Chapter

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND

MAINTENANCE OF WAY ASSOCIATION
Practical Guide To Railway Engineering

Passenger, Transit&
HighSpeedRail
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AREMA COMMITTEE 24 – EDUCATION & TRAINING

Passenger, Transit & High Speed Rail

Thomas P. Devenny, P.E.

LTK Engineering Services

Ambler, PA 19002-0700
tdevenny@[Link]

Michael J. Trosino, P.E.

Amtrak
Philadelphia, PA 19104
trosinm@[Link]

Drew Galloway, P.E.

Amtrak
Philadelphia, PA 19104
gallowd@[Link]

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Passenger, Transit & High

Speed Rail

INTRODUCTION TO PASSENGER RAILWAY

INFRASTRUCTURE

“Form ……follows function”

Louis Henri Sullivan, Architect, “Lippincott’s Magazine,” March 1896

10.1 Introduction

T he above quotation, while originally written to describe the practice of

architecture, nonetheless provides useful insight into the practice of passenger
railway engineering. In particular, the concept concisely describes how
fundamental differences in design can arise between a railway built for passenger
service and one built for freight, as their functions (and hence their forms) may be
radically different. However, while a passenger line and a freight-only line may look
very different, the same engineering principles apply to each -- sound railway
engineering is still sound railway engineering. The applications of these basic
engineering principles will vary, however, to reflect the different functions each type of
infrastructure must support.

This chapter presents an introduction to passenger rail infrastructure requirements. It

does not dwell on basic railway engineering concepts. Instead, it expands upon the
materials presented elsewhere in this Practical Guide as necessary to provide an overview
of typical design principles, construction practices and maintenance considerations
applied to passenger rail lines. The emphasis here is on the typical. The authors’

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acknowledge that North American passenger experience is rich with exceptions to the
“typical,” and while a few exceptions have been noted herein, no attempt has been
made to include them all. Instead, the intent is to provide a basic understanding of
typical North American practice.

Those interested in learning more are invited to review Chapter 12 (Rail Transit) and
Chapter 17 (High Speed Rail Systems) of AREMA’s Manual for Railway Engineering. The
reader is also referred to the Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, published by
the Transportation Research Board.

10.2 Passenger Rail Modes

Passenger rail operations in North America serve a wide variety of functions, from
long distance intercity travel to daily commuter trips to local urban transit services.
These operations encompass a diversity of vehicle types, operating speeds, right-of-way
requirements and service frequencies. The characteristics of each type of operation are
so different from one another that it is useful to think of each as a separate rail-based
transport mode. For purposes of this chapter, the various types of passenger rail
operations will be divided into six categories:

• High-Speed Rail (“HSR”)

• Intercity

• Commuter Rail

• Rapid Transit (“RT”)

• Light Rail Transit (“LRT”)

• Streetcar and Vintage Trolley (“Streetcar”)

These terms will be utilized throughout the chapter in describing the various rail modes
and their infrastructure characteristics. People mover operations (such as found in
airport terminals) are not addressed here, as these typically use proprietary vehicle and
systems technologies, and are often based on rubber tire/concrete paving guideway
systems.

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10.3 Distinctions between Railway

Operations and Transit Operations
The types of operations noted above can be separated into two major subgroups.
High Speed Rail, Intercity and Commuter Rail may be considered “railway” operations
while Rapid Transit, LRT, and Streetcar may be considered “transit” operations.
Characteristics, which distinguish between railway operations and transit operations,
are discussed in general terms below.

Passenger railway operations are conducted over portions of the North American
freight rail network, or on dedicated passenger lines that are contiguous to this network
and which share compatible technical standards. (In the United States, Part 213.1 of
the FRA regulations defines this as the “general system of railway transportation.”)
These systems generally utilize AREMA (or AREMA-compatible) technical standards
for trackwork and AAR (or AAR-compatible) technical standards for vehicles. As
such, these systems represent passenger adaptations of North American freight railway
practice, and inter-operability with the freight network is maintained. Intercity and
Commuter services are generally compatible with freight infrastructure practice, while
HSR will employ more stringent standards for dedicated high-speed territories while
retaining compatibility with freight infrastructure for conventional speed operations.

Transit operations are conducted on trackage that is dedicated to passenger service, not
open to freight operations, and not part of the “general system of transportation.”
Technical standards are not based on interoperability with the North American rail
network, but rather the stand-alone requirements of each operator. Trackwork and
vehicle standards may be AREMA- and AAR-based, but more typically reflect transit
practice with use of sharper track curvature and specialized track appliances, and
lightweight vehicles with narrower wheels and smaller flanges. For the “traditional”
systems (those built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries), track and wheel practice
may still reflect the standards in effect at the time of construction. “New start” LRT
systems (those built after approximately 1975) may utilize European transit track and
wheel practices.

There is one hybrid type of operation that should be noted – LRT and freight services
operating on shared trackage. In these systems, LRT and freight operations are
typically “time separated,” with LRT running during the day and freight running at
night. Each service has exclusive use of the system during its designated operating
period. In these systems, LRVs utilize wheel standards compatible with standard
railway trackwork. Examples of such operations include San Diego and Baltimore.

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10.4 Passenger Rail Service and

Vehicle Characteristics by Mode
Key service characteristics of each mode in the North American context are described
below, along with the vehicle type(s) typically employed. Note that descriptions
provided are “typicals” and that exceptions may be found when the characteristics of
individual operating properties are studied in detail:

Max.
Passenger Rail Service Speed Vehicle
Modes Service Description Frequency (MPH) Type(s)
Railway
Operations
High-Speed Rail Expedited intercity service in 100 – 500- 2–4/Hr. 125 - Integral trainset
mile corridors 150

Intercity Conventional speed service over route Low: Tri- 60 –125 Locomotive-hauled
lengths between 100 and 1500 miles long weekly consist; push-pull
High: 3–4/Hr.
Commuter Rail Conventional speed service between 3–6/Peak Hr. 50–90 Electric Multiple Unit
suburban areas and central cities (EMU); Diesel
Multiple Unit
(DMU); push-pull
Transit Operations
Rapid Transit High-capacity service within urban and 6–30/ 30–70 EMU
high-density suburban areas Peak Hr.
Light Rail Medium-capacity service within urban 4–12/ 30–50 EMU typically; DMU
Transit areas and between suburbs and central Peak Hr. rarely
cities
Streetcar and Urban circulator and tourist services Low: 15–30 Typically electric
Vintage Trolley along short (1–5 mile) routes Occasional (occasionally diesel),
High: may or may not have
12/Peak/Hr. MU capability

The information above illustrates basic functional differences between the rail modes.
Railway operations tend towards higher speeds and longer routes, but with lower
service frequencies as compared with transit systems. Transit systems typically have
lower speeds and shorter routes, but generally higher service frequencies.

Railway operations utilize equipment, which is either completely or largely compatible

with freight equipment. In some cases, locomotives used in Intercity and Commuter
Rail services are based on freight locomotive technology and have correspondingly
high vehicle weights and axle loads. Railway operations in the United States are subject
to regulation of the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) as they are part of the
“general system of railway transportation.”

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Note that while the above table uses 125 mph as the threshold for High-Speed Rail,
certain United States “high-speed” regulations come into effect when the 90 mph
threshold is passed. In addition, a number of the emerging high-speed corridors in the
United States contemplate initial maximum speeds, which are lower than 125 mph. As
a result, the definition of what constitutes “high-speed rail” in the United States is
somewhat elastic and must be placed in the context of specific regulatory requirements
and the speed goals defined for each emerging corridor. This chapter’s use of 125
mph as the High Speed Rail speed threshold is directed towards discussion of
engineering issues and in no way implies that other definitions of “high-speed rail” are
less valid.

In North America, diesel-electric propulsion is the most typical power for passenger
rail services. There are some exceptions:

§ High-Speed and most Intercity services on the Northeast Corridor (NEC) are
electrified.

§ Most Commuter Rail operations in the Northeast are electrified as well, plus
there is some electrified commuter service in the Chicago area.

§ Some operations in New York’s Empire Corridor have used turbine-powered

trainsets.

In contrast, transit operations utilize smaller, lighter, non-AAR, non-FRA compatible

vehicles. In addition, the vast majority of transit operations are electrified. All Rapid
Transit and all but a few LRT systems utilize self-propelled EMUs. Streetcar and
vintage trolley operations are typically electrified. A recent trend involves the use of
diesel-electric LRTs on a few systems. In addition, some vintage trolley operations
have used diesel technology to power authentic and reproduction streetcars. In the
United States, transit operations are typically not subject to regulatory oversight by the
FRA.

10.5 Passenger Rail Infrastructure

Characteristics by Mode
The functional roles of the various modes heavily influence the types of infrastructure
required. Railway operations require high standards of route alignment and heavy-duty
trackage built in accordance with AREMA recommended practices. Urban transit
operations can utilize lighter standards for track and structures, and value the flexibility
to run in street trackage and accommodate sharp curves and steep grades. Key

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infrastructure parameters are presented below; for US operations, the applicability of

FRA regulations is noted as well:

Passenger Min. Design Signal and ATC Under

Rail Route Description Main axle FRA
Modes Track load Regs?
Curve
(Typical)

Railway
Operations
High-Speed Private rights-of- 1 Degree 25 T Yes Yes
Rail way, largely grade- (Power
separated, Car)
but shared with 19 T
other users (Coach)
Intercity Private rights-of- 10-12 35 T Optional (Mandatory Yes
way, often shared Degrees (Loco) above 80 mph)
with freight 20 T
and other users (Coach)
Commuter Private rights-of- 10-12 35 T Optional (Mandatory Yes
Rail way, often shared Degrees (Loco) above 80 mph)
with freight 20 T
and other users (Coach)
Transit
Operations
Rapid Private rights-of- 90 - 300 ft. 8-15 T Typical minimum: No*
Transit way Radius Wayside signals w/trip
stop. High end systems
will incorporate
Automatic Train
Operation (ATO).
Light Rail Mix of right-of-way 82 ft. 9-12 T Varies from full signal No
Transit types (private, side- (25 m) coverage to line-of-sight
of-road, street Radius
median, in-street)
Streetcar Mix of right-of-way 35 – 50 ft. 5-11 T Typically line-of-sight No
and types (some private, Radius
Vintage mostly
Trolley median and in-
street)

(*With the exception of Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) operations between New Jersey and New York)

The following sections will discuss how these infrastructure requirements translate to
passenger-oriented engineering practice.

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10.6 Passenger Railway

Infrastructure Characteristics
10.6.1 High-Speed Rail (HSR)

Route Alignment Considerations

As evidenced by European HSR experience, a line designed for high-speed operation
(defined here as speeds of 125 mph and above) from the outset may exhibit two key
differences with respect to conventional practice in route alignment:
§ Grades are steeper

§ Curves are broader

This is the opposite of conventional railway design practice, which emphasizes control
of maximum grades and is willing to accept relatively high levels of horizontal
curvature. The laws of physics drive this departure from conventional practice.

While there is considerable diversity in the technical characteristics of HSR rolling

stock worldwide, these trains share a common characteristic in having high
horsepower-to-ton ratios (on the order of 20 HP/ton, compared to 2-3 HP/ton
typical of North American freight trains). These high ratios are necessary to allow the
trains to accelerate to and maintain their high speeds. The high ratios also reflect the
large amounts of kinetic energy, which must be input to drive the train mass at high
speed.

A line designed solely for high-speed trains can employ this kinetic energy to
advantage, however, by using steeper grades than conventional lines. This high energy
level allows the train to deal with short, steep grades as “momentum grades,” where
the train trades speed for elevation as the grade is climbed. The loss of train energy
presented by an upgrade (i.e., forcing the train to a higher elevation and thus a higher
potential energy) is often a minor fraction of the kinetic energy of the moving train.
Train momentum is such that short steep grades (4-5%) can readily be handled with a
relatively minor (20%) reduction in train speed. For territories with undulating grades,
the loss of kinetic energy and speed on a given upgrade can be partially recovered on
the corresponding downgrade. While these factors are obviously dependent upon the
speeds operated (kinetic energy increases as the square of velocity) and physical
characteristics of the route, they represent a key characteristic affecting design of high-
speed lines. Used judiciously, the grade-climbing capabilities of HSR equipment can be

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used to reduce cut, fill and tunnel requirements and produce a more economic
alignment design.

While HSR trains are relatively insensitive to grades, they are quite sensitive to the
lateral accelerations produced by operation through horizontal curves. Lateral forces
experienced by passengers in curves increase dramatically as curving speeds increase by
a factor of the square of the velocity. To counteract these forces, track design practice
for new-build HSR lines tends to:

§ Use curves with as large a radius as possible. Often, there are two design
criteria for minimum curve radius – a basic minimum for “normal” design
conditions, and a sub-minimum for “exceptional” cases (such as urban areas or
difficult terrain) where tighter curves, lower speeds and higher levels of lateral
acceleration may be acceptable.

§ Incorporate high levels of superelevation or cant (the European term) to offset

as much lateral acceleration as possible.

§ Use long spirals to control the build-up of lateral acceleration during curve
entry and exit.

In addition, some HSR rolling stock incorporates car body tilt systems to further offset
the lateral accelerations experienced by passengers. These systems allow the amount of
actual cant deficiency to be increased while limiting the lateral acceleration felt by
passengers (see also the discussion present later in this chapter in Section 10.10).

At the time of writing, the Northeast Corridor (NEC) is the only North American rail
line with high-speed operations of 125 mph and above. While the NEC was not
designed as an HSR route and still largely reflects the historic alignments of its
predecessor railway companies, targeted improvements have been made in recent years
to adapt the alignment for higher speeds.

Regulatory Compliance
In the United States regulatory environment, infrastructure requirements are generally
established based on operating speed. The number, extent and stringency of the
regulations typically increase as speed increases. Table 10-1 (found at the end of this
chapter) provides a summary of the applicable requirements, in graphical form, plotted
against speed and track class. As can readily be seen, the degree of regulatory coverage
increases greatly as speeds increase.

FRA requires that rolling stock and trackage operated at speeds above 90 mph comply
with Part 213 Subpart G requirements. These regulations set forth performance
standards for the vehicle and track as a system. Briefly stated, the regulations require

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that vehicles to be operated in excess of 90 mph, be tested and qualified for each
proposed revenue service route. They also set forth requirements for track geometry
and track inspections. These regulations apply to all United States HSR operations.

FRA 49 CFR Part 238 sets forth structural and safety requirements for rail vehicles.
Tier II requirements apply to high-speed rolling stock (i.e., equipment operated at
speeds above 125 mph).

10.6.2 Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail

General
Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail are considered together here as they have similar
infrastructure requirements. They generally utilize the same technology, operate at
similar speeds, and have similar interfaces with track and right-of-way. These
passenger modes also have many characteristics in common with freight equipment
and often share trackage with freight operations. In many instances, the freight
operator is the track owner, with passenger services operating as a tenant on the freight
railway property.

In some regards, Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail infrastructure will differ. For
example, stations on commuter routes are typically spaced much closer together than
on intercity routes.

Route Alignment Considerations

Intercity and Commuter Rail are compatible with typical North American route
alignments designed primarily for freight usage. Grades and curvatures typically found
pose no great impediment to operation of passenger equipment. Generally, passenger
equipment is capable of higher speed operation over a given set of alignment and track
conditions than freight equipment. This situation is recognized in the speeds allowed
under the FRA track safety regulations (e.g., FRA Class 3 allows a maximum of 40
mph for freight but 60 mph for passenger).

Track Standards
Typical North American track design, construction and maintenance standards are
generally suitable for Intercity and Commuter passenger applications. These systems
can readily utilize off-the-shelf, standard North American track technology, which in
turn is largely based on freight practice. They can provide satisfactory service on lines
maintained to freight railway standards, although lines with significant levels of
passenger traffic tend to adhere to higher standards to improve speeds, service

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reliability and ride quality. Higher speeds are of particular interest to Intercity Rail
operations due to the long distances traversed.

One area of difference between freight and passenger practice is the amount of
superelevation provided in curves. Passenger operators generally prefer high values of
superelevation (typically six inches, maximum seven inches) to foster high curve speeds
and reduce travel times. Freight railways generally utilize lower superelevation values
(typically three inches or less, maximum four inches) to promote stability of freight cars
with high centers-of-gravity. Additionally, the slower speeds operated by freight trains
often do not require large amounts of superelevation.

Lines on which passenger service is the sole or predominant user (and which enjoy
high levels of public funding) are often built to a somewhat higher standard than
typical freight trackage. These higher standards may include use of elastic fasteners on
wood ties, significant use of concrete ties, installation of new rather than relay rail, and
other features that increase initial capital investment but reduce future maintenance
costs. This practice is driven in part by public funding mechanisms, where it is often
easier to obtain funds for capital programs than for ongoing operating and
maintenance programs. It is also indicative of the need to provide high degrees of
operating reliability and to minimize outages for track maintenance.

Regulatory Compliance
The summary of United States regulatory requirements presented in Table 10-1
(Located at the end of the chapter) is also applicable to Intercity and Commuter Rail
operations. For these services, there are two key speed regimens to be considered in
determining which FRA regulations are applicable: 90 mph and 125 mph.

FRA requires that rolling stock and trackage operated at speeds above 90 mph comply
with Part 213 Subpart G requirements. These regulations set forth performance
standards for the vehicle and track as a system. Briefly stated, the regulations require
that vehicles to be operated in excess of 90 mph be tested and qualified for each
proposed revenue service route. These regulations apply to all United States passenger
rail operations.

Operations at 90 mph and lower speeds are governed by Part 213 Subparts A-F.
These are solely track safety standards and do not address rolling stock characteristics
as does Subpart G.

FRA 49 CFR Part 238 sets forth structural and safety requirements for rail vehicles.
Tier I requirements apply to all rolling stock operated at a maximum speed of 125 mph
or less. Tier II requirements apply to high-speed rolling stock (above 125 mph).

The net effect of these regulations is as follows:

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§ Operations at maximum speeds of 90 mph and less are required to conform

with 49 CFR Part 213 Subparts A-F (track safety standards) and Tier I vehicle
standards.

§ Operations at maximum speeds above 90 mph, but not exceeding 125 mph,
are required and have vehicles and trackage which are qualified under 49 CFR
Part 213 Subpart G track safety standards and vehicles which conform to Tier
I vehicle requirements.

10.7 Transit Infrastructure

Characteristics
10.7.1 Rapid Transit

Route Alignment Considerations

Rapid transit operations typically require dedicated alignments devoted exclusively to
transit use and devoid of grade crossings. These alignments can include a wide variety
of rights-of-way: at-grade, elevated and tunnel.

Actual alignment conditions vary widely among systems. Route geometries largely
reflect local historical precedents. Curves may be sharp or broad and grades may be
steep or gentle. Thus, Chicago’s elevated lines require extremely short cars to negotiate
the sharp curves found in the Loop, and PATH utilizes similar-sized cars to
accommodate curves in the trans-Hudson tubes. At the other extreme, BART utilizes
large cars on well-engineered alignments designed to high standards.

Rapid transit systems are usually grade separated, fenced or otherwise isolated to
prevent intrusion by other vehicles or pedestrians. This practice is followed to provide
a measure of safety, given the widespread use of third rail for power collection and the
generally frequent train operations.

Rapid transit systems utilize high station platforms to achieve same-level boarding
between station platforms and vehicle floors. This practice improves passenger
movement and consequently allows short station dwell times.

Track Standards
At the time of their development in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, United States
rapid transit operations generally considered themselves more like railways than street

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railways, and selected their technical standards accordingly. When these early rapid
transit systems started, their cars and locomotives were much the same as those used in
the railway commuter services of the period, and the operating speeds were also
similar. They also did not have to utilize wheel and track standards compatible with
street trackage. As a result, rapid transit systems generally adopted railway standards
for wheels and track. While rapid transit operations have not needed to follow the
increase in speeds and axle loads that have subsequently occurred in railway operations,
they have continued their use of railway wheel and track standards, as they are adequate
for purpose and well proven.

Most North American rapid transit systems use standard track gauge, although there
are three exceptions. Philadelphia and Toronto have systems that utilize the same
broad track gauges used on their streetcar networks, while the Bay Area Rapid Transit
(BART) selected a 5 foot-6 inch track gauge with the intention of providing greater
vehicle stability under high crosswind conditions.

Track forms vary widely dependent upon right-of-way type and contemporary practice
at the time of construction. At-grade trackage is typically tie and ballast. Older
elevated trackage may be wood tie/open deck or ballast deck construction, while
newer structures may be direct fixation on concrete deck. Tunnel track varies most
widely, with examples of ballasted, concrete-embedded tie and slab track construction
to be found.

Conventional T-rail is used almost exclusively. Rail weights used varied widely over
time, with widespread use of rail weights in the 90-100 pound range even after freight
railways had adopted larger rail sizes as standard. Present-day construction typically
uses 115 RE material due to the limited availability of smaller rail sizes.

For sharp curves, guard rails (check rails) are installed to assist truck turning and
minimize rail wear. These come in a variety of designs and are applied in accordance
with criteria set by each operating authority. Single check rails are applied to the gauge
side of the inside rail, and bear against the back side of the inside wheel. In cases of
extreme curvature, some properties apply check rails to the gauge sides of both the
inner and outer rails.

Ties are typically wood or concrete, with some recent trial use of plastic ties. Wood
represents the traditional material, while concrete has seen increasing use in recent
years on new-build and rehabilitated lines.

Standards for specialwork (switches, turnouts, crossings, etc.) show wide variation
among properties. Some properties utilize standards similar, if not identical, to freight
practice, while others utilize standards particularly adapted to a rapid transit
environment of sharp curves. These adaptations can include use of check rails through
all or a portion of the specialwork. “Housetops” (raised guarding surfaces placed
above the top-of-rail plane at switchpoint locations) may be used to provide
continuous check guard protection throughout the length of the turnout.

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Turnout sizes are generally smaller than found in railway applications. By example,
No. 6 and similar small turnouts may be rare on the railway network but are relatively
common on transit properties.

Turnout arrangements are often different than found in railway practice. A typical
example is that of a “universal” interlocking in double-track territory. Railway practice
typically uses two independent crossovers arranged back-to-back. Transit practice
often interlaces two crossovers into a “scissors” arrangement, so that each crossover
route includes a diamond crossing of its neighbor crossover. The scissors
arrangement, although more expensive, is often used to provide the desired operating
flexibility in areas where space is at a premium.

Regulatory Compliance
Rapid transit operators are not currently regulated by the FRA (with the exception of
PATH). Presently, each rapid transit operator is subject to whatever state and local
regulations apply to its operating territory. At the time of writing (2002), APTA is
preparing industry-wide standards for voluntary adoption by transit operators. These
standards will be similar to FRA regulations in coverage and content.

10.7.2 Light Rail Transit (LRT)

Route Alignment Considerations

LRT is the most flexible of the rail modes. LRT alignments can encompass a wide
variety of rights-of-way and geometric characteristics. LRT rights-of-way can vary
from well-graded, dedicated alignments suitable for speeds of 50-70 mph, to 30 mph
side-of-road alignments, to slow speed, tightly-curved street trackage threading through
the heart of an urban core. LRT routes typically combine a variety of right-of-way
types along their length. Maximum grades must be consistent with vehicle grade-
climbing abilities, but are on the order of a maximum of 4% - 6%. In contrast to
Rapid Transit, LRT does not require grade separation – it readily adapts to the
presence of grade crossings and can run on city streets in mixed traffic with automotive
vehicles. As a result, LRT systems generally exhibit higher percentages of surface
trackage and less tunnel and elevated mileage than rapid transit systems.

Track Standards
Because they are independent of the general system of railway transportation and the
consequent demand for uniformity, light rail systems are free to use track and wheel
standards, which can deviate substantially from railway (AAR and AREMA) practice.
Standards used by the various systems can vary widely, and in many cases are unique to

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a particular system. Older systems may utilize practices based on now-obsolete

standards (such as those of the American Electric Railway Association), while newer
systems may follow AAR/AREMA standards or European practice. Compared to
freight practice, these standards generally utilize smaller wheels, narrower treads and
smaller flanges to allow use of narrow flangeway girder rail, which is less intrusive
when used in street trackage. In many cases, these standards have been modified to
some degree to reflect local experience and conditions.

Systems intended for hybrid operation with freight traffic, however, must largely
conform to AAR and AREMA practice to insure compatibility with freight equipment.
Regardless of the standards employed, compatibility between rail and wheel standards
is paramount to achieve proper functioning of the wheel/rail interface.

Track forms can vary widely and encompass the track types discussed above for rapid
transit applications. Because of their reliance on surface routes, LRT trackage typically
employs tie-and-ballast construction for private right-of-way areas and various forms
of street railway construction for areas with mixed LRT/automotive traffic.

T-rail is largely used in conventional tie-and-ballast construction, with 115 RE a typical

modern standard. Street railway construction may utilize either T-rail or girder rail
(grooved rail with an integral check face) and involve a variety of construction details
with respect to fastening methods. Some street trackage has also utilized 115 RE T-rail
in conjunction with a rolled guard section (“strap guard”) which is bolted to the
running rail to provide a check face.

For sharp curvature, check rails may be used in open (i.e., non-paved) track
construction in the same manner employed for rapid transit trackage. In curved street
trackage, wheel shape, wheel back-to-back dimensions and track gauge are coordinated
to allow the girder rail check face (or the strap guard) to function as an effective check
rail.

Ties are typically wood or concrete, with concrete seeing increased use in recent years.

Specialwork standards in open track vary and reflect the practices of individual
properties. Turnout sizes are smaller than railway applications and sharp curves are not
unusual. Street railway turnouts typically utilize girder rail in conjunction with tongue-
and-mate or double-point switches designed to provide continuous check rail
coverage.

In some cases, flange-bearing specialwork may be used. As the name implies, flange
bearing specialwork supports the wheel on the flange tip as the wheel tread operates
through discontinuities in the surface of the running rail. This practice also typically
utilizes a “square bottom” wheel flange to provide more surface area at the point of
contact.

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A detailed discussion of track design issues associated with LRT applications may be
found in the Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit published by the
Transportation Research Board.

Regulatory Compliance
The FRA does not currently regulate LRT operators. Presently, each LRT operator is
subject to whatever state and local regulations apply to its operating territory. The
freight portions of hybrid operations (where LRT and freight traffic share the same
trackage under time separation rules) are subject to FRA regulation.

At the time of writing (2002), APTA is preparing industry-wide standards for voluntary
adoption by transit operators. These standards will be similar to FRA regulations in
coverage and content.

10.7.3 Streetcar and Vintage Trolley

Route Alignment Considerations

The streetcar and vintage trolley modes exhibit much the same flexibility evidenced by
LRT systems. In North America, these systems are typically employed as street-level
circulator systems or tourist attractions. Some operations share use of LRT trackage
for some portion of their route.

Track Standards
Track standards are generally typical of LRT practice, although actual track
construction may be somewhat lighter and in some cases involved significant use of
relay materials. Lighter construction is possible in view of the lighter weight of the
rolling stock (compared to LRVs), particularly if a less frequent operating schedule
(generating fewer wheel passes) is used.

Regulatory Compliance
The FRA does not currently regulate streetcar and vintage trolley operators. Presently,
each streetcar and vintage trolley LRT operator is subject to whatever state and local
regulations apply to its operating territory.

At the time of writing (2002), APTA is preparing industry-wide standards for voluntary
adoption by transit operators. These standards will be similar to FRA regulations in
coverage and content.

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10.8 Passenger Railway

Maintenance Considerations
Maintenance Philosophy
Maintenance of a passenger railway requires a somewhat different philosophy than
freight-only line. For passenger operation, the customer’s sensitivity to delay is
measured in minutes, not hours or days. The commuter expects his/her “regular”
train to run reliably and on-time, day after day. Thus, the maintenance philosophy
needs to minimize the effect of infrastructure failures and unplanned work on revenue
operations. In addition, planned maintenance activities must be closely coordinated
with operations to minimize delays.

Maintenance decisions should also recognize the speed differential that exists between
passenger and freight services. Based on passenger equipment characteristics, FRA
regulations allow higher passenger train speeds than for freight trains for the same class
of track. As a result, the maintenance philosophy should provide better control for
track geometry and other speed-related aspects of track maintenance than would
otherwise be necessary for freight-only territory.

Maintenance Practices
While the maintenance practices and machinery employed are similar to freight
practice, their application can differ in significant ways. Examples are provided below:

§ Maintenance Tolerances: Maintenance tolerances should be well defined, with

clear targets set for maintenance intervention. Line and surface work should
be performed against design values (i.e., referenced to field benchmarks) and
not averaged values (e.g., throws calculated by a tamper).

§ Speed Restrictions: Track should be brought back to timetable speed as quickly

as possible after completion of maintenance work. Use of dynamic track
stabilizers is beneficial in reducing the magnitude and duration of speed
restrictions placed after track has been worked.

§ Maintenance Windows: Train frequencies and schedules drive maintenance

windows. Maintenance planning must accommodate the realities of the
operating schedule, which can mean short windows, which occur at unsocial
hours. For the NEC, this has resulted in the widespread use of nighttime
M/W windows for planned work and the provision of permanently-installed,
high-intensity lighting at interlockings to facilitate night work. In some cases, it

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has been necessary to alter train schedules to provide needed maintenance

windows.

§ Inspection Practices: When train frequencies are high, the ability to conduct
track inspections from highway-rail vehicles may be compromised due to the
lack of track time. Under these circumstances, walking inspection is required.
Under 49 CFR 213 Subpart G, territories operated at Class 7 speeds require
periodic inspection by a track geometry car. In general, use of track geometry
cars provides a higher level of scrutiny than can be achieved through visual
inspection alone, and their use on passenger lines is desirable.

§ Design for Maintainability: Efforts undertaken during the design of new

construction and rehabilitation work can yield maintenance benefits
downstream. Desirable features for maintainability include placement of
specialwork on tangents, inclusion of space for personnel and equipment to
clear, and provision of access roadways.

§ Passenger Information: Impacts to revenue service caused by maintenance

activities need to be communicated to passengers. Notice is needed for cases
where trains are rescheduled, tracks, platforms or elevators are out-of-service,
trains are running on the opposite track, and similar circumstances which
require a change in passenger behavior. Needs of handicapped passengers
need to be considered if ADA-related facilities are affected by the work.

§ Passenger Safety: Passenger safety issues need to be recognized during

planning and addressed as maintenance work is performed. Examples of this
type of concern include removal and replacement of inter-track fencing,
proper storage of materials near station and parking areas, and hazards
associated with working in proximity to passengers.

10.9 Transit Maintenance

Considerations
Maintenance Philosophy
Compared with railway passenger operations, transit operations experience a different
maintenance environment. Equipment is lighter and axle loads are lower, plus annual
MGT on many systems is light to moderate, suggesting that transit maintenance should
be less challenging. This suggestion can be misleading for several reasons:

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§ Transit properties face difficulties with short maintenance windows. Even 30-
minute off-peak headways (long by transit standards) leave little time for
machinery set-up and significant M/W production.

§ While tonnages can be light, the number of wheel passes is often high and
creates problems with rail wear, rail corrugation and noise.

§ Tunnels, elevated structures and congested cityscapes can create difficult

maintenance access problems.

§ On busy routes (such as found on the New York City subways), short
headways and long, crowded trains create maintenance window problems and
annual MGT levels every bit as pronounced as those found on mainline
railways.

Many transit operators are, in railway terms, small properties with relatively low track
mileages. This circumstance makes provision of large, in-house production-oriented
track forces difficult to justify in some cases, leading to a greater dependence on
outside contractors and less in-house work than found in railway practice.

Maintenance Practices
Practices and machinery employed in maintenance of transit trackage can be very
different from railway and even passenger railway practice. Examples are discussed
below:

§ Specialized M/W Equipment: Conventional rail-mounted M/W equipment is

often not suited for the transit environment for reasons of clearances, wheel
standards and (sometimes) track gauge. Instead, smaller, specialized versions
of standard equipment are needed. Special provisions (e.g., exhaust scrubbers,
debris collection bins) may be needed to adapt this equipment for use in
tunnels and other confined areas.

§ Night/weekend Work Windows: Given the short headways typically found

throughout the day, work requiring significant track time is often regulated to
night and weekend windows when ridership is lower and bus substitution is
feasible.

§ Rail Corrugation: Corrugations are typically found on light axle load/curved

transit trackage. The phenomenon is largely driven by the number of wheel
passages. Grinding attention may be needed to eliminate and control rail
corrugations. This work may be driven by noise considerations as much as by
wheel/rail interface concerns.

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§ Curve Maintenance: The sharp curves found on transit properties can create
the need for significant maintenance work. This work can involve gauging,
fastener tightening and rail replacement. It is typically done with small
equipment adapted to working in close confines.

§ Special Track Appliances: As noted previously, transit properties make use of

unique turnout designs, extensive check rail installations and other track
features, which require maintenance. As these appliances typically require
close control of dimensions (such as guard faces and back-to-back distances),
significant attention is needed to keep them in adjustment.

§ Maintenance Access: Physical access to conduct maintenance can be difficult,

particularly for elevated structures and tunnels. Work processes and
machinery must be adapted to deal with the available access and working
space.

§ On some properties, alignment imperfections in small bore tunnels caused by

construction tolerances translate to deliberate imperfections in track geometry
necessary to keep track centered within the tunnel.

10.10 Special Topics Associated

with Passenger Railway
Operations

10.10.1 Passenger Railway Line Capacity

Unlike highways, which measure unlinked trips over individual route segments, rail
line capacity fundamentally must be considered as a network evaluation. The type of
train service, where it begins, and where it is destined are equally important
components, along with the infrastructure itself. Whether it is through or local
operations, routine maintenance or seasonal impacts, operators must consider events
that have the potential for creating cascading effects on a given route’s performance,
even though they may happen many miles away.

Capacity analysis begins with an evaluation of the physical route. The length of the
line, terrain it operates through (curvature, gradient, etc.), number of tracks and type of
train control exercised over the line all set the stage for determining some of the most
basic components of line capacity. Train performance characteristics in terms of
maximum speeds, acceleration (HP/ton) and deceleration rates are critical to

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determining throughput rates for unopposed trains. Equally as critical is the mix of
train types, as there will be pronounced differences in end-point transit times when
comparing passenger, intermodal, manifest and unit freight train types. Distance
between terminals, capacities of the terminals, local switching enroute, performance
variability and day-of-week variability are key factors to be considered.

Where passenger trains operate over a freight route, the difference in running times
becomes even sharper. Besides the criteria typically considered for freight service, the
number of station stops, dwell times at each station, and distances between stations
must be considered. Passenger trains typically are permitted to operate at higher
maximum speeds and through curves at higher speeds by employing greater levels of
cant deficiency when compared to freight trains. The effect of both is to further
reduce transit times. Terminal operations must also be factored into a line capacity
analysis, as trains typically follow a different route or multiple routes at slower overall
speeds compared to operations on the main line.

If every train operated in the same direction, at precisely the same speed and assuming
a relatively sophisticated method of controlling train movements, line capacity over a
single track would be very high. If this same group of trains were split evenly so one
half operated in the opposite direction and uniform length passing sidings were evenly
distributed, line capacity would drop proportionate to siding distance and to reflect the
time required to reset routes through interlockings and for trains to accelerate and
decelerate for siding entry and exit. Overall capacity would remain relatively high,
however.

Neither of the above situations occurs often in real life. Geography, community
development, and the markets served can, and do, greatly affect the design and
configuration of a rail line. Much more typical would be sidings of varying lengths,
with unequal distances between them. Ruling grades frequently bring average speeds
of freight trains down to very slow speeds or require adding helper locomotives to
negotiate grades. Dispatchers must carefully plan meets between opposing trains of
varying types around the physical infrastructure capable of accommodating them.
Intermodal and passenger trains will “overtake” slower trains along the route and
dispatchers must stage passes between trains running in the same direction in order to
allow the faster trains to proceed without delay. Locals and work trains occupy main
line tracks for extended periods of time while performing their duties. The net effect
of all of these operations is to reduce rail line capacity.

Rail line capacity is not easily determined. In addition to differences in the types and
numbers of trains, their speeds and their overall reliability, capacity is constrained by
the number of tracks, interlockings and their spacing, types of train control and signal
systems in place, FRA track class, moveable bridges, permanent slow orders, grade
crossings, etc. Each of these elements may contribute to, or reduce, the handling
capability of a route.

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Undertaking an operations simulation of the line is one accepted method to determine

line capacity. This is generally performed through the development of representative
operating plans, for both existing and future scenarios, and testing them against the
available fixed plant. Iterative variations of plans can lead to identification of optimal
operating plans that maximize use of the line. Most simulations are now performed
through use of computer software programs, the more sophisticated of which
accurately emulate actual operating conditions. These programs also provide a
powerful set of decision-making tools to help determine infrastructure improvements.
They may be used to identify chokepoints on a line that constrain growth, to adjust
fixed plant investment in response to traffic changes, or to assist in programming
maintenance activities. Computer simulation technology continues to advance,
reducing set up and evaluation procedures, and making its use progressively more
valuable in a quickly changing environment.

North American railways already operate among the most efficient rail systems in the
world (in terms of ton-miles per route-mile). This status has been achieved by a variety
of means to balance fixed-plant investment against operating requirements. As
projected rail traffic levels continue to grow, greater use of the existing infrastructure
will place ever-higher emphasis on maximizing its use. Understanding and being able
to utilize each line’s capacity will be key to success.

10.10.2 The Impact of Superelevation (Or Cant

Deficiency and Why It’s Important)
Chapter 3 introduced the concept of unbalance or underbalance in operation through
horizontal curves. In passenger rail terminology, this same concept is generally
referred to as “cant deficiency.” The term is drawn from British and European
practice where superelevation is referred to as “cant” and the term “cant deficiency”
describes the circumstance where a vehicle operates through a curve with insufficient
cant to achieve equilibrium.

Superelevation (banking or track cant) is a necessary ingredient for safe and

comfortable curve negotiation. Superelevation is used to counteract the effects of
centripetal acceleration (centrifugal force) on the vehicle and the occupants. The
amount the outer rail is elevated is determined by the sharpness of the curve and the
speed the vehicles operate through it.

Some definitions are in order:

§ Balance Speed: The speed at which the combination of curvature and

superelevation exactly balance the centripetal acceleration and the resultant
force vector is normal to the track plane.

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§ Cant Deficiency: Also known as Underbalance. This is the amount of

superelevation, or cant that is missing from the track and would be needed to
produce a balance condition for the speed operated. Underbalance is
generated by operating through a curve at speeds faster than the balance speed.

§ Overbalance: This is the amount of excess superelevation, or cant that is in the

track in order to produce a balance condition for the speed operated.
Overbalance is generated by operating through a curve at speeds slower than
balance speed. It is also generated by stopping in a superelevated curve.

Why are these important? Passenger comfort for one, maintenance and deterioration
of the track structure for the other. In track that is used by both passenger trains
operating at speeds of approximately 70 mph or greater and heavy axle freight trains,
there is a compromise that must be reached concerning the elevation of curves.
Higher superelevation is desired by the passenger operator for higher speeds through
the curves. Lower superelevation is desired by the freight operator to protect against
overturning of slow or stopped freight cars with high centers of gravity. There is also
the effect of the excessive burden placed on the low rail by the heavy wheel loads of
freight cars operating in the overbalance condition. This burden manifests itself by
causing accelerated deterioration of the low rail surface geometry, head wear, or
crushed head of the low rail, or increased superelevation. All of these have a snowball
effect on the maintenance requirements of the curve.

Freight equipment can operate effectively at elevations up to 6 inches, although

operators typically want elevations less than 4 inches. Passenger equipment can
accommodate superelevations up to 8 or 9 inches, although a maximum of 6 or 7
inches is desired in passenger service as a comfort limit for a passenger’s ability to walk
or stand on a train stopped in curve. Cant deficiency is used to increase the effective
superelevation by taking advantage of the passenger equipment’s ability to negotiate a
curve at speeds much greater than balance speed.

Therefore, design consideration can be made to accommodate freight operation by

designing a curve with elevations between 4 inches and 6 inches. Then, increasing the
cant deficiency can create additional speed for the passenger train. Each inch of cant
deficiency is equivalent to an additional inch of superelevation. For example, operating
at 3 inches of cant deficiency on a 6 inch elevated curve is the equivalent of operating
on 9 inches of superelevation.

Car body tilt systems have been used to gain even more speed in curves. Passenger
cars can typically accommodate much higher cant deficiency safely than that which is
comfortable for the passengers. To take advantage of this characteristic, the car body
can be tilted to create a near balance condition in the interior of the car while externally
it is developing quite a lot of centripetal acceleration. For example, for a tilting car
operating at 9-inch cant deficiency on a 6-inch superelevated curve (i.e., the equivalent
of 15 inches of superelevation), if the car tilts at 8 degrees, the net cant deficiency

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experienced by passengers in the car interior is approximately 2 inches. This a

powerful method to increase speed on an existing line where major changes in
alignment or curvature are not feasible.

10.11 Conclusion
This chapter has provided a brief introduction to the world of passenger railway
infrastructure. It is a world that demands high reliability and has little tolerance for
delay. The practices described in this chapter reflect why passenger infrastructure is
built and maintained the way it is. Railway passenger lines can exhibit significant
differences when compared to freight lines; transit lines differ significantly from
passenger lines, which are part of the “general system of railway transportation.” Each
has a form that befits its function.

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Table 10-1
Continental* United States

Track TRACK CLASS and MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED SPEEDS

(*Special Conditions for Northeast Corridor Not Shown)
Class

9
Order of Particular
Passenger Applicability Required Above
Trains 150 mph
8
Maximum Speed (80mph)
for General Service Freight Trains TIER II Vehicle Safety Standards.
7 Higher Speeds Authorized per Instrumented Track Inspection Car
49 U.S.C. 213.9 (g)
Required
6
Advanced
Freight Technology Full Grade Separations and Barrier Plan.
5 Trains
Crossing
GRMS on Instrumented Car Required.
Protection

4 Advanced Design
Open Deck Bridges Ballast Deck Bridges Required (ride quality)

Instrumented Testing Required For New Vehicle Certifications.

3 Federal Certification of Maintenance Personnel Required

2 Supplemental Advanced Civil Speed Enforcement System.

Signal System
Freight Only

Signal Signal System Track Geometry Measurement System.

System Required
Required (Cab Signal or Gauge Restraint Measurement System (GRMS).
1 Excepted
Train Control)
(Portable GRMS allowed Class 7 only).
Track
No "Occupied"
Psgr. Svc.
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

Maximum Authorized Speed (MPH)

Amtrak Transportation Speed and Tk Class [Link]
Planning Department ?o ? 002

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