MODULE 1
General Geology
GEOL211 – Geology for Civil Engineers
This module will introduce geology as a field of study, its
branches and other aspects relevant to Engineering.
GEOL211 – Geology for Civil Engineers
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
ORIGIN MATERIALS
history, age, and mineral and physical
interior structure composition of the Earth
of the Earth
PROCESSES
evolution and modification of
various surface features like
land forms and water bodies
along with their causes
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
MAIN BRANCHES
1 PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
deals with different features of the Earth, changes occurring
in its surfaces, and natural phenomena which can also be
variously described as dynamic geology, geomorphology, etc.
2 MINERALOGY
deals with the study if minerals covering the details of
formation mode, composition, types, association,
properties, uses, etc.
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
MAIN BRANCHES
3 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
details the mode of transformation, causes, types, classifications,
importance, etc. of the different geological structures
4 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
deals with the Earth’s history through sedimentation which is
also called as STRATIGRAPHY since it covers information
and description of sedimentary rock sequence
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
MAIN BRANCHES
5 PALEONTOLOGY
covers studies on relics and remnants of
ancient life preserved by natural processes
in rocks known as FOSSILS
6 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
deals with earth materials that can be used for economic
and/or industrial purposes which include precious and base
metals, nonmetallic minerals, and construction grade stones
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
ALLIED BRANCHES
1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of
civil engineering for execution of safe, stable, and economic
constructions like dams, bridges, and tunnels
2 MINING GEOLOGY
deals with the application of geological knowledge
in the field of mining covering exploration,
estimation, and exploitation of minerals
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
ALLIED BRANCHES
3 GEOPHYSICS
study of physical properties like density and
magnetism of the earth or its parts, to know its
interior, forms the subject matter of geophysics
4 GEOHYDROLOGY
also called as HYDROGEOLOGY that deals with the
occurrence, movement and nature of groundwater in
an area
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
ALLIED BRANCHES
5 GEOCHEMISTRY
deals with the composition, occurrence,
distribution, abundance, mobility, etc, of
different elements in the earth’s crust
application of the geological sciences to engineering study for the purpose of assuring
that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for
COVERAGE OF STUDY
1
naturally occurring rock and soil
materials, and surface
and sub-surface fluids
2
the development, protection and remediation of ground-
water resources are adequately recognized, interpreted
and presented for use in engineering and related practice
3
interaction of introduced materials and processes with the geologic
environment, so that geologic factors affecting the planning, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of engineering structures
application of the geological sciences to engineering study for the purpose of assuring
that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for
THREE(3) PREMISES
1 All engineering works are
built in or on the ground.
2 The ground will always, in some manner, react
to the construction of the engineering work.
3 The reaction of the ground, its engineering behavior,
to the particular engineering work must be
accommodated by that work.
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
ORIGIN MATERIALS
history, age, and mineral and physical
interior structure composition of the Earth
of the Earth
PROCESSES
evolution and modification of
various surface features like
land forms and water bodies
along with their causes
largest of the rocky planets in the solar system
measuring 12,714 km from pole to pole and 12,756 km
around the Equator, and orbits the Sun at an average
distance of 150 million km
The origin of the earth is traced all the way back to the
Big Bang Theory.
Solar Nebula
slowly rotating interstellar cloud of gas (mostly hydrogen) and dust
Planetesimal
biggest blocks had probably grown to about 10 km across 100,000 years after the Big Bang
Planetary Embryos
collided planetesimals and accreted into a few dozen bodies a few thousand kilometers
across after 50,000 years further
Asteroids
irregularly shaped rocky and iron-rich bodies which were once thought to be the remains of a
planet that was broken up by a giant collision
The possible movement of the continents
relative to one another in the geological past
was first outlined at length by Alfred
Wegener in 1912.
Lands in the southern hemisphere including
South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia,
and peninsular India formed a large
continent, called Gondwanaland.
PANGEA
Earth is subdivided into two(3) major components namely the GEOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE
and the ATMOSPHERE
The HYDROSPHERE
comprises of the bodies of
water in the Earth’s surface.
Crust
This brittle outermost
layer varies in thickness
from about 25 to 70 km
under continents, and
from about 5 to 10 km
under the oceans.
Mantle
Below the crust lies the
dense mantle extending to a
depth of 2890 km. It
consists of dense silicate
rocks. Both P- and S-waves
from earthquakes travel
through the mantle
demonstrating that it is solid.
Core
At a depth of about 2900 km
is the boundary between the
mantle and the Earth's core.
The outer part of the core is
liquid because S-waves do
not pass through it.
Earth is subdivided into two(3) major
components namely the
• GEOSPHERE,
• HYDROSPHERE
• ATMOSPHERE
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
ORIGIN MATERIALS
history, age, and mineral and physical
interior structure composition of the Earth
of the Earth
PROCESSES
evolution and modification of
various surface features like
land forms and water bodies
along with their causes
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
MATERIALS
mineral and physical
composition of the Earth
science of the earth the deals with its different aspects such as
ORIGIN MATERIALS
history, age, and mineral and physical
interior structure composition of the Earth
of the Earth
PROCESSES
evolution and modification of
various surface features like
land forms and water bodies
along with their causes
Natural phenomena and modification of
various surface features like land forms
and water bodies along with their causes
and effects
overall effect of disintegration, wearing away, and removal of rocky materials
overall effect of disintegration, wearing away, and removal of rocky materials
process that changes solid rock into sediments or rock disintegration into smaller pieces
overall effect of disintegration, wearing away, and removal of rocky materials
involves the downslope movement of broken rock due to gravity
overall effect of disintegration, wearing away, and removal of rocky materials
process that moves the sediments away from its original position through the natural
forces from water, wind, glaciers, and gravity
NOTE:
All mass wasting is considered a
form of erosion but not all soil
erosion are considered mass
wasting.
The difference lies on the cause of
the phenomena:
MASS WASTING: Gravity Only
EROSION: Gravity, Water, Wind,
and Glaciers
Process of breaking rocks into
smaller pieces which is also called
CHEMICAL
as physical weathering Process of weathering through changes
in rock composition through chemical
MECHANICAL reactions that changes minerals
breaking of rocks into smaller pieces which is also called as physical weathering
ICE WEDGING
also called freeze-thaw
weathering, is the main form
of mechanical weathering in
any climate that regularly
cycles above and below the
freezing point.
breaking of rocks into smaller pieces which is also called as physical weathering
ABRASION
is another form of
mechanical weathering.
In abrasion, one rock
bumps against another
rock.
process of weathering through changes in rock composition through chemical reactions
that changes minerals
WATER
the most important
agent of chemical
weathering
Two other important agents of
chemical weathering are carbon
dioxide and oxygen.
process of weathering through changes in rock composition through chemical reactions
that changes minerals
HYDROLYSIS
(CM by Water)
takes place when water
dissolves ions from the
mineral and carries them
away as they undergo
leaching
process of weathering through changes in rock composition through chemical reactions
that changes minerals
Chemical Weathering by Carbon Dioxide
𝐶𝑂! combines with water as raindrops fall through the atmosphere making
a weak acid called carbonic acid.
Carbonic Acid, when combined with
pollutants like sulfur and nitrogen form
acid rains that accelerate chemical
weathering of rocks.
process of weathering through changes in rock composition through chemical reactions
that changes minerals
Chemical Weathering by Oxygen
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that takes place when oxygen reacts with
another element with its most common example of manifestation as rust.
Iron oxide produces
the red color in soils.
ROCK/MINERAL
TYPE CLIMATE
phenomenon when loose, water saturated sediment begins to compact causing the
ground surface to collapse
phenomenon when loose, water saturated sediment begins to compact causing the
ground surface to collapse
SLOW
occurs when the water within the sediment is
slowly squeezed out because of overlying weight
FAST
occurs when naturally acidic water
begins to dissolve limestone rock to form a network
of water-filled underground caverns or sinkholes
phenomenon when loose, water saturated sediment begins to compact causing the
ground surface to collapse
CONTRIBUTING
FACTORS
IMPACTS
geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or land
mass eroded through wind, water, or ice
DISSOLVED LOAD
composed of ion solutions
SUSPENDED LOAD
sediments carried as solids as the
stream flows
BED LOAD
particles too large to be carried as
suspended loads are bumped and
pushed along the stream bed
STAGES OF STREAMS
FORMS OF STREAM
STAGES
EXAMPLES OF DEPOSITION ZONES
Alluvial Fan, Kazakshtan
EXAMPLES OF DEPOSITION ZONES
Mississippi River Delta, USA
phenomenon where two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another with the
surface of slip called fault or fault plane
FAULT TYPES
The energy radiating
outward from the fault in
all directions is in the
form of seismic waves
like ripples on a pond.
CONVERGENT DIVERGENT TRANSFORM
Seismology
the study of earthquakes and the waves
they create
Seismologist
a scientist who study and measure
earthquakes to learn more about them
and to use them for geological discovery
Seismograms
the recordings of the ground shaking at
the specific location of the seismograph
Seismographs
recording instruments used to record the
motion of the ground during an earthquake
Seismometer
internal part of the seismograph, which
may be a pendulum or a mass mounted
on a spring
Focus/Origin/Hypocenter
place of origin/center of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth
Epicenter
place on the earth’s surface, which lies
directly above the center of the earthquake
Anticenter
point on the earth’s surface diametrically
opposite to the epicenter
Seismic Vertical
imaginary line which joins the center and the
epicenter representing the minimum distance
which the earthquake has to travel to reach
the surface of the earth
Isoseismal
an imaginary line joining the points of
same intensity of the earthquake
Coseismal
an imaginary line which joins the points
at which the earthquake waves have
arrived at the earth’s surface at the
same time
Magnitude
proportional to the energy released by an
earthquake at the focus calculated from
earthquakes recorded by a seismograph
Intensity
strength of an earthquake as perceived
and felt by people in a certain locality
Based on Depth of Focus
SHALLOW : < 50 km
INTERMEDIATE : 50-250 km
DEEP : >250 km
from the Earth’s surface
Based on Cause of Occurrence
TECTONIC
exclusively due to internal causes like
disturbances or adjustments of geological
formations taking place in the earth’s interior
NON-TECTONIC
due to external or surficial causes like
1. Volcanic Activities
2. Explosion from Nuclear and Chemical Devices
3. Collapse of Mines and Caverns
Seismic Waves
form of the transmitted energy released from the focus at the time of the earthquake
dependent on the nature of the wave and on the elastic properties of the Earth
National Earthquake Monitoring and Information Initiative
provides information on significant earthquakes and tsunami
events that may significantly impact our country
Locating Earthquake Epicenter
Locating Earthquake Epicenter
LIQUEFACTION
GROUND DISPLACEMENT
FLOODING
TSUNAMI
FIRE
LANDSLIDE
GROUND CONDITIONS
BUILDING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
BUILDING CAPACITY
Design Considerations
The National Structural Code of the Philippines
(NSCP) 2015 in Section 208: Earthquake Loads
gives us the earthquake provisions to design
seismic-resistant structures to safeguard against
major structural damage that may lead to loss of
life and property.
The procedures and the limitations for the design
of structures shall be determined considering the
seismic zoning, site characteristics, occupancy,
configuration, structural system and height in
accordance to the code.
GEOL211 – Geology for Civil Engineers
End of Module 1
General Geology