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Soil Acidity and Liming

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 ISBN:- 978-93-6688-457-8
CHAPTER - 11

Soil Acidity and Liming

1
Anchal Singh, 2 Mohd Ashaq, 3Owais Ahmad Bhat, 4Shivam Kumar
Pandey and 5Michelle C. Lallawmkimi
1
Assistant Professor, School of Agricultural Science and Engineering, IFTM University,
Moradabad
2
Associate Professor & Head, Department of Botany, Govt Degree College
Thannamandi, District Rajouri Jammu and Kashmir -185212
3
Assistant Professor Division of Irrigation of Drainage Engineering College of
Agricultural Engineering SkUAST- K
4
Research Scholar, Rashtriya Raksha University
5
Senior Scientist and Head, Department of Agriculture, Government of Mizoram, Krishi
Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Kolasib, Mizoram

Corresponding Author
Mohd Ashaq
ashaqraza@[Link]

Abstract
Soil acidity is a critical factor affecting soil health, plant growth, and
agricultural productivity in many regions worldwide. This chapter provides a
comprehensive overview of soil acidity and the role of liming in ameliorating
acidic soils. It explores the causes and consequences of soil acidification,
including natural processes and anthropogenic activities. The chapter delves into
the chemical and biological mechanisms underlying soil acidity, highlighting the
impact on soil properties, nutrient availability, and plant root development. It also
discusses various methods for measuring and assessing soil acidity, such as pH
testing and exchangeable acidity determination. The chapter then focuses on
liming as a key management strategy for correcting soil acidity. It covers the
types of liming materials, their properties, and their effectiveness in neutralizing
acidity. The chapter also addresses the factors influencing lime requirement,
application rates, and timing. Additionally, it explores the interactions between
liming and other soil management practices, such as fertilization and organic
matter management. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of
integrating liming into sustainable soil management strategies to optimize crop
productivity and maintain long-term soil health in acidic environments.

Keywords: Soil Acidity, liming, pH, Exchangeable Acidity, Soil Health

Soil acidity is a widespread problem affecting agricultural lands

worldwide. Acidic soils can limit plant growth, reduce crop yields, and degrade
soil health. In India, soil acidity is a major concern, with an estimated 25 million
hectares of land affected by soil acidity [1]. The development of soil acidity is a
 Soil Acidity and Liming 291

natural process influenced by various factors such as parent material, climate, and
vegetation. However, human activities, including intensive farming practices and
the use of acidifying fertilizers, have exacerbated the problem in many regions
[2].

Understanding the causes, consequences, and management of soil acidity

is crucial for sustainable agriculture and food security. This chapter aims to
provide a comprehensive overview of soil acidity and the role of liming in
ameliorating acidic soils. It will explore the chemical and biological mechanisms
underlying soil acidity, discuss methods for measuring and assessing acidity, and
delve into the principles and practices of liming as a management strategy. The
chapter will also highlight the interactions between liming and other soil
management practices, presenting case studies and research findings to support
the discussion.

2. Causes and Consequences of Soil Acidity

2.1 Natural Processes Contributing to Soil Acidity

Soil acidity is influenced by several natural processes that contribute to

the development of acidic conditions in soils. One of the primary factors is the
weathering of acidic parent materials, such as granite and sandstone, which
release hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil solution [3]. As these materials undergo
chemical and physical weathering, they release acidic compounds that lower the
soil pH.

Another natural process leading to soil acidity is the leaching of base cations,
such as calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and potassium (K+), from the soil
profile. In regions with high rainfall or intensive irrigation, these cations can be
displaced by H+ ions and leached below the root zone, resulting in a net increase
in soil acidity [4].

The decomposition of organic matter also contributes to soil acidity. As

microorganisms break down organic matter, they release organic acids and CO2,
which can react with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) [5]. This process
lowers the soil pH and increases the concentration of H+ ions in the soil solution.

2.2 Anthropogenic Activities Exacerbating Soil Acidity

Human activities have significantly contributed to the exacerbation of

soil acidity in many regions. Intensive farming practices, such as continuous
cropping and high-yielding crop varieties, can lead to the depletion of base
cations from the soil [6]. As crops remove these cations through uptake and
harvesting, the soil becomes more acidic over time.
292 Soil Acidity and Liming

The use of acidifying fertilizers and amendments is another major

anthropogenic factor contributing to soil acidity. Nitrogen fertilizers, particularly
ammonium-based fertilizers, undergo nitrification in the soil, releasing H+ ions
and lowering the soil pH [7]. Similarly, the application of elemental sulfur or
other sulfur-containing compounds can lead to the formation of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) in the soil, further increasing acidity [8].

Industrial pollution and acid deposition also play a role in soil

acidification. The burning of fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere, which can be transported long
distances and deposited on soils through wet or dry deposition [9]. These acidic
compounds react with water in the soil, contributing to the development of soil
acidity.

2.3 Impact of Soil Acidity on Soil Properties and Plant Growth

Soil acidity has far-reaching consequences for soil properties and plant
growth. One of the primary impacts is on nutrient availability and toxicity. In
acidic soils, the solubility of certain nutrients, such as aluminium (Al3+) and
manganese (Mn+), increases to toxic levels [10]. These elements can inhibit root
growth, reduce nutrient uptake, and cause plant stunting and yield reductions.

Acidic conditions also affect soil microbial activity and diversity. Many
beneficial soil microorganisms, such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal
fungi, have specific pH ranges for optimal growth and function [11]. As soil
acidity increases, the population and diversity of these microorganisms can
decline, leading to reduced soil fertility and ecological imbalances.

Plant root growth and development are also impacted by soil acidity. The
high concentration of H+ ions in acidic soils can inhibit root elongation and
branching, resulting in shallow and poorly developed root systems [12]. This can
limit the plant's ability to access water and nutrients from deeper soil layers,
making them more susceptible to drought stress and nutrient deficiencies.

3. Measuring and Assessing Soil Acidity

3.1 Soil pH Measurement Techniques

Measuring soil pH is the most common method for assessing soil acidity.
Several techniques are available for determining soil pH, each with its advantages
and limitations. The soil-water suspension method involves mixing a soil sample
with distilled water in a specific ratio (usually 1:2.5 or 1:5) and measuring the pH
of the suspension using a pH meter or pH paper [13]. This method is widely used
and provides a standard approach for comparing soil pH values across different
soils and laboratories.
 Soil Acidity and Liming 293

Figure 1. Factors Contributing to Soil Acidity

Another technique is the soil-salt solution method, which uses a neutral

salt solution, such as 0.01M calcium chloride (CaCl2) or 1M potassium chloride
(KCl), instead of water [14]. This method is particularly useful for soils with high
salt content or variable charge properties, as it minimizes the influence of soluble
salts on pH measurements.

Figure 2. Relationship Between Soil pH and Nutrient Availability

294 Soil Acidity and Liming

In-situ pH measurement techniques have also gained popularity in recent

years. These methods involve the use of portable pH meters or pH probes that
can be inserted directly into the soil [15]. In-situ measurements provide real-time
pH values and allow for the assessment of spatial variability within a field or
landscape.

Table 1. Soil pH Ranges and Their Implications for Plant Growth

pH Category Implications
Range

< 5.5 Strongly acidic Severe nutrient deficiencies and aluminum toxicity

5.5-6.0 Moderately Reduced nutrient availability and potential aluminum

acidic toxicity

6.0-6.5 Slightly acidic Optimal range for most crops

6.5-7.5 Neutral Ideal range for nutrient availability and microbial activity

> 7.5 Alkaline Potential micronutrient deficiencies and reduced

phosphorus availability

3.2 Exchangeable Acidity Determination

While soil pH provides an overall indication of soil acidity, it does not

quantify the amount of acidity present in the soil. Exchangeable acidity, which
represents the concentration of H+ and Al3+ ions held on soil exchange sites, is a
more precise measure of soil acidity [16].

The potassium chloride extraction method is commonly used to

determine exchangeable acidity. In this method, a soil sample is mixed with a
neutral 1M KCl solution, which displaces the H+ and Al3 ions from the exchange
sites [17]. The extracted solution is then titrated with a standard base, such as
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), to determine the concentration of exchangeable
acidity.

Titratable acidity is another measure of soil acidity that includes both

exchangeable acidity and the acidity generated by the hydrolysis of Al 3 and other
cations [18]. This method involves titrating a soil suspension with a standard base
to a predetermined pH endpoint, usually pH 7 or 8.

3.3 Interpreting Soil Acidity Results

Interpreting soil acidity results is essential for making informed decisions

about liming and soil management. Soil pH ranges can be classified into different
categories, such as strongly acidic (pH < 5.5), moderately acidic (pH 5.5-6.0),
 Soil Acidity and Liming 295

slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5), neutral (pH 6.5-7.5), and alkaline (pH > 7.5) [19].
These classifications provide a general guide for assessing the severity of soil
acidity and the potential impact on plant growth.

Crop-specific pH requirements should also be considered when

interpreting soil acidity results. Different crops have varying tolerances to soil
acidity, and their optimal pH ranges may differ [20]. For example, legumes
generally require higher soil pH (6.0-7.0) compared to cereal crops, which can
tolerate slightly acidic conditions (pH 5.5-6.5).

Spatial variability and sampling considerations are important factors in

interpreting soil acidity results. Soil acidity can vary significantly within a field
or landscape due to differences in parent material, topography, and management
history [21]. Therefore, collecting representative soil samples from different areas
and depths is crucial for accurately assessing soil acidity and making site-specific
liming recommendations.

4. Liming for Soil Acidity Management

4.1 Types of Liming Materials

Liming is the primary management strategy for correcting soil acidity

and restoring optimal pH levels for plant growth. Various types of liming
materials are available, each with its unique properties and effectiveness in
neutralizing soil acidity.

Calcitic limestone, composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), is

one of the most common liming materials [22]. It is extracted from limestone
deposits and ground into fine particles to increase its reactivity in the soil.
Calcitic limestone is effective in raising soil pH and supplying calcium to the
soil.

Dolomitic limestone is another widely used liming material that contains

both calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) [23]. It is derived
from dolomite rock formations and provides both calcium and magnesium to the
soil. Dolomitic limestone is particularly beneficial for soils deficient in
magnesium.

Burned lime, also known as quicklime or calcium oxide (CaO), is

produced by heating limestone to high temperatures [24]. It is highly reactive and
can rapidly increase soil pH. However, burned lime requires careful handling and
application due to its caustic nature.

Hydrated lime, or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), is formed when burned

lime reacts with water [25]. It is less reactive than burned lime but still highly
296 Soil Acidity and Liming

effective in neutralizing soil acidity. Hydrated lime is often used in situations

where rapid pH correction is required.

By-product liming materials, such as wood ash, sugar beet lime, and
power plant fly ash, can also be used for soil acidity management [26]. These
materials are derived from industrial processes and contain varying amounts of
calcium and magnesium compounds. While they can be effective in raising soil
pH, their composition and quality can be variable, requiring careful evaluation
before use.

4.2 Properties and Effectiveness of Liming Materials

The effectiveness of liming materials in neutralizing soil acidity depends

on several key properties. One important factor is the calcium carbonate
equivalent (CCE), which represents the acid-neutralizing capacity of the liming
material relative to pure calcium carbonate [27]. The higher the CCE, the more
effective the liming material is in raising soil pH.

Particle size and reactivity also influence the effectiveness of liming

materials. Finely ground particles have a larger surface area and react more
quickly with the soil compared to coarser particles [28]. Therefore, liming
materials with smaller particle sizes, such as those passing through a 100-mesh
sieve, are generally more effective in neutralizing soil acidity.

Solubility and speed of reaction are other important properties to

consider. Highly soluble liming materials, such as burned lime and hydrated lime,
react rapidly with the soil and can provide immediate pH correction [29].
However, their effects may be short-lived, and they require more frequent
applications. Less soluble materials, such as calcitic and dolomitic limestone,
have a slower reaction time but provide a longer-lasting effect on soil pH.

Table 2. Common Liming Materials and Their Properties

Liming Material Composition CCE (%) Reactivity

Calcitic limestone CaCO3 85-100 Moderate

Dolomitic limestone CaCO3, MgCO3 95-108 Moderate

Burned lime CaO 150-175 High

Hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 120-135 High

Wood ash CaCO3 K2O, MgO 30-70 Low to moderate

4.3 Determining Lime Requirement

 Soil Acidity and Liming 297

Accurate determination of lime requirement is crucial for effective soil

acidity management. Several factors need to be considered when estimating the
amount of lime needed to achieve the desired soil pH.

Soil pH and exchangeable acidity are the primary indicators of lime

requirement. The lower the soil pH and the higher the exchangeable acidity, the
more lime is needed to neutralize the acidity [30]. Soil testing laboratories often
provide lime requirement recommendations based on these parameters.

Soil texture and organic matter content also influence lime requirement.
Sandy soils generally require less lime compared to clay soils due to their lower
buffering capacity [31]. Soils with high organic matter content may require
higher lime rates due to the acidic nature of organic compounds.

The target pH and crop requirements should also be considered when

determining lime requirement. Different crops have varying pH optimum ranges,
and the lime rate should be adjusted accordingly [32]. For example, legumes
generally require higher soil pH levels compared to grasses, and therefore, may
need higher lime application rates.

4.4 Lime Application Strategies

Effective lime application strategies are essential for maximizing the

benefits of liming and achieving uniform pH correction throughout the soil
profile. Broadcasting and incorporation are the most common methods of lime
application [33]. Lime is evenly spread over the soil surface using a spreader and
then incorporated into the soil through tillage operations. This method ensures
thorough mixing of lime with the soil and promotes rapid reaction.

Table 3. Lime Requirement Determination Methods

Method Principle Advantages Limitations

SMP buffer Measures pH change in Simple and rapid Less accurate for
soil-buffer solution highly acidic soils

Adams- Estimates lime requirement Accurate for a Time-consuming and

Evans based on exchangeable wide range of soils labor-intensive
buffer acidity

Mehlich Determines lime Suitable for a Requires calibration

buffer requirement based on pH range of soil types for specific regions
and buffer pH

Banding and localized application techniques can be used for targeted pH

correction in specific areas or for crops with shallow root systems [34]. Lime is
298 Soil Acidity and Liming

applied in narrow bands or concentrated spots near the plant roots, reducing the
overall lime requirement and minimizing the impact on the surrounding soil.

Timing and frequency of lime application are important considerations

for effective soil acidity management. Liming is typically recommended during
the fallow period or before planting to allow sufficient time for the lime to react
with the soil [35]. In regions with high rainfall or intensive cropping systems,
more frequent lime applications may be necessary to maintain the desired soil pH
levels.

5. Interactions Between Liming and Soil Management Practices

5.1 Liming and Fertilizer Management

Liming and fertilizer management are closely interrelated, as soil pH

influences nutrient availability and uptake by plants. Liming can have significant
effects on the solubility and plant-availability of essential nutrients [36]. For
example, liming acidic soils can increase the availability of phosphorus, calcium,
and magnesium, while reducing the solubility of aluminium and manganese.

Synergistic effects between liming and fertilizer management can

optimize soil fertility and plant nutrition. Liming can improve the efficiency of
fertilizer use by creating favorable soil conditions for nutrient uptake [37]. For
instance, liming can enhance the effectiveness of phosphorus fertilizers by
reducing the fixation of phosphorus by aluminum and iron in acidic soils.

However, it is important to consider the potential interactions between

liming and specific fertilizers. Some fertilizers, such as ammonium-based
nitrogen fertilizers, can have an acidifying effect on the soil [38]. Therefore, the
lime requirement may need to be adjusted based on the type and amount of
fertilizer applied.

5.2 Liming and Organic Matter Management

Liming can influence the decomposition and mineralization processes of

organic matter in the soil. In acidic soils, the activity of decomposer
microorganisms is often suppressed, leading to the accumulation of organic
matter [39]. Liming can stimulate microbial activity and accelerate the
breakdown of organic matter, releasing nutrients for plant uptake.

Soil structure and water retention can also be affected by the interactions
between liming and organic matter management. Liming can improve soil
aggregation and porosity by promoting the flocculation of clay particles and the
formation of stable aggregates [40]. This can enhance water infiltration, drainage,
and aeration in the soil.
 Soil Acidity and Liming 299

Incorporating organic amendments, such as compost or crop residues,

along with liming can have synergistic effects on soil health and fertility [41].
Organic matter can buffer soil pH changes, improve soil structure, and provide a
slow-release source of nutrients. Combining liming with organic matter
management can create a more resilient soil system that is better able to
withstand pH fluctuations and maintain optimal conditions for plant growth.

5.3 Liming and Soil Microbial Ecology

Liming has a profound impact on soil microbial ecology, as pH is a key

factor influencing the diversity and function of soil microorganisms. Acidic soils
often have reduced microbial diversity and activity compared to neutral or
slightly alkaline soils [42]. Liming can create a more favorable environment for a
wide range of beneficial soil microbes, including bacteria, fungi, and
actinomycetes.

Liming-induced shifts in microbial community composition can have

significant implications for soil fertility and plant health. For example, liming can
promote the growth of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as Rhizobium species, which
form symbiotic associations with legumes and contribute to nitrogen fixation in
the soil [43]. Liming can also enhance the activity of nitrifying bacteria, which
convert ammonium to nitrate, improving nitrogen availability for plants.

Liming can also stimulate the growth and function of other beneficial soil
organisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic
relationships with plant roots, enhancing nutrient uptake and improving plant
tolerance to stress conditions [44]. Liming can increase the colonization of plant
roots by mycorrhizal fungi, leading to improved plant growth and productivity.

6. Case Studies and Research Findings

Numerous field experiments and long-term studies have investigated the

effects of liming on soil acidity, crop productivity, and soil health in various
regions and cropping systems. These studies provide valuable insights into the
practical application of liming and its impact on agricultural sustainability.

A long-term study conducted in the acidic soils of the Brazilian Cerrado

region demonstrated the positive effects of liming on soil chemical properties and
soybean yields [45]. Over a period of 20 years, regular lime applications
significantly increased soil pH, reduced aluminium saturation, and improved
calcium and magnesium availability. Soybean yields increased by up to 40% in
limed plots compared to unlimed control plots.

A meta-analysis of liming experiments in grassland systems across

Europe found that liming consistently increased soil pH, reduced aluminum
300 Soil Acidity and Liming

toxicity, and improved plant species richness and diversity [46]. The study
highlighted the importance of liming for maintaining soil fertility and
biodiversity in acidic grassland soils.

Regional assessments of soil acidity and liming practices have been

conducted in various parts of India. A study in the acid soils of Odisha revealed
that liming, along with integrated nutrient management, significantly improved
rice yields and soil fertility [47]. The study emphasized the need for site-specific
liming recommendations based on soil testing and crop requirements.

Innovative approaches and emerging technologies are being explored to

enhance the effectiveness and precision of liming practices. Precision agriculture
techniques, such as variable rate liming, use GPS and soil mapping technologies
to apply lime at varying rates across a field based on soil pH variability [48]. This
approach optimizes lime use efficiency and minimizes over- or under-application
of lime.

The integration of liming with other sustainable soil management

practices, such as conservation tillage and cover cropping, has shown promising
results in improving soil health and crop productivity [49]. These practices can
help to build soil organic matter, reduce erosion, and enhance nutrient cycling,
complementing the benefits of liming in acid soil management.

7. Conclusion

Soil acidity is a major constraint to agricultural productivity and

sustainability in many regions worldwide, including India. The causes of soil
acidity are diverse, ranging from natural processes such as weathering and
leaching to anthropogenic activities like intensive farming and acidifying
fertilizer use. Soil acidity has far-reaching consequences for soil fertility, plant
growth, and microbial ecology.

Effective management of soil acidity requires a comprehensive

understanding of the principles and practices of liming. Liming materials, such as
calcitic and dolomitic limestone, can neutralize soil acidity and restore optimal
pH levels for plant growth. The selection of appropriate liming materials,
determination of lime requirements, and implementation of effective application
strategies are critical for successful soil acidity management.

Liming interacts with other soil management practices, such as

fertilization and organic matter management, to influence soil health and
productivity. Integrating liming with these practices can create synergistic
benefits, enhancing nutrient availability, soil structure, and microbial activity.
 Soil Acidity and Liming 301

Future research should focus on developing site-specific liming

recommendations, exploring innovative technologies for precision liming, and
evaluating the long-term impacts of liming on soil health and agroecosystem
sustainability. Addressing the challenges of soil acidity through integrated soil
management approaches will be crucial for ensuring food security and
environmental sustainability in the face of growing global demands.

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