Hormones and Behavior

Hormone: chemical secreted by a gland and conveyed by the blood or lymphatic system to
other organs, whose activity it influences.

Three Types of Hormones

a. Peptide hormones: chains of amino acids (e.g., insulin, LH, FSH)
They exert effects on ion channels through second messenger

b. Thyroid hormones: derivatives of amino acid tyrosine containing iodine [i.e.,

triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)]
They regulate the expression of certain genes

c. Steroid hormones: chemicals containing four carbon rings (i.e., estrogens & androgens)
They regulate both the expression of genes and the transmission of ions across
the membrane

Endocrine Glands and Hormones

Hypothalamus: produces various releasing hormones and controls release of hormones by

pituitary gland.

Pituitary gland
Anterior pituitary (glandular tissue)
TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) stimulates thyroid gland.
LH (luteinizing hormone) increases production of progesterone or testosterone (male).
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) increases maturation of ovary and production of estrogen
(female) & production of sperm (male)
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) increases secretion of steroid hormones by adrenal
cortex.
Prolactin increases milk production.
GH (growth hormone) promotes cell growth and maturation.

Posterior pituitary (neural tissue)

Oxytocin controls uterus contractions and milk production.
Vasopressin [also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH)] constricts blood vessels, raises
blood pressure.

Pineal gland:
Melatonin regulates of sleep-activity cycle.

Parathyroid glands
Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium, decreases potassium.

Thyroid gland
Thyroxine & Triiodothyronine increase metabolic rate, growth, and maturation.

X.T. Wang 1
 Thymus
Thymosin et. al. promote immune responses.

Adrenal glands
Adrenal cortex
Aldosterone reduces excretion of sodium by kidney.
Cortisol & Corticosterone stimulate liver to elevate blood sugar, increase metabolism
of proteins and fats.
Adrenal medulla
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine have similar effects of sympathetic system.
Liver
Somotomedins stimulate growth.

Kidneys
Angiotensin controls blood pressure and aldosterone secretion.

Pancreas
Insulin increases entry of glucose to cells, and increases storage as fats.
Glucagon increases conversion of stored fats to blood glucose.

Ovaries (in female)

Estrogens promote ovulation and female sexual characteristics.
Progesterone maintains pregnancy.

Testes (in male)

Androgens promote sperm production, growth of public hair, male sexual
characteristics, sexual drive

Intestinal tract and the Brain

Cholecystokinin (CCK), Gastrin and Substance P

Others
The brain and pituitary also release endorphin, and enkephalins.

Negative feedback from the blood levels of a hormone controls its production and secretion

Organizing Effects of Sex Hormones

Long-lasting effects of a hormone during an early critical period

Sex Differences in Gametes, Gonads and Hypothalamus

Sperms and Eggs: Size and Number
Zygote:
Embryo:
Fetus:

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 Gonads (reproductive organs)
Müllerian ducts
Wolffian ducts

The interstitial nucleus 3 in the anterior hypothalamus

Sex-Linked Genes: Genes located on the two sex chromosomes, X and Y.

Sex-Limited Genes: need not be on the sex chromosomes; but have an effect in one sex
only or a stronger effect in one sex than the other.
They are activated by sex hormones.
e.g., Estrogen regulates breast size in women. Testosterone controls facial hair in men but
pubic hair in both men and women.

Imprinted Genes: The expression of a gene depends on whether it is inherited from the father
or mother.
It shows expression from one allele only.
Genomic imprinting is a top-down regulation from one generation to next generations.
It regulates pre- and postnatal development of the brain, body and behavior.

Effects of the Presence and Absence of Early Testosterone

The organizing effects of testosterone are achieved by being converted into estradiol after
entering a neuron.

Alpha-fetoprotein binds with estrogen and blocks it from entering the cells that developing in
this early period.

Long Lasting Sex Differences in Non-reproductive Characteristics (organizing effects)

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

Activating Effects of Sex Hormones

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 Temporary effects of a hormone on behavior or anatomy.

Synthesis of sex hormones

Androgens / estrogens ratio

Effects of Oxytocin and Prolactin

Effects of Sex Hormones on Rats:

Sex-specific behaviors

Effects of Sex Hormones on Dogs and Cats

Three aspects of female sexual behavior:
a. Attractivity –

b. Proceptivity -

c. Receptivity -

Estrus: The "heat" period of a female animal when she is fertile.

Estrogen increases just before an estrus Æ
attracted and proceptive
Estrogen declines and Progesterone increases during the estrus Æ
both proceptive and receptive Æ
Estrogen and Progensterone levels drop sharply

Effects of Sex Hormones on Humans:

The dependence of sexual activity on current hormone levels is least in humans.
Higher level of sexual activity (sexual interest)
Effects of castration
Effects on Activity Levels and Skilled Performance

Effects of Testosterone on Aggressive Behavior:

1.
2.
3.

Testosterone (T) effects reflected in the treatment of sexual misconduct

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 testosterone antagonists (e.g., cyproterone, medroxyprogeterone)

Puberty
Puberty:

Burst of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LRH) released from the hypothalamus Æ
LH and FSH (pituitary gland) Æ Estradiol or testosterone (gonads)

Estradiol -
breast development
broadening hips

Testosterone -
lowing of the voice
beard growth
broadening of the shoulders
growth of hair on the chest, in the underarms, and in the pubic area
a growth spurt in both girls and boys

Menarche (first menstruation) occurs when a female weights about 47 kg.

Precocious puberty

Parental Behavior
--

--

--

Variations in Sexual Development and Sexual Orientation

Determinants of Gender Identity

True hermaphrodites - individuals who have both testicular tissue and ovarian tissue
Intersexes (pseudo-hermaphrodites, hermaphrodites) -
individuals whose development is intermediate between male and female.

Sex Assignment of Human Pseudohermaphrodites

a.
b.
c.

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle

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 Menstrual cycle: periodic variation in hormones and fertility over the course of approximately
one month.

The length of the menstrual cycle: about 28 days

Three phases:
a

b.

c.

Ovulation: Release of the ovum or egg from an ovary which occurs almost exactly 14 days
before the onset of menses, irrespective of the length of the cycle.
(day 1: the first day of menstruation)

Hormonal regulation:
FSH Æovarian follicles maturation Æ ovaries secrete more estrogen Æ
growth of the lining of the uterus Æ LH surge Æ ovulation Æ
formation of corpus luteum ("yellow body")Æ secretes both estrogen & progesterone

Ovum migrates to the uterus

a. if the ovum is NOT fertilized Æ the corpus luteum degenerates Æ estrogen &
progesterone levels drop Æ the lining of the walls of the uterus degenerate Æ
the menstrual discharge

b. if the ovum is fertilized Æ the levels of estrogen and progesterone increase and
maintain at high levels throughout the pregnancy

The pituitary hormones (LH and FSH) are regulated by gonadotropic releasing
hormones (GnRHs) secreted from the hypothalamus

Contraceptive Pills
The combination pills (usually estradiol + progestin):

The estrogen component:

The progestin component inhibits the release of LH and makes the uterus endometrium
rejective to the implantation of a fertilized ovum.

Possible Biological Bases of Homosexuality

Male Homosexuality

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 * Low prenatal testosterone exposure

* Mother's "stressful" experience during the pregnancy:

a. The brain levels of aromatase decrease and the hypothalamus is less masculinized.
b. Excessive levels of adrenal hormones competitively inhibit the actions of testosterone.

* Birth Order

Female Homosexuality
* Prenatal exposure to testosterone

* Synthetic estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES) for miscarriage treatment masculinizes the

brain and behavior.

Genetic contribution to the development of sexual orientation.

A gene promoting male homosexuality may be located on the X chromosome.

Genetic Variations of Sexual Development

Androgen insensitivity (testicularfeminization):

A genetic male (XY chromosome pattern) with female genital appearance.
Body cells are insensitive to androgens.
At puberty:
a.
b.

Turner's syndrome:
A female has an XO chromosome pattern
a.

b.

c.

d.

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 Klinefelter's syndrome:
A male has an XXY chromosome pattern
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

XYY chromosome pattern

a.

b.

c.

d.

Loss of Estrus

Estrus: The period of sexual receptivity in certain female mammals.

Loss of estrus: Concealment of ovulation and being sexually receptive all the time.
Pair Bonding Hypothesis

Paternal Investment Hypothesis

Male-Male Competition Control Hypothesis

Better Gene Hypothesis

Self-Deception Hypothesis

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 Menopause

Menopause: Loss of fertility in human females signaled by the cessation of menstruation that
occurs between the ages 45 to 50.
Most wild animals remain fertile until they die. So do human males.

Why human females are exceptional?

Increased Life-Span Hypothesis: Most human ancestors would die before reaching the age of
menopause.

Limited Egg Supply Hypothesis:

A woman's egg supply is fixed at birth. By age 50, the egg supply has been depleted.
The remaining eggs are half century old and increasingly unresponsive to hormones.
Q: Why did natural selection program women so that their eggs become depleted in their
forties?

Inclusive Fitness Hypothesis:

Aged women can increase her own gene survival by helping relatives bearing her genes more
than by producing yet another child.

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