damage

- Road closures, erosion, and landslide risks

- Crop destruction and livestock loss

- Threats to aquatic species

- Health risks due to water contamination

- Housing displacement

- Economic impacts

Measures to reduce floods and their effects

Effects of floods can be reduced through:-

- construction of dams

- straightening and widening of river channels

- putting flood warning systems

- evacuate people from low lying areas

- providing medical facilities, shelter and food to flood victims

Drought

- this is a long period of time without rain when the rains are expected.
Causes of drought

- The rain shadow effect (refer to relief rainfall notes)

- offshore trade winds whereby wind blows from the continent to the ocean instead of blowing
from the ocean to the continent bringing with it moisture which will in turn lead to rain
formation.

- cutting down of trees without replacing them which has an effect on the water cycle.

- stream bank cultivation promote siltation of rivers which are a source of watervapour

- distance from the sea where by areas that are far away from the see experience drought
because by the time the wind from the sea reaches these areas, they would have exhausted all
the moisture.

- global warming

- elnino effect

Effects of drought

Drought leads to severe negative effects which includes:-

- Malnutrition

- hunger and starvation

- wilting of crops

- death of animals

- closure of industries which use raw materials from agriculture

- shortage of drinking water

- drying of water bodies and death of aquatic life

Measures to control the effects of drought

- growing drought resistant crops and rearing drought resistant animals

- irrigating agricultural crops

- properly store food during years of better harvests

- drilling boreholes to supply safe drinking water

- donating food to affected communities

- practice water conservation to save water

HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT INFLUENCE WEATHER

 Deforestation: Cutting down trees reduces evapotranspiration, leading to decreased

rainfall and increased temperature.
 Urbanization: Urban areas absorb and retain heat, leading to urban heat islands and
altered local weather patterns.
 Industrialization: Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, contributing to global
warming and climate change.
 Agriculture Farming practices, such as monoculture and over-irrigation, can alter local
weather patterns and contribute to climate change.

Effects of Human Activities on Weather

 Global Warming: Increased greenhouse gases lead to rising temperatures, more

extreme weather events, and altered precipitation patterns.
 Air Pollution Emissions from industries and vehicles contribute to poor air quality,
reduced visibility, and negative health effects.
  Climate Change: Long-term changes in weather patterns, leading to more frequent and
severe weather events, such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves.

Ways to Reduce Human Impact on Weather

 Sustainable Practices: Adopting renewable energy sources, reducing energy

consumption, and promoting sustainable agriculture.
 Conservation Efforts*: Protecting and restoring natural habitats, such as forests and
wetlands, to maintain ecosystem services.
 Climate-Smart Policies :Implementing policies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
promote climate resilience, and support sustainable development.

ZIMBABWE CLIMATIC ZONES.

- Zimbabwe experiences a Tropical Savannah Climate or Tropical Continental climate which is

also known as seasonally humid climate.

- the climate is characterized by hot wet summers and cool dry winters.

- rainfalls are usually experienced in summer when temperatures are high.

Rainfall Distribution in Zimbabwe

- the highest rainfall in Zimbabwe occurs along the eastern highlands areas particularly the
Nyanga and Chimanimani-chipinge areas where above 1200mm of rainfall is received yearly.

- this is due to the influence of the moist SE trade winds from the Indian Ocean.
- as the moisture- laden winds rise over the Highlands, they produce orographic rain on the
windward side

- areas to the west of eastern highlands receive little or no rainfall because they lye in the
leeward side of the eastern highlands.

- as the wind descends the leeward side, they are cold and dry as the have exhausted all the
moisture on the windward side.

- as the cold dry wind is descending, it is warmed and arrive at the bottom of the highland as
warm dry wind.

- as a result areas like the Save valley, Beitbridge receive little rainfall of about 400mm per year.

- rainfall in Zimbabwe decreases as the distance increases from the eastern highlands.

- places in the north such as Karoi and Harare receives higher rainfall (800-1200mm) per year
than areas in the south like Masvingo (400-600mm).

- this is due to the interrelated influence of latitude, ITCZ and the Congo air.

The distribution of temperature in Zimbabwe

- Zimbabwe has five broad zones of temperature showing the influence of altitude and latitude.

- places of lower altitudes such as Beitbridge have higher temperatures than higher altitude
areas even though they are closer to the equator.

- the hottest zone is along the Zambezi valley stretching downstream of the Kariba dam through
Chirundu, Mana pools area, Dande-Mbire districts and muzarabani areas. The temperatures are
high due to low altitude. High temperatures are also experienced in the southeast Lowveld.

- warm temperatures are experienced in the central part of the country running from the south
west in a north east direction due to increase in altitude. This makes up the highveld.
- cool isolated temperatures of 17.5°c are experienced in the eastern highlands and part of
highveld Marondera-Macheke area.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLIMATIC ZONES AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Temperature and rainfall directly affects the activities of humans in an areas

Agro ecology refers to the relationship between agriculture and the environment.

Region 1

- receives high rainfall of more than 1000mm and low temperatures due to high altitude.

- it is suitable for specialised and diversified farming

- there are steep slopes and suitable for forest plantations for timber production, tea and coffee
plantations as well as maize.

Region 2

- receives between 700-1000mm of rainfall in summer.

- temperatures are moderate

- agricultural production of maize, cotton, tobacco citrus fruits and livestock.

- processing of these products is done in the region eg dairy companies such as gushungo
holdings in mazowe

Region 3
- receives rainfall amount between 500-800mm

- it is a generally warmer region

- the conditions in the region support livestock production and growing of drought resistant
crops as well as cash crops such as tobacco and cotton

Region 4

- receives 450-650mm per year and has severe dry spells.

- suitable for livestock production

- fodder crops resistant to drought can be grown

- wildlife reserves are found in this area which are a key part in the country's tourism

Region 5

- this is the driest region receiving less than 450mm of rainfall per year.

- temperatures are very high in this region.

- cattle and goats are the source of agricultural income.

- game ranching is also practiced

CLIMATE VARIABILITY

- this involves the changes of climatic conditions from one place to another and within a given
area from time to time.
- an area can change from being cool to warmer and from receiving very high rainfall to low
rainfall.

Effects of climate variability

- low agricultural production

- population pressure on the land in areas with favourable climatic conditions

- drying of water bodies

- increase in diseases such as malaria, cholera, skin cancer and bilharzia

- destruction of property due to extreme weather events

- loss of biodiversity

Solutions to effects of climate variability*

- growing drought resistant crops in areas receiving low rainfall

- rearing drought resistant animals in areas of low rainfall

- resettling people from areas of low rainfall

- irrigating crops to supplement rainfall deficiency

- vaccination of people and animals against diseases in pest infested areas

- specialising in terms of production

- putting legislation to control global warming and environmental degradation

- use of early warning systems in areas expecting extreme weather hazards.

TOPIC 2

LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES

ROCKS

A rock is a solid matter that is composed of two or more minerals that are cemented together.
Rocks are the major components of the earth's lithosphere.

ROCK TYPES

1. Igneous Rocks: Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

(a)Intrusive Igneous Rocks: Formed below the Earth's surface (e.g., granite).

(b)Extrusive Igneous Rocks: Formed above the Earth's surface (e.g., basalt).

2. Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from the accumulation and compression of sediments.

(a)Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from fragments of other rocks (e.g., sandstone).

(b) Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from the precipitation of minerals (e.g., limestone).

3. Metamorphic Rocks: Formed from the alteration of existing rocks under high pressure and
temperature.

(a)Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Have a layered or banded structure (e.g., gneiss).

(b)Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Do not have a layered or banded structure (e.g.,

marble).

Importance of Rocks

 Construction: Rocks are used as building materials.

 Mineral Resources: Rocks are sources of minerals and metals.
 Landscaping: Rocks shape our landscape and influence the environment.
  Scientific Research: Studying rocks helps us understand the Earth's history and
processes.

ROCK FORMATIONS

A group of rocks that are related in terms of their origin, composition, and structure._

Types of Rock Formations

1 Igneous Formations: : Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

- Examples: Granite, Basalt

2. Sedimentary Formations: Formed from the accumulation and compression of sediments.

- Examples: Sandstone, Limestone, Shale

3. Metamorphic Formations: Formed from the alteration of existing rocks under high pressure
and temperature.

- Examples: Marble, Slate, Gneiss

Characteristics igneous Rock

WEATHERING

Definition: The breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments or minerals through exposure to the
environment.
Types of Weathering

1. Mechanical Weathering_: Breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments through physical

forces.

- Examples: freeze thaw, exfoliation, pressure release, and salt crystallization.

2. Chemical Weathering_: Breakdown of rocks through chemical reactions.

- Examples: Hydrolysis, oxidation, carbonation.

3. Biological Weathering_: Breakdown of rocks through living organisms.

- Examples: Plant roots, microorganisms.

Factors Influencing Weathering

1. Temperature_: Extreme temperatures can cause expansion and contraction of rocks.

2. Rainfall_: Water can cause chemical reactions and mechanical breakdown.

3. Wind_: Wind can cause abrasion and erosion.

4. Vegetation_: Plant roots can cause mechanical breakdown.

Effects of Weathering

 Soil Formation_: Weathering helps create soil through the breakdown of rocks.
 andscape Changes_: Weathering can lead to changes in the landscape, such as the
formation of caves and rock formations.
  Natural Hazards_: Weathering can contribute to natural hazards, such as landslides and
rockfalls.

Importance of Weathering

 Soil Formation_: Weathering helps create fertile soil for agriculture.

 Geological Processes_: Weathering plays a crucial role in shaping the Earth's surface.
 Environmental Management_: Understanding weathering helps us manage and
conserve the environment.
 Promotes easy extraction of minerals as they can become exposed easily.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

> Exfoliation

- Occurs when rocks are exposed to extreme temperature fluctuations

- Causes rocks to break off in layers, like the peeling of an onion

- Common in deserts and mountainous regions

> Freeze-Thaw Weathering

- Occurs when water seeps into rock cracks and freezes

- Expansion of ice causes rock to break apart

- Common in cold climates

> Salt Crystallization

- Occurs when saltwater seeps into rock cracks and evaporates

- Salt crystals form and expand, causing rock to break apart

- Common in coastal areas and arid regions

> Pressure Release

- Occurs when rocks are released from high pressure, such as when a rock is uplifted

- Causes rocks to expand and break apart

- Common in areas where rocks are uplifted, such as mountains

CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

> _Hydrolysis

- Chemical reaction between water and minerals in rocks

- Causes rocks to break down into clay and other minerals

- Common in areas with high rainfall and humidity

> _Oxidation_

- Chemical reaction between oxygen and minerals in rocks

- Causes rocks to break down into iron oxide and other minerals

- Common in areas with high oxygen levels, such as near waterfalls

> _Carbonation_

- Chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and minerals in rocks

- Causes rocks to break down into carbonate minerals

- Common in areas with high levels of carbon dioxide, such as near volcanic regions

> _Dissolution_

- Chemical reaction between water and minerals in rocks

- Causes rocks to dissolve into ions and minerals

- Common in areas with high levels of groundwater, such as near caves

> _Acid Rain_

- Chemical reaction between acidic rainwater and minerals in rocks

- Causes rocks to break down into ions and minerals

- Common in areas with high levels of air pollution, such as near industrial regions

Distinction between physical and chemical weathering processes

Characteristics Physical weathering Chemical weathering

Type of change Breaking down of rocks into Alteration of rock particles

 smaller fragments. through chemical reactions.

Agents Temperature, water, wind, Water, oxygen, carbon

ice. dioxide, acids.

Processes Freeze thaw, exfoliation, salt Hydrolysis, oxidation,

crystallization, and pressure carbonation, solution.
release.

Results Fragmented rocks, talus Clay minerals, soluble salts,

slopes, rock pillars. altered rock minerals.

Rate Faser in cold and arid regions. Faster in warm and humid
climates.

Examples Talus rocks, rock pillars, and Caves, sinkholes.

arches.

Landforms Formed from Physical Weathering Processes

Talus Slopes

> Formed through the accumulation of rock fragments at the base of a slope.

>Result from freeze-thaw weathering, exfoliation, and rockfalls.

>Characterized by a steep, rocky slope with a gentle slope at the base.

Rock Pillars

> Formed through the erosion of rocks by wind and water.

>Result from differential weathering, where softer rocks are eroded faster than harder rocks.

>Characterized by a tall, narrow column of rock.

Arches

> Formed through the erosion of rocks by wind and water.

>Result from differential weathering, where softer rocks are eroded faster than harder rocks.

>Characterized by a natural rock bridge with an opening underneath.

Blockfields

> Formed through the breakdown of rocks into large boulders.

>Result from freeze-thaw weathering and exfoliation.

>Characterized by a large area of rocky terrain with numerous boulders.

Scree Slopes

> Formed through the accumulation of small rock fragments at the base of a slope.

>Result from freeze-thaw weathering, exfoliation, and rockfalls.

>Characterized by a steep, rocky slope with a loose, unstable surface.

Importance of Physical Weathering Landforms

> Provide habitat for unique and adapted plants and animals.

>Offer scenic and recreational opportunities.

>Can be used for scientific research and study.

>Can pose hazards to human settlements and infrastructure.

Landforms Formed from Chemical Weathering Processes

Caves

> Formed through the dissolution of soluble rocks like limestone and dolomite by acidic water.

>Characterized by a hollow or cavernous space within a rock.

>Can be found in karst landscapes.

Sinkholes

> Formed through the collapse of underground caverns or caves.

>Result from the dissolution of soluble rocks like limestone and dolomite.

>Can be found in karst landscapes.

Karst Landscapes

> Formed through the dissolution of soluble rocks like limestone and dolomite.
>Characterized by unique landforms like caves, sinkholes, and underground streams.

Tower Karst

> Formed through the dissolution of soluble rocks like limestone and dolomite.

>Characterized by tall, narrow towers of rock.

>Found in tropical regions with high rainfall.

Limestone Pavements

> Formed through the dissolution of soluble rocks like limestone.

>Characterized by a flat or gently sloping surface with numerous cracks and joints.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The earth is divided into 4 spheres which are:

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere

Lithosphere

Biosphere

The study of the earth's internal structure is called seismology.

The Earth is composed of several layers, each with its own unique characteristics.
The Crust

The outermost layer of the Earth

Thickness: 5-70 km

Composition: rocks and minerals

Types: continental crust (thicker and less dense) and oceanic crust (thinner and denser)

The Mantle

The layer beneath the crust

Thickness: approximately 2,900 km

Composition: hot, viscous rock

Divided into the upper mantle and lower mantle

The Core

The central part of the Earth

Divided into the inner core and outer core

Inner core: solid, iron-nickel alloy

Outer core: liquid, iron-nickel alloy

ResponsibleResponsibleResponsibleResponsible for generating the Earth's magnetic field

Importance of Understanding the Earth's Internal Structure

Helps us understand geological processes like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

Important for understanding plate tectonics and the movement of the Earth's crust

Helps us locate natural resources like minerals and fossil fuels.

ECOSYSTEM

Definition

> An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living things interacting with each other.

Biotic Components

> Living things in an ecosystem, including:

- Plants

- Animals

- Fungi

- Bacteria
Abiotic Components

> Non-living things in an ecosystem, including:

- Water

- Soil

- Sunlight

- Air

- Temperature

Biomass

> The total amount of living organisms in an ecosystem.

Biome

> A large area with a specific type of ecosystem, including:

- Desert biome

- Rainforest biome

- Ocean biome

Examples of Ecosystems

> - Forest ecosystem

- Grassland ecosystem

- Pond ecosystem

- Coral reef ecosystem

Biodiversity

> Variety of living organisms in an ecosystem, including:

- Different species of plants and animals

- Genetic variation within each species

Species

> A group of living organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring, including:

- Plants

- Animals

- Fungi

- Bacteria

Genetic or Heredity

> The passing of characteristics from parents to offspring through genes, including:

- Traits such as eye color, hair color, and height

- Characteristics such as leaf shape, flower color, and resistance to disease

Importance of Biodiversity

> Maintains ecosystem balance and health, including:

- Providing food and shelter for various species

- Regulating climate and water cycles

- Supporting nutrient cycles and soil formation

Threats to Biodiversity

> Human activities that harm ecosystems and reduce biodiversity, including:

- Deforestation and habitat destruction

- Pollution and climate change

- Overhunting and overfishing