1

Value Addition
Notes
International Relations

SAARC
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SAARC
SAARC
❖ Established in December 1985, SAARC was envisioned to promote peace, stability, and prosperity in South
Asia through economic, social, and cultural cooperation.
❖ With eight member states—India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and
Afghanistan—SAARC represents a diverse region with complex socio-political challenges.
❖ As the dominant economic and military power, India plays a crucial role within SAARC, often shaping its
direction and priorities.
Objectives of SAARC
1. Regional Economic Cooperation: SAARC aims to foster economic integration, encourage free trade, and
facilitate economic growth through initiatives like the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA).
2. Social and Cultural Development: Strengthening social, cultural, and people-to-people ties within the
region, including cooperation in health, education, culture, and human development.
3. Poverty Alleviation: Focusing on initiatives to alleviate poverty and improve living standards through
regional projects and collaborations.
4. Regional Security and Stability: Addressing common threats such as terrorism, organized crime, and drug
trafficking, and working towards a peaceful South Asia.
5. Human Development: Enhancing health, education, gender equality, and social welfare through regional
projects and knowledge-sharing.
Achievements of SAARC
Economic Initiatives
❖ The SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA), established in 1993, was the first major step
toward trade cooperation, followed by the more ambitious South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) in
2006.
❖ SAARC Development Fund (SDF) supports regional development projects across social, economic, and
infrastructure sectors.
❖ Disaster Management Cooperation:
➢ The SAARC Disaster Management Centre has facilitated regional cooperation in disaster resilience
and response, particularly critical given South Asia's vulnerability to natural disasters like cyclones,
floods, and earthquakes.
❖ Cultural Exchange and Cooperation:
➢ Promotion of cultural understanding through festivals, exchange programs, and joint initiatives in
literature, music, and film.
❖ Public Health Initiatives:
➢ Regional efforts to combat diseases such as tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and initiatives to enhance
maternal and child health have been undertaken through SAARC mechanisms.
 3

Phases of SAARC
1. Foundation Phase (1985-1990s):
➢ Focused on building institutional frameworks and establishing trust among member states.
➢ Early initiatives centered on confidence-building measures, trade facilitation, and cultural exchanges.
2. Economic Integration Phase (2000s):
➢ Launch of SAFTA and efforts to reduce trade barriers marked this phase, with aspirations of regional
economic integration.
➢ Progress was hindered by slow implementation and persistent non -tariff barriers.
3. Security and Counterterrorism Focus (Post-2000s):
➢ The region’s experience with terrorism and cross-border insurgency issues led to greater focus on
security cooperation, albeit with mixed results.
➢ Counterterrorism mechanisms and information-sharing initiatives were introduced but often hampered
by mutual distrust.
4. Current Phase (Post-2010s):
➢ Increasing political tensions, especially between India and Pakistan, have limited SAARC’s
effectiveness.
➢ Focus has shifted toward smaller, more manageable regional projects and alternative groupings such as
BIMSTEC, with India exploring options for enhancing cooperation beyond SAARC's scope.
India’s Engagement with SAARC
❖ Strategic Role: As the region’s largest economy, India has taken the lead in promoting regional integration
and development within SAARC. India’s initiatives often aim to strengthen economic ties, enhance
connectivity, and foster regional stability.
❖ Trade and Connectivity: India has been instrumental in operationalizing SAFTA, although intra-regional
trade remains low. India’s proposals for a SAARC Motor Vehicles Agreement and other connectivity
projects have been stalled due to political differences, especially with Pakistan.
❖ Development and Assistance: India provides significant bilateral assistance to smaller member states in
areas such as infrastructure, education, health, and capacity -building.
❖ Humanitarian Efforts: India’s rapid response during crises, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and
the 2015 Nepal earthquake, demonstrates its commitment to regional solidarity.
Failures of SAARC
❖ Limited Economic Integration: Despite economic cooperation mechanisms like SAFTA, intra-SAARC
trade remains below 5% of total trade. Non-tariff barriers, lack of infrastructure, and political rivalries
impede progress.
❖ Institutional Weaknesses: SAARC’s consensus-based decision-making process makes it difficult to
implement effective policies, especially when member states disagree.
❖ Ineffective Conflict Resolution: SAARC lacks mechanisms for resolving bilateral conflicts, which often
derail regional initiatives.
 4

India-Pakistan Conflict
❖ Historical Context: The enduring conflict between India and Pakistan, centered around issues such as
Kashmir, has often stalled SAARC initiatives. Political tensions have led to repeated postponements or
cancellations of summits.
❖ Recent Context: Following the Pulwama attack in 2019, India’s diplomatic relations with Pakistan further
deteriorated, affecting regional dynamics and limiting SAARC’s effectiveness.
❖ Scholars' Views: Indian scholar Shashi Tharoor argues that SAARC’s inefficacy stems from the India-
Pakistan rivalry. S.D. Muni notes that bilateral tensions distract from regional development goals, turning
SAARC into a platform for geopolitical posturing.
Relevance and Future of SAARC
1. Contemporary Relevance:
➢ Despite its limitations, SAARC remains relevant due to shared socio -economic challenges in South
Asia. Issues such as poverty alleviation, climate change, and human development require regional
cooperation.
➢ C. Raja Mohan argues that while SAARC’s potential remains unfulfilled, its existence offers an
important platform for dialogue. Harsh V. Pant highlights the strategic need for India to engage with
smaller states and provide leadership within the grouping.
2. Future Prospects:
➢ Revitalization Efforts: India can lead initiatives to revitalize SAARC by emphasizing economic
collaboration, digital connectivity, and climate change mitigation. Efforts must focus on building trust
and bridging political divides.
➢ Engaging Pakistan: Constructive engagement with Pakistan, while challenging, is essential for
SAARC’s long-term success. Confidence-building measures, facilitated dialogue, and people-to-people
contact can create conducive conditions for cooperation.
➢ Alternative Groupings: India’s increasing focus on regional organizations like BIMSTEC underscores
the need for flexible approaches to regional cooperation. SAARC must adapt to changing geopolitical
realities to remain relevant.
3. While SAARC has achieved limited success in fostering regional cooperation, its relevance endures due to
shared challenges in South Asia. India, as a regional leader, holds the key to unlocking SAARC’s potential.
The 18th SAARC Summit
1. Held on November 26–27, 2014, in Kathmandu, Nepal, was the most recent summit of the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
2. The summit's theme, "Deeper Integration for Peace and Prosperity," aimed to enhance regional
cooperation among member states.
Key Outcomes:
1. SAARC Framework Agreement for Energy Cooperation (Electricity): Member states signed this
agreement to facilitate regional energy trade and cooperation. However, other proposed agreements on road
and rail connectivity were not finalized during the summit.
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2. Kathmandu Declaration: Leaders reaffirmed their commitment to regional integration, focusing on areas
such as trade, investment, finance, energy, security, infrastructure, and culture. They emphasized the need
for prioritized, result-oriented, and time-bound implementation of projects and activities.
3. South Asian Economic Union (SAEU): The summit renewed the commitment to establish the SAEU in a
phased manner, progressing through a Free Trade Area, Customs Union, Common Market, and eventually a
Common Economic and Monetary Union.
4. SAARC Development Fund (SDF): Leaders agreed to strengthen the SDF's Social Window and
operationalize its Economic and Infrastructure Windows to effectively implement regional and sub -regional
projects.
Despite these commitments, the summit faced criticism for limited progress, particularly due to unresolved
political tensions among member states, notably between India and Pakistan. These tensions hindered the signing
of key agreements on road and rail connectivity, leading to perceptions of the summit's limited success.
❖ Since the 18th summit, SAARC has not convened another summit, primarily due to ongoing political
disagreements and regional tensions.
❖ The 19th summit, initially scheduled for 2016 in Pakistan, was postponed indefinitely following a boycott by
several member states, including India, citing concerns over cross-border terrorism.
❖ In recent years, there have been calls to revive SAARC and address the challenges impeding its progress.
However, as of November 2024, no subsequent summit has been held, and the organization's future remains
uncertain amid persistent regional tensions.
 6

BIMSTEC is a regional economic bloc established in June 1997 through the Bangkok Declaration. It began
with four founding members: Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Over time, Nepal and Bhutan joined
as full members in February 2004, after initially being observers.
❖ Members: Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, and Bhutan.
❖ Permanent Secretariat: Located in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Aim
BIMSTEC seeks to accelerate regional growth and development by fostering mutual cooperation among
member nations. The bloc aims to counter the challenges of globalization by utilizing regional resources and
geographical advantages for shared prosperity.
Areas of Cooperation
BIMSTEC is a sector-driven organization that initially focused on six areas:
❖ Trade, Technology, Energy, Transport, Tourism, and Fisheries.
Over time, the number of priority areas expanded to 14, with climate change added as the 14th area in 2008.
Each member country leads specific priority areas. For example:
❖ India leads in Transport & Communication, Tourism, Environment & Disaster Management, and
Counter-Terrorism & Transnational Crime.
Importance of BIMSTEC
1. Demographics and Economy:
➢ 22% of the global population resides in BIMSTEC countries.
➢ Combined GDP is approximately $2.7 trillion.
➢ Member countries have shown consistent economic growth, averaging between 3.4% and 7.5% (2012-
2016).
2. Strategic Location:
➢ The Bay of Bengal is a vital waterway, with a quarter of the world’s traded goods crossing it
annually.
Growth of BIMSTEC
❖ Renewed Focus (2016): BIMSTEC gained momentum after India’s emphasis on the platform post the Uri
terrorist attack in 2016.
❖ India hosted a BIMSTEC Outreach Summit alongside the BRICS summit in Goa, showcasing its strategic
shift from SAARC to BIMSTEC due to Pakistan-related tensions.
Significance for Member Countries
1. Bangladesh: Sees BIMSTEC as a platform to enhance its regional and international profile.
2. Sri Lanka: Aims to connect with Southeast Asia and position itself as a hub for the Indo -Pacific region.
3. Nepal and Bhutan: View BIMSTEC as an opportunity to overcome their landlocked geography by
connecting to the Bay of Bengal.
4. Myanmar and Thailand: Aspire to deepen ties with India to access its growing market and counterbalance
China’s dominance.
5. India: BIMSTEC aligns with India’s Neighbourhood First and Act East policies, serving as a platform to
strengthen regional integration and economic cooperation.
 7

Challenges
1. Inter-State Tensions:
➢ Discord between Bangladesh and Myanmar over the Rohingya refugee crisis remains unresolved.
➢ Myanmar’s political instability after the 2021 coup continues to impact regional collaboration.
2. India-China Rivalry:
➢ BIMSTEC has become a site for competing influences.
➢ China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) projects in BIMSTEC countries (except Bhutan and India)
challenge India’s leadership in the region.
3. Slow Progress:
➢ Despite its potential, BIMSTEC has faced delays in finalizing agreements and implementing projects.
BIMSTEC Charter
❖ Adoption: The BIMSTEC Charter was adopted during its 5th Summit in March 2022 under Sri Lanka’s
chairmanship.
❖ Coming into Force: The charter was ratified by Nepal in April 2024, bringing it into effect on May 20,
2024.
❖ Significance:
➢ BIMSTEC now holds a legal personality, enabling it to enter formal diplomatic engagements with
other countries and organizations.
➢ The charter provides a framework for institutional cooperation and deeper regional integration.
BIMSTEC has emerged as a significant platform for fostering economic growth, regional connectivity, and
mutual cooperation in the Bay of Bengal region. While challenges like inter-state tensions and competing
influences persist, the adoption of the BIMSTEC Charter marks a new phase of institutional and legal strength
for the bloc. With its strategic location and shared priorities, BIMSTEC holds the potential to become a key
driver of regional development and integration.
Aspect SAARC BIMSTEC
Full Form South Asian Association for Regional Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral
Cooperation
Establishment December 8, 1985 June 6, 1997
Member Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal,
Countries Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, Thailand
Headquarters Kathmandu, Nepal Dhaka, Bangladesh
Geographical Focuses exclusively on South Asia Encompasses both South Asia and Southeast
Scope Asia
Objective Regional cooperation for peace, stability, Promotes regional growth through mutual
and economic development among South cooperation, focusing on the Bay of Bengal
Asian countries region
Key Principles Sovereign equality, mutual respect, and Accelerating regional integration through
non-interference in internal affairs resource sharing and collaboration
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Areas of Economy, agriculture, education, science, Initially 6 sectors (e.g., trade, technology,
Cooperation technology, and culture energy, tourism); now expanded to 14 priority
areas, including climate change
India's Role Largest member but strained by conflicts India is the largest economy and plays a
with Pakistan, hampering progress pivotal leadership role
Functionality Struggles with limited achievements due More active with pragmatic collaboration
to India-Pakistan tensions avoiding contentious bilateral issues
Trade Initiatives SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area), Focused on connectivity and economic
limited success integration, such as the BBIN Motor Vehicle
Agreement
China's Influence China is an observer; Pakistan supports China is not a member but competes with
deeper Chinese involvement India's influence through the Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI) in member states
Achievements ❖ Formation of SAFTA ❖ Settlement of land disputes (India-
Bangladesh, 2015)
❖ Fostering regional dialogue ❖ Increased connectivity projects (e.g.,
BIMSTEC Transport Infrastructure and
Logistics Study)
Challenges ❖ Dominance of bilateral tensions, ❖ Geopolitical rivalries (e.g., India-China),
particularly India-Pakistan Myanmar's instability
❖ Ineffectiveness of agreements and ❖ Growing Bangladesh-Myanmar discord
institutional mechanisms over the Rohingya crisis

Neighbourhood First Policy (NFP)

India's Neighbourhood First Policy (NFP) is a cornerstone of its foreign policy, emphasizing the importance of
fostering strong, cooperative, and mutually beneficial relationships with its immediate neighbors. This approach
aims to enhance regional stability, economic integration, and cultural ties within South Asia.
Key Objectives of the Neighbourhood First Policy:
1. Regional Stability: Promote peace and security in the region by addressing shared challenges
collaboratively.
2. Economic Integration: Enhance trade and economic cooperation through connectivity projects and
infrastructure development.
3. Cultural and People-to-People Ties: Strengthen cultural bonds and promote exchanges to foster mutual
understanding.
4. Collaborative Development: Support the development needs of neighboring countries through capacity -
building and infrastructure projects.
Implementation Strategies:
❖ Diplomatic Engagement: Conduct high-level visits and dialogues to strengthen bilateral ties and participate
actively in regional forums like SAARC and BIMSTEC.
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❖ Economic Cooperation: Establish bilateral and multilateral trade agreements and provide financial
assistance for development projects.
❖ Connectivity and Infrastructure: Develop road, rail, and maritime connectivity projects, such as the
Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) Motor Vehicles Agreement.
❖ Security Cooperation: Engage in joint efforts to combat terrorism, human trafficking, and drug smuggling,
including joint military exercises and training programs.
❖ Humanitarian Assistance: Provide disaster relief and humanitarian aid during natural calamities and
support healthcare initiatives.
Recent Developments:
❖ Maldives: In October 2024, India offered financial support to the Maldives, including a $100 million
treasury bills rollover and a $400 million currency swap agreement, to strengthen bilateral ties and support
the Maldivian economy.
❖ China Relations: In June 2024, India's Foreign Minister emphasized the focus on resolving border issues
with China to maintain regional stability.
Challenges:
❖ Terrorism and Illegal Migration: India faces threats from terrorism and challenges related to illegal
migration and smuggling from neighboring regions. Strengthening border security and monitoring
demographic changes are essential to address these issues.
❖ Relations with China and Pakistan: Contentious issues with China and Pakistan, including border disputes
and terrorism, pose significant challenges. Engaging with regional and multilateral organizations to counter
terrorism and establishing economic ties are recommended strategies
Key Recommendations
1. Focus on Connectivity: Scholars agree on the need to prioritize infrastructure and economic linkages to
foster regional interdependence.
2. Counterbalance China: India's engagement must account for China's growing influence, especially in
Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.
3. Promote Soft Power: Cultural diplomacy, educational exchanges, and development partnerships should
remain a cornerstone of India's approach.
4. Enhance Security Cooperation: Address cross-border challenges such as terrorism, smuggling, and
migration with collaborative mechanisms.
5. Long-term Commitments: Consistency and transparency in India's neighborhood engagements are
essential for building trust and credibility.
Strategies of China
1. Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Launched in 2013, the BRI aims to develop infrastructure and trade
networks connecting Asia, Europe, and Africa. This initiative seeks to boost economic integration and
expand China's influence through investments in ports, railways, and highways.
2. "Go Out" Policy: Initiated in 2000, this policy encourages Chinese enterprises to invest abroad, promoting
globalization of Chinese businesses and securing access to resources and markets. It has led to significant
investments in Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
3. Participation in Multilateral Organizations: China actively engages in international institutions like the
United Nations and the World Trade Organization to influence global governance. It also promotes
alternative frameworks such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and BRICS to advocate for a
multipolar world order.
 10

4. Regional Trade Agreements: China is a key member of the Regional Comprehensive Economic
Partnership (RCEP), the world's largest trade bloc, enhancing its trade relations with Asia-Pacific nations.
This participation underscores China's
5. Strategic Partnerships and Alliances: China has formed strategic partnerships with countries like Russia,
Brazil, and South Africa, focusing on economic cooperation and political alignment. These alliances aim to
counterbalance Western influence and promote shared development goals.
6. Economic Diplomacy: Through investments, loans, and aid, China strengthens bilateral ties, particularly
with developing nations. This approach, often termed "debt-trap diplomacy," has faced criticism but remains
a central element of China's foreign policy.
7. Military Modernization and Presence: China is modernizing its military and expanding its presence,
notably in the South China Sea, to protect its interests and assert territorial claims. This includes establishing
overseas military bases, such as in Djibouti, to support its global strategic objectives.
8. "Salami slicing" is often used to describe China’s incremental and strategic approach to advancing its
territorial claims and geopolitical interests without triggering large-scale confrontations.
1. Salami Slicing in Border Areas: "Salami slicing" refers to a strategy of making small, incremental
changes that individually seem minor but cumulatively lead to significant strategic gains.
Examples in India-China Relations:
❖ Gradual Incursions Along the LAC: China has been accused of making small advances along the Line of
Actual Control (LAC), such as occupying contested areas and building infrastructure like roads and military
posts.
❖ Galwan Valley Incident (2020): The violent clash in the Galwan Valley is a significant example of
escalated tensions caused by perceived incremental advances.
❖ Infrastructure Development: China builds dual-use infrastructure (e.g., roads and airstrips) in disputed
regions, enhancing its strategic military mobility.
2. Strategic Encirclement (String of Pearls)
Definition: China’s strategy of creating a network of economic and military alliances and facilities around India
to encircle it strategically.
Examples:
❖ China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC): Passing through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, CPEC
enhances China's influence and directly affects India’s territorial claims.
❖ Infrastructure in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh: Development projects like Hambantota Port in Sri Lanka
and investments in Bangladesh are viewed as part of China’s attempt to increase its presence in India’s
neighborhood.
❖ Military Base in Djibouti: Though geographically farther, such bases allow China to project power into the
Indian Ocean, a critical region for India.
3. Use of Gray Zone Tactics
Definition: China employs actions that fall below the threshold of conventional warfare but are coercive enough
to create strategic advantages.
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Examples:
❖ Non-Military Coercion: Use of non-military forces, like civilian fishing boats or paramilitary personnel, in
disputed regions like the Arunachal Pradesh border.
❖ Map Diplomacy: Issuing maps that show Indian territories, like Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin, as part
of China.
❖ Renaming Regions: In 2023, China issued a list of "standardized names" for locations in Arunachal
Pradesh, attempting to reinforce its territorial claims.
4. Economic Leverage and Dependency
Definition: China leverages its economic power to influence India’s strategic decisions.
Examples:
❖ Trade Deficit: India has a significant trade deficit with China, and many Indian industries are dependent on
Chinese imports.
❖ Technology and Infrastructure: Chinese companies have played a significant role in India’s telecom and
infrastructure sectors, though India has recently curtailed their influence, citing security concerns.
5. Cyber and Information Warfare
Definition: China uses cyber operations and information campaigns to destabilize adversaries.
Examples:
❖ Cyberattacks: Indian critical infrastructure, including power grids and defense systems, has reportedly been
targeted by Chinese cyberattacks.
❖ Disinformation Campaigns: Efforts to shape public narratives in India through misinformation or
propaganda.
6. Strategic Alliances with India's Neighbors
❖ Pakistan: The China-Pakistan alliance is one of the strongest in the region, with extensive military and
economic cooperation.
❖ Nepal and Bhutan: China has sought to increase its influence in Nepal and Bhutan, often creating rifts in
India’s traditionally close relations with these countries.
Implications for India
❖ Security Concerns: These strategies directly challenge India’s territorial integrity and strategic autonomy.
❖ Regional Influence: They dilute India’s dominance in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region.
❖ Response: India has countered with infrastructure development along the LAC, strengthening alliances like
the Quad (with the US, Japan, and Australia), and enhancing its military and cybersecurity capabilities.
By employing these tactics, China seeks to maximize its geopolitical influence while keeping its actions below
the threshold of triggering significant retaliation.
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Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)

Definition: The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is a global development strategy launched by China in 2013 to
enhance connectivity and economic integration across Asia, Europe, Africa, and beyond through infrastructure
development and investments.
Key Components:
1. Silk Road Economic Belt:
➢ Focuses on overland trade routes connecting China to Central Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.
➢ Emphasizes railways, highways, and pipelines.
2. 21st Century Maritime Silk Road:
➢ Aims to develop sea routes linking China to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, and Europe.
➢ Involves investments in ports and maritime infrastructure.
Objectives:
❖ Strengthen regional connectivity.
❖ Expand trade and economic partnerships.
❖ Secure access to natural resources and markets.
❖ Promote China's global influence.
Criticisms and Concerns:
❖ Debt Trap Diplomacy: Critics allege that BRI projects burden developing nations with unsustainable debt.
❖ Sovereignty Issues: Some projects, like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), pass through
contested regions, causing diplomatic tensions (e.g., India opposes CPEC as it passes through Pakistan -
occupied Kashmir).
❖ Environmental Concerns: Large-scale infrastructure projects often face criticism for environmental
degradation.
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Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

Definition: The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is the world's largest trade
agreement, signed in November 2020. It includes 15 Asia-Pacific nations: 10 ASEAN countries and 5 others
(China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand).
Key Features:
❖ Market Access: Reduction of tariffs and barriers to trade in goods and services among member countries.
❖ Investment Protections: Facilitates cross-border investments and intellectual property rights.
❖ Harmonized Rules: Simplifies trade procedures and reduces costs through unified regulations.
Objectives:
❖ Promote free trade in the Asia-Pacific region.
❖ Strengthen economic integration.
❖ Provide a framework for resolving trade disputes.
India’s Stance: India opted out of RCEP negotiations in 2019, citing:
❖ Trade Deficit Concerns: Fear of increased imports from China worsening its trade imbalance.
❖ Agricultural and Industrial Sector Impact: Concerns over domestic industries being undercut by cheaper
imports.
❖ Lack of Safeguards: Insufficient protections for India’s farmers and small businesses.


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Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

India-Maldives Relations: Strategic

Significance and Current Updates
 2

India-Maldives Relations: Strategic Significance and Current Updates

Historical Context
 India recognized Maldives' independence in 1965, marking the beginning of a long-standing partnership.
 Shared cultural, linguistic, and historical ties have fostered a multidimensional relationship.
 Maldives' location in the Indian Ocean makes it a crucial partner for India in regional security and stability.
Strategic Importance of the Maldives
1. Geopolitical Significance:
 Proximity to key sea lanes ensures control over vital maritime trade routes.
 Crucial for India's maritime security and its Indo-Pacific strategy.
 Maldives plays a role in India's counter-China measures within the Quad framework.
2. Economic Significance:
 Indian tourists form a significant share of Maldives' tourism economy.
 The country acts as a bridge for India's Blue Economy initiatives.
 Indian diaspora (~25,000) contributes to Maldives' socio-economic fabric.
3. Environmental Challenges:
 Vulnerable to climate change and rising sea levels, Maldives aligns with India on sustainable development
goals.
Current Developments
1. Political Shifts:
 September 2023: Opposition candidate Mohamed Muizzu, perceived as pro-China, won the Presidential
elections.
 Rising anti-India sentiment: Muizzu has pledged to review India’s military presence, raising concerns
for bilateral relations.
 Previous administration under Ibrahim Solih adhered to an "India First" policy, strengthening ties.
2. Bilateral Cooperation:
 India has extended over $2.7 billion in aid, supporting various projects like the Greater Male Connectivity
Project (GMCP), which links Male with neighboring islands and boosts logistics and tourism.
 Defense collaboration: Handover of patrol vessels and joint military exercises (Exercise Ekuverin).
 Development partnerships: Building infrastructure, including a cancer hospital and housing projects, with
Indian assistance.
3. Climate and Health Collaboration:
 India supports Maldives' climate action through renewable energy investments.
 Health assistance: India provided tuberculosis medicines and vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Challenges in the Relationship
1. Geopolitical Competition:
 China's influence: Maldives' involvement in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) under previous administrations.
 India faces challenges countering China's "String of Pearls" strategy.
 3

2. Internal Political Instability:

 Domestic narratives like the "India Out" campaign strain diplomatic ties.
3. Radicalization and Security Concerns:
 Threats of terrorism and radicalization pose shared security challenges.
Way Forward
 Diplomatic Engagement:
 India should balance its strategic interests while addressing domestic sensitivities in the Maldives.
 Strengthen people-to-people connections and cultural exchanges.
 Economic and Infrastructure Support:
 Expedite ongoing projects like GMCP and propose new collaborative ventures.
 Initiate dialogue for a potential Free Trade Agreement (FTA).
 Regional Cooperation:
 Leverage frameworks like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) to ensure collective security.
 Soft Diplomacy:
 Promote initiatives like Project Mausam to deepen cultural ties and counterbalance China's Maritime Silk
Route.
India's engagement with the Maldives remains pivotal in maintaining stability in the Indian Ocean Region, ensuring
its security, economic growth, and influence in the Indo-Pacific.

Maldives-India Relations: A Renewed Chapter Amid Shifting Geopolitical Dynamics

 The election of President Mohamed Muizzu marked a significant turning point in Maldives-India relations.
While his initial rhetoric leaned towards an 'India Out' campaign, recent diplomatic engagements demonstrate
a pivot towards renewed cooperation. This shift is critical given the Maldives' strategic location in the Indian
Ocean, which places it at the heart of India's foreign policy and its competition with China's expanding regional
influence.
Economic and Strategic Cooperation
India has provided robust economic support to the Maldives, underscoring the depth of their bilateral ties. Key
initiatives include:
 Economic Assistance: A $100 million subscription to Maldivian T-bills and a ₹3,000 crore currency swap
arrangement to stabilize the Maldivian economy.
 Infrastructure Projects: Collaborative efforts on joint infrastructure projects and discussions on a Free Trade
Agreement (FTA) reflect growing economic interdependence. These measures not only support Maldivian
economic recovery but also serve as a counter to China's influence under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
Defence and Security Cooperation
Security remains a cornerstone of Maldives-India relations, given the Maldives' strategic location in the
Indian Ocean:
 Indian Military Presence: While contentious, efforts to replace Indian troops with technical personnel aim
to balance Maldivian sovereignty concerns with security cooperation.
 Regional Stability: India's engagement ensures a counterweight to external influences, particularly China's
increasing presence in the region.
 4

Tourism and Investment

Tourism forms the backbone of the Maldivian economy, and India plays a pivotal role as a source market:
 Tourist Influx: Efforts to restore pre-pandemic tourist levels highlight the importance of Indian visitors for
economic stability.
 Investment Opportunities: President Muizzu's visit to Indian cities like Agra and Bengaluru underscores the
significance of Indian investors in boosting Maldivian economic recovery.

China's Growing Influence in the Maldives

China's presence in the Maldives presents both opportunities and challenges:
 Economic Engagement: Investments through the BRI, such as the Sinamalé Bridge and Malé International
Airport, enhance infrastructure but raise debt-trap concerns.
 Security Cooperation: China's expanding role in security complicates India's strategic interests.
 Geopolitical Rivalry: The Maldives' foreign policy shifts under changing governments often exacerbate
tensions between India and China.
India’s Multifaceted Strategy to Counter China
India adopts a multi-pronged approach to address China's influence:
1. Strengthening Regional Alliances: Building bilateral ties with neighbors like Bangladesh and Sri Lanka
through aid and infrastructure projects.
2. Strategic Partnerships: Collaborating with global players in forums like the QUAD to ensure a free and open
Indo-Pacific.
3. Military Modernisation: Upgrading naval and air forces while engaging in joint exercises.
4. Economic Integration: Promoting regional initiatives like BIMSTEC to provide alternatives to the BRI.
5. Proactive Diplomacy: Enhancing people-to-people connections and cultural ties to bolster goodwill.

Afghanistan: A Center for Great Games

Strategic Interests of Major Powers
1. United States:
 Strategic Location: Afghanistan's proximity to China, Pakistan, Iran, and Russia positions it as a
geopolitical pivot.
 Natural Resources: Rich reserves of minerals, including rare earth elements, attract U.S. interest.
 Counter-Terrorism: Afghanistan's opium production (part of the Golden Crescent) fuels global
narcotics trade and terrorism, requiring U.S. intervention to curtail these threats.
 Pipeline Politics: The U.S. aims to bypass Russian energy dominance through projects like the Baku–
Tbilisi–Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline, reducing European reliance on Russian gas.
2. Russia:
 Soft Underbelly: Afghanistan’s instability could spill into Central Asia, threatening Russia’s Caucasus
region.
 Energy Trade: Afghanistan is critical for Russia to maintain its oil and gas monopoly in South and
Central Asia.
 Drug Trafficking: Russia seeks to counter the narcotics trade originating from Afghanistan.
 5

3. China:
 Western Containment: The U.S. presence in Afghanistan is perceived as a strategy to encircle China.
 Xinjiang Concerns: China fears instability in Afghanistan could fuel separatist movements among
Uighur Muslims in Xinjiang.
 BRI Expansion: Afghanistan's inclusion in China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) serves Beijing's
economic and strategic objectives.
4. Iran:
 Water Conflicts: Disputes over shared water resources strain ties with Afghanistan.
 Shia-Sunni Divide: Iran opposes a Sunni-dominated regime in Afghanistan that could align with Saudi
Arabia.
 U.S. Influence: Iran resists U.S. presence in its neighborhood, intensifying its engagement in
Afghanistan.

Pakistan's Interests in Afghanistan

 Strategic Depth: Pakistan views Afghanistan as a buffer against India and seeks to influence its political
landscape.
 Central Asia Access: A Pakistan-friendly regime in Afghanistan could restrict India’s outreach to Central
Asia.
 Terrorism Nexus: Use of Afghan territory for proxy warfare and radicalization campaigns against India.
India's Interests in Afghanistan
1. Geostrategic:
 Central Asia Connectivity: Afghanistan serves as a gateway to resource-rich Central Asia.
 Counterbalancing Pakistan: India opposes Pakistan's attempts to dominate Afghanistan.
2. Economic:
 Energy Bridge: Projects like the Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India (TAPI) pipeline could
strengthen energy security but are stalled due to instability.
 Chabahar Port: Offers India direct access to Afghanistan, bypassing Pakistan, and links to the Delaram-
Zaranj Highway for Central Asian trade.
3. Security:
 Terrorism: Rise of radical elements in Afghanistan poses a threat to India’s security.
 Drug Trafficking: Afghanistan’s narcotics trade impacts India’s domestic stability.
India’s Policy Towards Afghanistan
1. Pre-2001:
 India backed the Northern Alliance against the Taliban.
 Refused to recognize Taliban 1.0, maintaining ties with the democratically elected government.
2. Post-2001:
 Became Afghanistan’s largest regional development partner, focusing on infrastructure, education, and
healthcare.
 Signed a Strategic Partnership Agreement in 2011, emphasizing an Afghan-led and Afghan-owned peace
process.
 6

3. Post-Taliban Takeover (2021):

 Bilateral Engagement: India maintains limited ties with Taliban 2.0, focusing on humanitarian aid and
protecting Indian interests.
 Multilateral Coordination: Actively participates in global forums to address regional instability and
terrorism emanating from Afghanistan.
 Development Projects: Resumption of initiatives like the Shahtoot Dam Project reflects India’s people-
centric approach.

Reorienting India's Ties with Taliban-Led Afghanistan

India’s approach to the Taliban-led government in Afghanistan requires a nuanced and strategic framework,
considering geopolitical shifts, security concerns, and developmental priorities. Reopening its embassy in Kabul
signals India’s intent to cautiously re-engage, but further steps are needed to address mutual concerns and regional
stability.
Key Aspects of Reorientation
1. Rising International Engagements
 Shift in Global Dynamics: Many countries, including China, Russia, and regional powers, have started
engaging with the Taliban. Isolating the Taliban may marginalize India's influence in Afghanistan.
 India as a Stakeholder: Afghanistan's stability directly impacts South Asia’s security and connectivity.
Engaging with the Taliban allows India to assert its position as a key regional player.
2. Addressing National Security Concerns
 Counterterrorism Dialogue: Taliban’s historical ties with groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-
e-Mohammed (JeM) pose direct threats to Indian security. Engagement offers an avenue to press for
Taliban action against these groups.
 Border Security and Regional Stability: Strengthened ties could help mitigate threats to Indian borders
and contribute to broader regional stability.
3. Mutually Beneficial Cooperation
 Encouragement from the Taliban: Taliban has expressed willingness for engagement by inviting India
to reopen its embassy, resume direct flights, and train Afghan military personnel.
 Strategic Leverage: Such overtures present an opportunity for India to safeguard its investments and
influence in Afghanistan while promoting mutual interests.
4. Economic and Developmental Investments
 Investment in Key Sectors: India should focus on infrastructure, agriculture, and energy to aid
Afghanistan’s economic recovery and generate goodwill.
 Long-term Developmental Projects: Initiatives like building roads, schools, and healthcare facilities
will deepen India’s soft power and economic engagement in Afghanistan.
 Connectivity Projects: Leveraging Afghanistan's strategic location for trade and connectivity with
Central Asia aligns with India’s long-term regional ambitions.

A Comprehensive Strategic Approach

1. Integration of Strategic Dimensions
 Political Dimension: India should pursue dialogue with the Taliban, aiming to ensure Afghanistan’s
government is inclusive and adheres to international norms.
 7

 Economic Dimension: Investing in Afghan infrastructure and human capital will promote stability while
bolstering India’s strategic presence.
 Military Dimension: Continued capacity-building initiatives, such as training Afghan forces, can
strengthen ties while addressing security concerns.
 Diplomatic Dimension: Proactive engagement in regional forums like the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO) and United Nations can complement bilateral ties.
2. Balancing Concerns and Opportunities
 Respect for Sovereignty: India must emphasize mutual respect for sovereignty while advocating for a
peaceful and stable Afghanistan.
 Leverage Historical Ties: India’s historic goodwill with Afghan citizens can be an asset in re-establishing
trust and influence under the Taliban regime.

 1

Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

India-Myanmar
 2

India-Myanmar
INDO-MYANMAR RELATIONS:

Five Bs—Buddhism, Business, Bollywood, Bharatnatyam, and Burma teak—frame perceptions of India-
Myanmar ties.

Why is Myanmar Important for India:

Location:
• Geostrategic location: Myanmar borders China, India and ASEAN and the Bay of Bengal.
• Myanmar shares both lands and maritime boundaries with India.
• Myanmar and north-eastern India share a 1643 km long land border (including the states of Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram).
 3

2. Critical for India's security interests:

Golden Triangle
 Because of border sharing with NE India.
 Golden Triangle and leading to the issue  This is the storied Golden Triangle where
of Drug Trafficking due to Laos, historically opium was grown to produce heroin for
export but where, in recent years, the trade of even
Myanmar and Thailand.
deadlier and more profitable synthetic drugs has
 Linkages of insurgency groups in India taken over.
with that of Myanmar.  Thailand, Laos and Myanmar are at the frontlines
 Issue of illegal migration and illegal of illicit trade in Asia dominated by transnational
organized crime syndicates.
weapon trade.

4. Proximity to China: Chinese Angle and Presence of

China in Kyaukpyu Port, under String of Pearl
Diplomacy. (whereas India is making use of Sittwe Port
under the Necklace of Diamond Strategy)
 Myanmar has been part of every strategy that
QUAD and similar platforms adopt to balance
power in South Asia, South East Asia and IOR with
regard to China.
Note:
Global North and Global South:
 Global North accuses Global South of tariff barriers.
 Global South accuses Global North of Non- tariff barriers.
 Global South is against the evergreening of patents whereas Global North is for evergreening of patents.
 More responsibility for Climate Change is towards the Global North.
 Global South is talking about data localisation whereas Global North needs data dispersion.
 Global North accuses Global South of Data Piracy and there is a lack of data protection legislation.

What is Necklace of Diamonds Strategy?

In a counter-action (to Strings of Pearls), India has
started working on the 'Necklace of Diamonds' strategy.
This strategy aims at garlanding China or in simple
words, the counter encirclement strategy. India is
expanding its naval bases and is also improving
relations with strategically placed countries to counter
China's strategies.
It includes:
 Changi Naval Base, Singapore
 Sabang Port, Indonesia
 Duqm Port, Oman
 Assumption Island, Seychelles
 Chabahar Port, Iran
 4

3. The confluence of two policy doctrines: Neighbourhood First Policy and Act East Policy.
 Gateway to South East Asia and proximity to North East India.
 Myanmar acts as a bridge between South Asia and South East Asia: Therefore, it acts as a doorway to
South East Asia.
 5

India's stand on the Coup: A major policy shift:

 For some critics, India's stand towards Maynmar could be considered an act of legitimization of the coup.
This could be because of the following reasons:
1. Foreign Secretaries visit to Myanmar post Coup.
2. Teems used in the Press Release of MEA, India wherein terms like Chairman, and State Administrative
Council were used to refer Myanmar Military Junta.
3. Continued Military Co-operation: The Indian decision to provide Myanmar with radar technology and
remote-control weapon system through BEL also invited criticism.
 India also attended the ASEAN Defence Minister Meeting during that time on counter-terrorism.
 This was further criticised since the meeting was chaired by the representative of the Military Junta itself.
4. Continued economic linkages: During that visit, India made the decision to set up an Indian Centre at Yangon
for further economic cooperation.

Development Projects:
During that visit, it was also promised that India would provide 1 million, India-made covid-19 vaccines (within
India's Vaccine Maitri Diplomacy) and 10 thousand tons of Rice and Wheat to Myanmar.
 India also expressed its support for ongoing connectivity projects like the Kaldan Multi-Modal Project and
the India-Myanmar Thailand (IMT) Trilateral Highway Project.
 Myanmar/ Malaysia-India Singapore Transit (MIST) Corridor: - MIST is a global submarine cable
communication network that will connect Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, and Myanmar with India.
The length of the MIST cable system is 8,100 kilometres.

India's Response/approach to Myanmar:

 In response to the critics, India expressed that it will follow a twin-track approach in Myanmar.
 Under this approach, India will carry on diplomatic engagements with the military Junta and at the same time
push the country gently for the restoration of democracy.
 6

 The explicit goal of India's approach is to address the specific security concerns we have with Myanmar.
 The implicit goal however is to counterweight China not only in Myanmar but also in South East Asia and IOR.
 The sub-goal within this approach is India's attempt to bring democracy back to Myanmar and includes
objectives of federalism and proportional representation.
 The Military Junta had indicated that they would conduct an election in 2023 but somehow in August 2023
they abandoned this plan and extended the state emergency.
 India continues to state that a political system should be adopted in Myanmar which should be acceptable to
all along with immediate cessation of violence and release of political leaders.

Inverted Approach/Policy Spin/Twin Track Approach:

 The growing influence of China in Myanmar.
 Initially, after the coup, China distanced itself from the military Junta to ward off the backlash from the
Myanmarese Citizens and to avoid international criticism.
 However, later China started collaborating with the military Junta.
 In this regard, China gave a second-hand Ming-class submarine.
 Myanmar Navy is also getting submarine training from China.
 China has been involved in China-Myanmar Economic Corridor (CMEC) under BRI within Myanmar.
 China has also given a C820 anti-ship missile and a home-built aircraft to Myanmar.
 China has already converted Kyaukpyu Port into a Pearl within its String of Pearl Diplomacy.
 Security apprehensions/threats across the border.
 Myanmar is an important actor in our Act East Policy.
 Myanmar stands important in our Neighbourhood First Policy.
 Massive investments in connectivity projects like Kaladan Multi-Modal Projects and IMT Trilateral Project,
both involving Myanmar.

Analysis of India's Policy Spin:

1. A litmus test for India-Bangladesh Relations.
 India's engagement with the military Junta could appear to be a Litmus Test for Indo-Bangladesh relations
especially when Bangladesh and Myanmar are at loggerheads over the Rohingya issue.
 Given that more than 1 million Rohingyas are languishing in Bangladesh, bilateral outreach of any
country to Myanmar without addressing the Rohingya issue brings Bangladesh into a relational calculus.
2. India walks tightrope on Myanmar
 There is a moral contention emphasizing the pro-democracy stand of India on the one hand and on the
other hand, there is a realist contention involving the security concerns and China angle in Myanmar.
3. However, this policy spin appears to be a Pragmatic approach for India.
4. Test case for India-US understanding of the Indo-Pacific.
 The reason is that for India and the US, Myanmar is an important actor in the Indo-Pacific.
 However, in the case of Myanmar, both have diverse approaches.
 While the US has gone for national scations against Mynamar, India is against such sanctions due to
specific security concerns.
 Thus it now depends on the mutual understanding between India and the US on considering Myanmar as
an important actor in the Indo-Pacific, thereby shedding out their specific prejudices regarding Myanmar.
 7

Twin Strategic goal: Implicit and explicit goal.

 Need for a cautious approach
 However, India needs to take a pragmatic yet cautious approach not to interfere directly with the internal
politics of Myanmar yet continue engaging with it and gently push it towards democracy.

Rohingya Issue and India's response towards Rohingya Refugees:

April 2021 - Mohammad Salimullah vs Union of India Case:
 The Rohingyas approached the SC of India on the
principle of non-refoulement.
 Non-refoulment is a principle under international law
that states a person fleeing prosecution from his
country should not be forced to return to his country.
 The principle thus includes the right not to be expelled.
 In this historic court case, Rohingyas claimed that their
deportation by the Indian state violated Articles 14, 21,
and 51 of the constitution.
 In response to this, the SC argued:
1. Article 14 and 21 should be dissociated from Article 19 in this case.
2. The right to reside and settle comes under Article 19 (1) (e) of our constitution which is available only to
citizens.
 The court argued that the principle of non-refoulment or the Right not to be expelled would mean the right to
reside and settle in any part of the country.
 This equates to Article 19 (1) (e) only available to Indian citizens.
 Thus, this principle of non-refoulment is not applicable in this case.
 The court further said, that since India is not part of any international refugee convention, Article 51 is also
not applicable in this case.
(The Non-refoulment principle is under Article 33 Clause 1 of this convention.
 Article 33 Clause 2 of the convention itself gives an exception to countries not to consider people as refugees
on reasonable grounds of national security).
Why India has taken this stand on the Rohingya issue?
 Internal Affairs of Myanmar
 ASEAN Factor.
 Avoiding Conflicts of interest.
 Threat to National Security.
 India Act East Policy.
 India's issues - Poverty, unemployment, demographic
change, etc.
 Difference between Refugees, Asylum Seekers and
Migrants.
 8

What is India's Refugee Policy?

 India lacks a specific policy for refugees, despite the fact that we are surrounded by countries inflicted with
social unrest.
 At present within the legal framework of illegal migrants, India has the Passport (Entry into India) Act of
1920 and the Foreigners Act of 1946 which replaced the Foreigners Act of 1940.
 Foreigners Act of 1946 provided unbridled power to the centre to deport any person (not a citizen) if it felt a
danger to national security.
 Also, the onus of responsibility or the burden of proof lies with the person and not with the authorities.
 There is also a new edition in terms of CAA 2019.
 India is not part of the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol.
 All foreigners including refugees and asylum seekers are entitled to all fundamental rights except 15, 16, 19,
29 and 30.
Why hasn't India framed a law on refugees yet?
 It is difficult to distinguish between refugees and violent non-state actors.
 The assassination of our former PM could be understood as an example.
 Having a clear-cut refugee policy might provide grounds for violent non-state actors to enter and create
disturbances.
 We do not have a proper framework to distinguish refugees and illegal immigrants as such.
 It can also incur huge economic costs on our existing infrastructure.
 It also provides flexibility and open scope for a tailor-made approach/custom-made approach towards
refugees.
 Also, we are not able to predict the repercussions or the outcomes of having a well-formulated refugee policy.
 This means there is an element of pessimism guiding this approach.
 For geostrategic reasons and to avoid possible conflicts with our neighbours we have avoided creating a well-
documented refugee policy.
 For example: Giving refugees to Tibetans emerged as a key challenge between India and China.
Why India has not signed the 1951 Refugee Convention?
 One-sided definition of refugees in the convention
according to which refugee status could be provided
only on the ground of violation of Civil and Political
rights and not economic rights.
 India has argued that the convention is Eurocentric
since it was created to accommodate the displaced
people after 2nd World War.
 India argued that developed countries have a poor
record of assimilating refugees; for example, the no-
entry regime imposed by European countries during the
Syrian Migration crisis.
 India believed that developed countries were violating
the convention norms both in letter and spirit.
 9

 West, especially Europe is following a racist refugee policy.

 India also argues that the convention is old and redundant.
Challenges associated with India's refugee approach:
 There is an ambiguity in our legal framework since we are not able to distinguish between refugees, illegal
migrants, and violent non-state actors.
 Due to the absence of a legal framework, India's refugee policy is primarily guided by an ad-hoc policy on a
case-to-case basis which often leads to the criticism of discriminating treatment towards few communities.
 This also raises issues regarding the Open border policy with a few of our neighbors like Nepal and Bhutan.

QUAD Meeting:
 February 2022, 4th Quad foreign ministers meet
 India did not support the idea of imposing sanctions on Myanmar.
 India argued that it is concerned about the crisis, as an “immediate land-border neighbour”, but has “some
specific” concerns on Myanmar and it was said that “where we are concerned, we don’t follow a policy of
national sanctions”.

India highlighted Three points: Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD)

 Security concerns.  informal strategic dialogue between India, USA,
 Preferential world treatment of military rule. Japan and Australia
 objective to ensure and support a “free, open and
 India supports the ASEAN five-point prosperous” Indo-Pacific region
consensus.  first mooted by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo
Abe in 2007.
 Sanctions can severely affect the target
country's economy. Trade restrictions can lead
to a decrease in exports and imports, which can harm industries and reduce jobs. Economic instability can
result in inflation, currency devaluation, and reduced access to essential goods and services.
 Economic instability often leads to social consequences. Reduced income levels, unemployment, and scarcity
of resources can contribute to social unrest. People may protest due to the economic hardships imposed by
sanctions. This can result in internal disturbances, such as demonstrations, strikes, or even more significant
unrest.
 Preferential world treatment of military rule: The West have a discriminatory outlook with regard to both
of our neighbour i.e. Pakistan and Myanmar.
 In the case of Pakistan, there has been criticism that Western powers, especially the United States, have
sometimes supported or tolerated military regimes in Pakistan when it suited their strategic interests, even
when those regimes came to power through non-democratic means. This perceived preference for stability
over democracy has been a subject of debate and criticism.
 In the case of Myanmar western nations have imposed sanctions and criticized Myanmar's military rulers for
human rights abuses, while simultaneously engaging in diplomatic relations with other countries with military
governments.
 They have actually upgraded the position of Pakistan to be a "Major Non-NATO Ally" (MNNA) by the United
States in 2004.
 India supports the ASEAN five-point consensus.
 10

LATEST DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA-MYANMAR RELATIONS

 June 2023, India and Myanmar may conclude the ongoing talks on rupee trade by the end of June, clearing
hurdles for payment mechanisms in the face of US sanctions and providing a significant boost to bilateral
trade.
 Bilateral trade between India and Myanmar could rise significantly from the current level of $1.76 billion once
the Rupee trade settlement mechanism is established.
 The RBI has already allowed payments to be received in Indian Rupees and the Myanmar
government intends to initiate the currency convertibility for the Indian rupee for trade.
 Under this settlement mechanism, Myanmar will accept payment for all its exports to India in Indian rupees
and the same export earnings can be used to make payments for goods and services imported from India.
 RBI has appointed and authorised PNB of India to open a special Rupee Vostro Account (SRVA) for foreign
trade with Myanmar.
 In May 2023, Cyclone Mocha approached the Myanmar and Bangladesh coasts. India launched "Operation
Karuna" to provide humanitarian assistance for people in Myanmar, which is affected by Cyclone Mocha.
India is committed to ensuring Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) and is the first responder in
providing support to our neighbours during such calamities.

 1

Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

India European Union

 2

India European Union

The European Union (EU)
The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states primarily located in Europe.
It aims to foster cooperation and integration among its members to ensure economic and political stability.
Key features include:
 Established: Maastricht Treaty, effective from November 1, 1993.
 Currency: The Euro (used by 19 of the member states in the Eurozone).
 Single Market: Ensures free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor across member states.

Genesis and Evolution of the EU

Milestone Details
Post-WWII Vision European leaders sought peace, stability, and prosperity to prevent future
conflicts.
1957 - European Economic Established via the Treaty of Rome to promote a common market and
Community (EEC) economic cooperation.
1960 - European Free Trade Formed to promote free trade among countries not in the EEC.
Association (EFTA)
1979 - European Parliament First direct elections to the European Parliament, strengthening its
Elections democratic legitimacy.
1987 - Erasmus Programme Launched to fund students studying in other European countries, fostering
cultural exchange.
1993 - Maastricht Treaty Transformed the EC into the EU, expanding focus to political, social, and
security integration.
1999 - Introduction of the Euro Euro adopted for commercial and financial transactions in 11 countries.
2007 - Treaty of Lisbon Enhanced EU’s democratic, transparent, and efficient functioning to tackle
global challenges.
2013 - Croatia Joins Croatia became the 27th member of the EU.
2020 - UK Exits EU Following a 2016 referendum, the United Kingdom officially left the EU.

Governance Structure of the EU

1. European Council:
 Comprises heads of state or government from member states.
 Sets the EU's overarching political direction.
2. European Commission:
 Executive branch responsible for implementing EU policies and managing the budget.
 Proposes legislation.
 3

3. European Parliament:
 Directly elected legislative body.
 Shares legislative powers with the Council of the EU.
4. Council of the EU:
 Represents member states and is the main decision-making body.
 Coordinates policies and adopts legislation.

Supporting Institutions:
 Court of Justice of the European Union: Ensures uniform interpretation and application of EU law.
 European Central Bank (ECB): Maintains price stability in the Eurozone and oversees monetary policy.
 European Court of Auditors: Audits EU finances and ensures financial accountability.

India-EU Relations
Historical Evolution
 1990s: Relations deepened post-economic liberalization in India and the EU's expansion.
 1994: A Cooperation Agreement laid the groundwork for a strategic partnership.
 2000: First India-EU Summit marked a watershed moment in bilateral ties.
 2005: Joint Action Plan enhanced cooperation in trade, investment, education, and research.
 2017: Renewed dialogues on foreign policy, defense, and security further solidified the relationship.
Key Areas of Cooperation
1. Economic Cooperation
 Trade:
 The EU is India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching €88 billion in 2021.
 India is the EU’s 10th-largest trading partner.
 Investment:
 EU investment stock in India grew to €87.3 billion by 2020.
 Indian companies like Tata Group have a significant presence in the EU.
 Infrastructure Development:
 EU supports India's energy and transport infrastructure modernization.
2. Political and Security Cooperation
 Strategic Partnership:
 Includes dialogues on counterterrorism, non-proliferation, and regional security.
 Development Assistance:
 EU has supported health, education, and agriculture programs in India.
 Cybersecurity and Counterterrorism:
 Joint workshops and conferences focus on tackling terrorism and enhancing cybersecurity frameworks.
3. Research and Innovation
 Cooperation under the Horizon 2020 Program on renewable energy, advanced materials, and health
innovation.
 Joint research projects between Indian and EU institutions.
 4

4. Cultural and Educational Exchanges

 Erasmus+ Program:
 Facilitates Indian students studying in the EU and vice versa.
 Enhanced collaboration in arts, culture, and heritage preservation.
5. Multilateral Cooperation
 Joint efforts on global issues like climate change, sustainable development, and security.
 EU supports India's aspirations for greater integration into global trade systems like the WTO.
Challenges in India-EU Relations
1. Trade Barriers:
 EU's criticism of India's high tariffs on automobiles and pharmaceuticals.
 India’s concerns over the EU's stringent standards for goods.
2. Intellectual Property Rights:
 EU's concerns over India’s compulsory licensing policies for life-saving drugs.
3. Human Rights and Governance:
 EU criticism of policies like the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) 2019 and religious freedoms.
4. Climate Change:
 Divergent perspectives on emissions reduction and climate policies.
5. Foreign Policy Differences:
 Varied approaches to conflicts in Afghanistan, the Middle East, and the Israeli-Palestinian issue.
Way Forward
1. Deepen Trade Ties:
 Finalize the India-EU Free Trade Agreement to boost trade and investment.
 Address concerns over tariffs and market access.
2. Strengthen Political Cooperation:
 Expand collaboration on counterterrorism, cybersecurity, and defense.
3. Enhance Research Collaboration:
 Increase joint projects in green energy, health, and advanced technologies.
4. Boost People-to-People Ties:
 Expand educational and cultural exchange programs.
5. Multilateral Engagement:
 Collaborate in forums like the UN, G20, and WTO to address global challenges.

India-France Relations
India and France have shared a strategic partnership since 1998, built on trust, shared values, and a commitment
to multilateralism. Their collaboration spans various domains such as defense, space, climate change, and people-
to-people exchanges. Celebrating 25 years of their partnership, both nations aim to further deepen ties through a
roadmap extending to 2047.
 5

Key Areas of Cooperation

1. Security and Sovereignty
 Defense:
 Rafale Fighter Jets: Delivery of 36 Rafale jets to India.
 Submarines: Successful completion of the P75 Scorpene program, building six submarines.
 Continued collaboration on advanced defense technologies and platforms.
 Space:
 Strengthened ties between France’s CNES and India’s ISRO.
 Key projects:
 TRISHNA Earth Observation Satellite.
 A maritime surveillance satellite constellation for the Indian Ocean.
 Collaboration on reusable launchers and satellite protection from orbital collisions.
 Civil Nuclear Energy:
 Progress on the 6-EPR power plant project in Jaitapur.
 Cooperation on Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and Advanced Modular Reactors (AMRs).
 Indo-Pacific Strategy:
 A roadmap for joint actions in the Indo-Pacific, including an Indo-French Development Fund for
sustainable development in the region.
 Counter-Terrorism:
 Enhanced cooperation between France’s GIGN and India’s National Security Guard (NSG).
2. Planet and Global Issues
 Climate Change and Sustainability:
 Joint commitment to an international treaty to end plastic pollution.
 Funding for sustainable urban projects, clean energy initiatives, and microfinance in rural India.
 Blue Economy:
 Partnership between France’s IFREMER and India’s NIOT for ocean research.
 Decarbonized Hydrogen:
 Collaboration between McPhy and L&T for manufacturing electrolyzers in India.
 Health:
 Enhanced cooperation in medical research, public health, biotechnology, and combating
antimicrobial resistance.
3. People-to-People Ties
 Education and Student Mobility:
 Target to welcome 30,000 Indian students to France by 2030.
 Visa facilitation and expansion of the Campus France network.
 Culture:
 France selected as India’s partner for the new National Museum in New Delhi.
 Agreements on content exchange and co-production between France Médias Monde and Prasar
Bharati.
 Sports:
 Cooperation on sporting events, focusing on major international games.
 Civil Society Engagement:
 Doubling international volunteer exchanges between India and France by 2025.
 6

Challenges in India-France Relations

1. Geographical Distance:
 Logistical hurdles in communication and execution of joint projects due to geographic separation.
2. Cultural Differences:
 Diverse cultural, linguistic, and societal norms can lead to miscommunication.
3. Trade Imbalances:
 India faces a trade deficit with France, requiring efforts to balance trade relations.
4. Economic Reforms:
 India’s regulatory environment poses challenges for foreign businesses, including French companies.
5. Strategic Misalignments:
 Differences in strategic priorities on global and regional issues, such as the Middle East and climate
policies.
6. Regional Dynamics:
 Balancing respective regional engagements while aligning bilateral interests can be complex.
Way Forward
1. Cultural and Educational Exchanges
 Promote student and academic exchanges through scholarships and collaborative research.
 Organize cultural festivals, exhibitions, and performances to deepen people-to-people ties.
2. Strategic Partnerships
 Expand collaboration in key sectors:
 Defense: Joint development of advanced defense technologies.
 Space: Cooperation on new satellite programs and space exploration.
 Renewable Energy: Scaling up green hydrogen and solar energy projects.
 Digital Technology: Focus on AI, quantum computing, and cybersecurity.
3. Global Challenges
 Joint initiatives to combat climate change, counter-terrorism, and promote multilateralism.
 Strengthen cooperation in forums like the United Nations and G20 to address global challenges.
4. Public Diplomacy
 Increase cultural events such as film festivals, language programs, and art exhibitions.
 Strengthen public support through media collaborations and outreach programs.
5. Trade and Investment
 Facilitate trade missions and business forums to boost economic ties.
 Address trade imbalances by promoting Indian exports and enhancing market access.
6. Institutional Strengthening
 Develop joint committees and task forces for seamless coordination in priority areas.
 Regular high-level dialogues between leaders to address challenges and chart progress.
Conclusion
The India-France relationship, marked by trust and shared values, has evolved into a comprehensive strategic
partnership. By addressing challenges and leveraging synergies in critical areas like defense, space, and sustainable
development, the partnership can serve as a model for global collaboration. With a roadmap extending to 2047,
India and France are well-positioned to deepen their ties and contribute to peace, stability, and prosperity in the
Indo-Pacific and beyond.
 7

India-Germany Relations
Why in News?
German Chancellor Olaf Scholz recently concluded a three-day visit to India, where he held discussions with PM
Narendra Modi focusing on strategic partnerships, visas for skilled workers, and global issues. The two leaders
also co-chaired the 7th India-Germany Intergovernmental Consultations (IGC), underscoring the deepening
bilateral ties.
Overview of India-Germany Relations
 Strategic Partnership: Established in 2000, this partnership has grown to encompass diverse areas, including
AI, cybersecurity, sustainable development, and clean energy.
 Importance of Cooperation:
 Germany is India’s largest trading partner in the EU.
 Both nations collaborate on issues like Indo-Pacific stability, global institutional reforms, and climate
change.
Key Highlights of the German Chancellor’s Visit
1. Bilateral Talks on Global Issues
 Russia-Ukraine Conflict:
 India reiterated its stance on peaceful resolution and offered to contribute to global peace efforts.
 Germany lauded India's role as a stable partner in South Asia and urged support for a political
solution to the crisis.
 West Asia:
 Both leaders advocated for ceasefire and a two-state solution to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian
conflict.
 Indo-Pacific Security:
 Emphasised the importance of a rules-based order and freedom of navigation.
 Agreed to jointly address regional security challenges and deepen maritime cooperation.
2. Key Announcements and Agreements
 Visa Expansion:
 Germany to increase annual skilled worker visas for Indians from 20,000 to 90,000.
 Focus on India Strategy:
 Germany unveiled a holistic ‘Focus on India’ document, showcasing its trust in India’s workforce
and strategic potential.
 Reducing Dependency on China:
 Germany seeks to diversify supply chains and reduce reliance on China in critical areas, positioning
India as a key partner.
 Manufacturing Hub:
 PM Modi promoted India’s vision of “Make in India, Make for the World”, encouraging German
businesses to invest in India's manufacturing sector.
 8

Key Areas of Collaboration

1. Defence and Security
 Agreements:
 Exchange and protection of classified information.
 Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty (MLAT) in criminal matters to address global security challenges.
 Indo-Pacific Cooperation:
 Enhanced maritime security and joint efforts to uphold a free and open Indo-Pacific.
2. Economic and Trade Relations
 Bilateral Trade:
 Reached $26 billion in 2022-23.
 Indian exports to Germany: $10.1 billion.
 German imports to India: $14.9 billion.
 FTA Advocacy:
 Germany strongly supports ongoing EU-India Free Trade Agreement negotiations.
3. Clean Energy and Sustainability
 Green Hydrogen Roadmap:
 Joint initiative to promote renewable energy and achieve climate goals.
 R&D Collaboration:
 A Joint Declaration of Intent on advanced materials research.
 Sustainable Development:
 Focus on circular economy, smart farming, and sustainable infrastructure.
4. Skilled Workforce and Technology
 Skilled Worker Visas:
 A significant increase in annual visa quotas reflects Germany's recognition of India's talent pool.
 Technological Innovation:
 Collaboration in AI, cybersecurity, and digital infrastructure.
5. Reform of Global Institutions
 Both leaders advocated for:
 Reforming multilateral institutions like the UN Security Council.
 Addressing contemporary global challenges more effectively.
Significance of Intergovernmental Consultations (IGC)
 Unique Mechanism:
 India is one of the few countries with which Germany holds such consultations, highlighting the depth of
bilateral ties.
 7th IGC Outcomes:
 Comprehensive review of past achievements.
 Identification of new avenues for cooperation in defense, economy, and sustainability.
 9

Challenges in India-Germany Relations

1. Trade and Investment Barriers:
 Lack of a direct FTA limits trade growth potential.
 Regulatory and bureaucratic hurdles hinder German investments in India.
2. Geopolitical Differences:
 Diverging positions on issues like the Russia-Ukraine conflict and Middle East politics.
3. Dependency on China:
 While both nations agree on reducing dependency, aligning their strategies requires sustained dialogue.
4. Defence Cooperation:
 Differences in procurement and co-development strategies need alignment.
Way Forward
1. Strengthening Economic Ties
 Finalize the EU-India Free Trade Agreement to unlock trade potential.
 Encourage German investment in India’s green economy, manufacturing, and digital sectors.
2. Enhancing Strategic Collaboration
 Deepen defense cooperation with joint R&D and technology sharing.
 Focus on maritime security and Indo-Pacific stability.
3. Leveraging Skilled Workforce
 Utilize Germany's expanded visa framework to enhance Indian representation in its tech and industrial
sectors.
4. Climate and Sustainability Goals
 Scale up joint initiatives in green hydrogen, renewable energy, and smart farming.
5. Multilateral Engagement
 Collaborate on reforms of UN, WTO, and other global institutions to address emerging challenges.
6. People-to-People Ties
 Promote cultural exchanges, educational collaborations, and tourism to deepen societal connections.
Conclusion
The recent visit by German Chancellor Olaf Scholz underscores the strategic importance of India-Germany
relations. By focusing on trade, defense, sustainability, and skilled workforce collaboration, the two nations are
laying the groundwork for a robust partnership. With shared goals and expanding cooperation, India and Germany
are poised to play pivotal roles in shaping the global order.

India-Ukraine Relations
Introduction and Context
India-Ukraine relations have garnered renewed attention following Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s historic visit
to Ukraine. As the first Indian PM to visit the war-torn country since diplomatic ties were established in 1992, the
visit underscores India's commitment to fostering peace and deepening bilateral relations. India has consistently
emphasized dialogue and diplomacy as the means to resolve the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict.
 10

Key Areas of Cooperation

1. Geopolitical Cooperation
 Historical Support:
 The Soviet Union under Ukrainian-born Leonid Brezhnev supported India during the 1971 war
against Pakistan.
 Slogans like “Hindi-Rusi Bhai-Bhai” highlighted the USSR’s close ties with India.
 Current Diplomacy:
 Regular interactions between Indian PM Modi and Ukrainian President Zelensky during the Russia-
Ukraine war reflect ongoing collaboration.
 Multilateral Engagement:
 India and Ukraine actively participate in global platforms like the UN.
2. Defense Cooperation
 Military Technology:
 Ukraine supplies R-27 air-to-air missiles used by India’s Su-30MKI fighters.
 Exports to Ukraine:
 India has started exporting defense equipment to Ukraine during its conflict with Russia.
3. Economic Cooperation
 Bilateral Trade:
 India was Ukraine’s largest export destination in the Asia-Pacific and the fifth-largest globally in
2020.
 Bilateral trade peaked at $3.386 billion in 2021-22, with key exports including:
 From Ukraine: Agricultural products, metallurgical products, plastics, and polymers.
 From India: Pharmaceuticals, machinery, chemicals, and food products.
 Corporate Presence:
 Indian companies like the Indian Pharmaceutical Manufacturers’ Association have offices in
Ukraine.
4. Humanitarian Assistance
 Aid During Conflict:
 India has sent 99.3 tons of humanitarian aid, including medicines, tents, and blankets.
 Indian pharmaceutical companies have donated over $8 million worth of medical aid and financial
assistance.
5. Diaspora Cooperation
 Indian Community:
 A small Indian diaspora, including business professionals and medical students, plays a key role in
bilateral ties.
 Cultural and sports events are organized by the India Club in Ukraine.
6. Cultural Cooperation
 Promoting Indian Culture:
 Over 30 Ukrainian cultural associations actively promote Indian art, yoga, Ayurveda, and
spirituality.
 Cinematic Collaboration:
 The iconic Oscar-winning song Naatu-Naatu was filmed in Ukraine.
 11

7. Institutional Cooperation
 Educational Programs:
 ITEC: Capacity-building programs in Indian centers of excellence.
 ICCR: Scholarships for Ukrainian students to pursue higher education in India.
 Kendriya Hindi Sansthan: Scholarships for Hindi language courses.
Challenges in India-Ukraine Relations
1. Declining Bilateral Trade:
 Trade volumes fell from $3.39 billion in 2021-22 to $0.71 billion in 2023-24, largely due to the ongoing
conflict.
2. Impact on Imports:
 Disruptions in the supply chain for agricultural products (e.g., sunflower oil) have contributed to
inflation in India.
3. India’s Relations with Russia:
 India’s neutral stance and continued ties with Russia have strained its engagement with Ukraine.
4. Past Criticism:
 Ukraine’s opposition to India’s nuclear tests and Kashmir policy have been irritants in bilateral
relations.
Emerging Opportunities
1. Post-War Reconstruction
 India could play a pivotal role in rebuilding Ukraine’s infrastructure and economy.
2. Enhanced Defense Cooperation
 Opportunity to swap obsolete Soviet weapons for Western equipment as India transitions to NATO
systems.
3. Geostrategic Cooperation
 Leveraging Ukraine’s expertise in low-cost waterborne technology to enhance India’s defense in the
Indian Ocean Region.
4. Shifting Production Bases
 Collaboration could lead to relocating Ukrainian manufacturing bases, such as Zorya-Mashproekt (gas
turbines), to India.
5. Employment Opportunities
 Post-war reconstruction could generate significant employment for India’s labor force.
6. Digital Cooperation
 Collaboration in e-governance and digital infrastructure:
 Ukraine’s DIIA app could inspire Indian digital governance.
 India’s electronic voting machines could benefit Ukraine’s electoral process.
Way Forward
1. Diplomatic Balancing Act
 India must maintain a neutral stance, balancing ties with Russia, Ukraine, the US, and China.
2. Peacebuilding Efforts
 Take a leadership role in advocating for a Ukrainian peace formula, ensuring food security and global
stability.
 12

3. Modernized Non-Alignment
 Redefine non-alignment by engaging deeply with Ukraine without jeopardizing historical ties with
Russia.
4. Expand Economic Engagement
 Focus on sectors like defense, pharmaceuticals, and infrastructure to diversify trade and investments.
5. Strengthen Multilateral Engagement
 Use platforms like the UN and G20 to mediate and ensure balanced relations with both Russia and Ukraine.
Conclusion
India’s deepening relations with Ukraine highlight its role as a peaceful yet strategic global player. Balancing ties
with Russia and Ukraine amid the ongoing conflict will be critical for maintaining its geopolitical and economic
interests. India’s participation in Ukraine’s post-war reconstruction and leveraging emerging opportunities will
strengthen its global standing and bilateral ties.

India-UK Relations
Historical Context
Colonial Era (1858-1947)
 India was under direct British rule following the 1857 rebellion.
 The British monarch held the title of Empress/Emperor of India.
Post-Independence (1947-1950)
 After independence, India chose to remain in the Commonwealth of Nations despite becoming a Republic in 1950.
Cold War Era
 Relations were strained as India pursued a non-aligned foreign policy, while the UK was aligned with NATO.
 The UK opposed India’s stance on wars with Pakistan and India’s nuclear tests.
Post-Cold War
 Economic reforms in the 1990s and the end of the Cold War improved relations, with the UK eager to
strengthen economic ties.
Strategic Partnership (2004 Onwards)
 The relationship was elevated to a Strategic Partnership in 2004, focusing on trade, defense, education,
and cultural ties.
Key Areas of Cooperation
1. Geopolitical Cooperation
 UK supports India’s bid for permanent membership of the UN Security Council (UNSC).
 Collaboration in multilateral platforms like the EU, G8, G20, and the Commonwealth.
 Dialogues such as the India-UK Disarmament and Non-Proliferation Dialogue and the India-UK
Joint Working Group on Counterterrorism strengthen political ties.
2. Economic Cooperation
 Trade:
 Bilateral trade reached $20.36 billion in 2022-23.
 India was the UK’s 12th largest trading partner in 2022, accounting for 2% of its total trade.
 Investment:
 India is the second-largest source of FDI in the UK, investing in 120 projects and creating over
5,000 jobs.
 UK investments in India focus on services, engineering, and renewable energy.
 13

3. Defense and Security

 Defense Cooperation:
 Defense and International Security Partnership (DISP), signed in 2015, provides strategic
direction.
 Collaboration on platforms like the Jaguar, Mirage, and Kiran aircraft.
 Maritime Security:
 Deepened collaboration in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
4. Nuclear Cooperation
 Civil Nuclear Cooperation Declaration (2010) promotes collaboration in the nuclear field.
 A Nuclear Collaboration Agreement was signed in 2015.
5. Education
 UKEIRI Mobility Programme (2019): Facilitates student exchanges between Indian and UK universities.
 UK remains a favored destination for Indian students, with 50,000 students currently pursuing higher
education.
6. Healthcare
 Partnership on COVID-19 vaccines (Oxford University, AstraZeneca, and Serum Institute of India)
demonstrated collaborative potential.
 Joint work on pandemic preparedness, antimicrobial resistance, and digital health.
7. Climate and Environment
 Green Growth Equity Fund mobilizes investments in renewable energy, waste management, and
electric mobility.
 Collaboration on the Global Green Grids-One Sun One World One Grid Initiative (OSOWOG)
under the International Solar Alliance (ISA).
8. Cultural Cooperation
 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Cultural Cooperation (2010) strengthens ties.
 The Nehru Centre in London promotes cultural outreach.
9. Diaspora Collaboration
 Over 1.5 million people of Indian origin reside in the UK.
 Indian diaspora significantly contributes to British society, with increased representation in the British
Parliament.
Significance of India-UK Relations
1. Geo-Strategic
 Countering China:
 Deepened ties help counter China’s growing influence in the Indian Ocean Region.
 UK companies can invest in India as part of the “China Plus One” strategy.
2. Geo-Political
 Collaboration on issues like the Indo-Pacific, Afghanistan, G20, and UNSC reforms.
 UK's accession to the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) under the Maritime Security Pillar
strengthens regional security.
 14

3. Economic
 An India-UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) can:
 Boost India’s labor-intensive sectors and service exports.
 Strengthen the UK's beverage and automobile industries.
4. Climate Change
 Collaboration in achieving Paris Agreement goals and implementing the Glasgow Climate Pact.
 Early operationalization of OSOWOG under ISA.
Challenges in India-UK Relations
1. Delayed India-UK FTA
 Multiple deadlines, including the “Diwali Deadline,” have been missed.
2. Divergent Stands on Geopolitical Issues
 The UK’s criticism of the Russia-Ukraine conflict contrasts with India’s neutral stance.
3. Relations with Pakistan and China
 UK’s defense sales to Pakistan and engagement with China’s Belt and Road Initiative strain India-UK
ties.
4. Khalistan Issue
 Allegations of the UK harboring Khalistan separatist movements remain a sensitive issue.
5. Slow Defense Collaboration
 The UK’s reluctance to adapt to India’s preference for Government-to-Government (G2G) defense
agreements.
6. Extradition Rigidities
 High-profile fugitives like Vijay Mallya and Nirav Modi remain unextradited despite an extradition treaty.
7. Illegal Migration
 Over 100,000 illegal Indian immigrants in the UK complicate bilateral relations.
8. Anti-Colonial Sentiments
 Legacy issues like Partition and Kashmir continue to evoke anti-colonial resentment.
Way Forward
1. Finalize the FTA
 Early conclusion of the FTA can boost bilateral trade, investment, and economic ties.
2. Multilateral Cooperation
 Work jointly to revitalize multilateral institutions like the WTO and UNFCCC.
3. Migration and Mobility
 Negotiate agreements to facilitate legal migration and address issues of illegal immigration.
4. Streamline Extradition
 Expedite the extradition of fugitives to uphold legal accountability.
5. Strengthen Defense Engagement
 Promote transparency and sustainability in infrastructure projects in the Indian Ocean Region.
6. Balance Relations
 UK must ensure relations with Pakistan and China do not come at the expense of ties with India.
 15

Conclusion
India-UK relations, rooted in shared history and evolving interests, have matured into a comprehensive partnership.
Addressing challenges like the delayed FTA and differing geopolitical stances while leveraging opportunities in
defense, climate change, and education can deepen ties further. Together, India and the UK can play pivotal roles
in shaping a stable and prosperous global order.

India-UK FTA
Introduction
The India-UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is being negotiated under India’s FTA 2.0 approach, which focuses on
improving outcomes by addressing challenges faced in earlier FTAs with ASEAN and Japan. This approach emphasizes
addressing non-tariff barriers, boosting labour-intensive and service sectors, and ensuring mutual benefits.
The FTA holds strategic importance for both nations as India seeks to diversify its trade partners post-RCEP exit,
and the UK looks to build new trade relations post-Brexit.
Advantages of the India-UK FTA
For India
1. Boost to Labour-Intensive Sectors:
 Reduction in high UK tariffs (e.g., 10% tariff on Indian textiles) can revive sectors like apparel, textiles,
and gems and jewellery.
2. Increase in Service Exports:
 Indian IT/ITES, nursing, education, healthcare (including AYUSH), and audiovisual services are
expected to benefit from improved market access.
3. Reduction in Non-Tariff Barriers:
 Removal of non-tariff barriers such as testing and certification issues, which have hindered agri-exports
like rice (e.g., rejection due to pesticide residue).
4. Trade Diversification:
 Strengthens India’s diversification of trade partners post-RCEP exit, complementing FTAs with UAE,
Australia, and ongoing negotiations with the EU.
5. Strategic Gains:
 Strengthened trade ties with the UK can secure British support for India’s UNSC permanent
membership and address regional issues like the standoff with China.
For the UK
1. China-Plus-One Strategy:
 The FTA aligns with the UK’s strategy of reducing economic dependency on China after the COVID-19
pandemic.
2. Boost to UK Exports:
 Reduction of Indian tariffs on electric vehicles (EVs) and alcoholic beverages (currently 70%-100%
tariffs) benefits UK industries.
3. New Trade Partnerships Post-Brexit:
 The FTA provides a vital avenue for the UK to strengthen economic ties with non-EU partners.
4. Increased Investment in India:
 Alongside the FTA, a Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) is being negotiated to boost UK investments
in India, benefiting both economies.
 16

Challenges in Finalizing the India-UK FTA

1. Rules of Origin (ROO):
 India is pushing for stricter ROO to prevent products (e.g., European alcoholic beverages) from entering
India through the UK.
2. Work Permit Policies:
 India seeks relaxation of the UK’s strict work permit regulations for its service sector professionals
post-Brexit.
3. Carbon Tax:
 The UK plans to impose a carbon border tax on imports like cement, iron, and steel, which could hurt
Indian manufacturing exports.
4. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR):
 The UK demands a stronger IPR regime in sectors like pharmaceuticals, conflicting with India’s focus
on affordable generic drugs.
5. Digital Trade and Data Flow:
 India’s unfinished domestic laws on data protection and digital trade make it cautious about
committing to cross-border data flow agreements.
6. WTO Compliance:
 Interim or incomplete FTAs may violate the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) principles of the WTO,
requiring careful structuring.
7. Global Value Chains (GVC):
 India aims to secure a favorable position in GVCs to strengthen its role as an alternative to China in
global manufacturing.
8. Domestic Political Challenges:
 Growing political negativity in the UK towards India and concerns about human rights could slow
progress.
9. Protection of Domestic Industries:
 India is cautious about opening up its market to UK beverage companies, which may threaten its
domestic alcohol bottling industry.
Strategic Importance of India-UK FTA
1. Economic Diversification:
 India seeks to diversify its trade portfolio and reduce over-reliance on traditional partners.
2. Strengthening Global Influence:
 The FTA could enhance India’s influence in global trade, serving as a template for the India-EU FTA.
3. Post-Brexit Opportunity for the UK:
 Provides the UK with access to one of the largest emerging markets in the world.
4. Strategic Alignment:
 Positions India and the UK to collaborate on Indo-Pacific security, climate goals, and global institutional
reforms.
 17

Way Forward
1. Addressing Contentious Issues:
 Both sides need to find common ground on sensitive issues like ROO, carbon tax, and IPR to finalize the FTA.
2. Fast-Tracking Negotiations:
 Both nations should commit to a timeline to avoid further delays and missed deadlines.
3. Leveraging Strategic Goals:
 Focus on shared priorities like climate action, digital trade, and supply chain diversification to align
interests.
4. Enhanced Stakeholder Engagement:
 Regular dialogue with industry leaders and policymakers can help address sector-specific concerns.
Conclusion
The India-UK FTA, being negotiated under the FTA 2.0 framework, represents a significant step in redefining
bilateral economic ties. While challenges remain, addressing these through a balanced and mutually beneficial
approach can set the stage for a transformative partnership. The successful conclusion of this FTA could serve as a
model for future trade agreements and strengthen India-UK relations in a rapidly changing global landscape.

Central Asia
India has been strengthening its bilateral relations with all five Central Asian countries—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan—through high-level visits, strategic dialogues, and multilateral
engagements. Below are recent highlights of India’s bilateral relations with each of these countries:
1. Kazakhstan
 Economic Cooperation:
 Kazakhstan is India's largest trade and investment partner in Central Asia, with trade exceeding $1.9
billion in 2022-23.
 India imports uranium from Kazakhstan for its nuclear energy program.
 Energy Collaboration:
 Ongoing cooperation in the Satpayev Oil Block project for oil exploration.
 Kazakhstan is a key partner in India's energy security strategy.
 Recent Engagements:
 High-level talks under the India-Kazakhstan Inter-Governmental Commission (IGC) have
focused on enhancing trade, energy, and defense ties.
 Collaboration under the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
2. Kyrgyzstan
 Defense Cooperation:
 India has provided military training and equipment to Kyrgyzstan, including joint military exercises
like Khanjar.
 Development Assistance:
 India has invested in hydropower projects and provided grants for development initiatives.
 Recent Engagements:
 India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Business Councils have focused on expanding economic ties.
 Discussion on utilizing the Chabahar Port for improved connectivity.
 18

3. Tajikistan
 Strategic and Security Relations:
 Tajikistan is a critical partner for India's counterterrorism efforts and stability in Afghanistan.
 India operates the Farkhor Air Base in Tajikistan to enhance regional security.
 Development Cooperation:
 India has provided aid for infrastructure development, including road and hydropower projects.
 Recent Engagements:
 Continued dialogues under the India-Tajikistan Joint Commission to strengthen defense and
economic ties.
 Tajikistan’s support for India's stance on Afghanistan and counter-terrorism.
4. Turkmenistan
 Energy Partnership:
 Turkmenistan is pivotal to the TAPI (Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India) Gas Pipeline
project.
 India has been actively pushing for the completion of this pipeline for energy diversification.
 Connectivity Initiatives:
 Turkmenistan plays a role in the Ashgabat Agreement, improving connectivity between India and
Central Asia.
 Recent Engagements:
 India’s engagement during the India-Central Asia Dialogue emphasized boosting energy and trade
cooperation.
5. Uzbekistan
 Economic Cooperation:
 India is Uzbekistan's key partner in areas like pharmaceuticals, IT, and textiles.
 Trade between the two countries has steadily increased, supported by Indian investments.
 Defense and Security:
 Joint military exercises like Dustlik enhance defense collaboration.
 Recent Engagements:
 Uzbekistan has shown strong interest in utilizing Chabahar Port for trade access.
 The India-Uzbekistan Inter-Governmental Commission (IGC) focused on infrastructure,
education, and trade.
India-Central Asia Dialogue
In addition to bilateral relations, India engages with all five Central Asian countries collectively through the India-
Central Asia Dialogue. Key areas of focus include:
 Trade and Connectivity: Leveraging INSTC and Chabahar Port for regional integration.
 Energy Security: Expanding cooperation in renewable energy and hydrocarbons.
 Security Collaboration: Joint efforts to counter terrorism, drug trafficking, and regional instability.
Conclusion
India has recently enhanced its ties with all five Central Asian countries, focusing on trade, connectivity, defense,
and energy security. While challenges like connectivity and China's dominance remain, India’s proactive
engagement, including through initiatives like the India-Central Asia Dialogue, underscores its commitment to
deepening ties with this geopolitically significant region.
 19

India-Mongolia Relations: A Comprehensive Overview

Introduction and Context
India and Mongolia share a relationship grounded in historical, cultural, and strategic ties. Often referred to as a
“spiritual neighbor”, Mongolia regards India as one of its “third neighbors” alongside the US, Japan, and
Germany. The recent 11th meeting of the India-Mongolia Joint Working Group has further underscored the
growing ties and cooperation between the two countries.
Historical Relations
1. Buddhist Connection:
 The shared heritage of Buddhism has historically linked India and Mongolia.
 India is regarded as the cradle of Buddhism, which is integral to Mongolia's spiritual and cultural identity.
2. Diplomatic Relations:
 India was the first country outside the Soviet bloc to establish diplomatic ties with Mongolia in 1955.
 The Indian Embassy in Ulaanbaatar was opened in 1971.
3. Strategic Partnership:
 Upgraded to a Strategic Partnership in 2015 during Indian PM Narendra Modi’s visit to Mongolia.
 This partnership is a critical component of India’s ‘Act East Policy’.
Key Areas of Cooperation
1. International Cooperation
 Support for India:
 Mongolia supports India’s bid for a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council
(UNSC).
 India’s Support for Mongolia:
 India played a pivotal role in Mongolia's inclusion in key international forums, including the United
Nations and Non-Aligned Movement.
 UN Collaboration:
 Mongolia co-sponsored a 1972 UN resolution with India and Bhutan for the recognition of
Bangladesh.
2. Economic Cooperation
 Oil Refinery Project:
 India built an oil refinery near Sainshand at a cost of $1 billion, which meets 75% of Mongolia’s
refining needs.
 Trade:
 Bilateral trade stood at $35.3 million in 2020, with room for growth in sectors like pharmaceuticals
and IT.
 Potential for Hi-Tech Development:
 Mongolia can act as a green zone for economic development incorporating high-tech features.
3. Cultural Cooperation
 Cultural Exchange Programme (CEP):
 Governed by the India-Mongolian Agreement on Cultural Cooperation (1961).
 Includes scholarships, exchange of experts, and cultural collaborations.
 Buddhism and Soft Power:
 Prominent celebrations such as International Yoga Day and events honoring Mahatma Gandhi
strengthen cultural ties.
 20

4. Defense Cooperation
 Joint Military Exercises:
 Nomadic Elephant: Bilateral exercise focused on counter-terrorism and peacekeeping.
 Khaan Quest: Annual multinational exercise hosted by Mongolia with India’s participation.
 Strategic Significance:
 Defense cooperation is a key element of the strategic partnership, ensuring stability in the region.
5. Environmental Cooperation
 Bishkek Declaration:
 Both countries are signatories to the declaration focused on snow leopard conservation.
Key Facts about Mongolia
 Geography:
 Landlocked between Russia and China.
 The world’s second-largest landlocked country and most sparsely populated.
 Known for the Gobi Desert and Altai Mountains.
 Historical Significance:
 Once the center of the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous empire in history.
 Nomadic Lifestyle:
 Traditional herding remains a cornerstone of Mongolian culture.
Significance of India-Mongolia Relations
1. Strategic Position:
 Mongolia’s location at the crossroads of Central Asia, Northeast Asia, and Far East makes it
geopolitically significant.
2. Third Neighbor Policy:
 Mongolia sees India as a counterbalance to its dependence on Russia and China.
3. Energy Security:
 The oil refinery project strengthens Mongolia’s energy independence.
4. Cultural Diplomacy:
 Shared Buddhist heritage reinforces people-to-people ties and soft power diplomacy.
Challenges in India-Mongolia Relations
1. Geopolitical Constraints:
 Mongolia is heavily influenced by its powerful neighbors, Russia and China, limiting its strategic
options.
2. Connectivity Issues:
 As a landlocked country, Mongolia faces significant challenges in establishing direct trade routes with India.
3. Low Trade Volume:
 Bilateral trade remains modest, with limited diversification of traded goods.
4. Economic Dependence:
 Mongolia’s dependence on mining and lack of industrial diversification hinder deeper economic collaboration.
 21

Way Forward
1. Enhanced Economic Cooperation:
 Explore opportunities in pharmaceuticals, IT, renewable energy, and high-tech sectors.
 Promote Indian investments in Mongolia’s modernization projects.
2. Improved Connectivity:
 Develop new transit routes through multilateral agreements such as the International North-South
Transport Corridor (INSTC).
3. Strengthening Defense Ties:
 Expand the scope of joint exercises like Nomadic Elephant to include disaster management and
cybersecurity.
4. Cultural and Educational Collaboration:
 Promote Buddhist tourism and enhance educational exchanges through scholarships and partnerships.
5. Sustainable Development:
 Partner on renewable energy projects and environmental conservation initiatives.
6. Leveraging Strategic Position:
 Utilize Mongolia’s strategic location to enhance India’s influence in East Asia and counterbalance
China’s dominance.
Conclusion
India-Mongolia relations are built on a foundation of shared history and cultural ties, with significant potential for
deepening economic, strategic, and cultural cooperation. By addressing challenges and leveraging opportunities,
India can strengthen its partnership with Mongolia, contributing to regional stability and mutual growth. This
relationship exemplifies India’s commitment to engaging with like-minded partners under its Act East Policy.

 1

Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

India Africa
 2

India Africa
India-Israel Relations
 India and Israel have developed a robust partnership since the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1992.
 This partnership, rooted in shared strategic and economic interests, spans defense, agriculture, science and
technology, and cultural exchanges.
 Despite initial hesitation in engaging with Israel, India's pragmatic approach to foreign policy in recent decades
has resulted in a flourishing relationship.
Historical Background
1. Early Years:
 In 1947, India voted against the UN Partition Plan for Palestine, opposing the creation of Israel on
religious grounds.
 India recognized Israel on September 17, 1950, but refrained from establishing full diplomatic ties.
2. Post-1950 Period:
 India’s foreign policy was influenced by its commitments to the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and
strong ties with the Arab world.
 The Kashmir issue and reliance on Arab support shaped India’s pro-Palestinian stance.
3. Breakthrough in 1992:
 Full diplomatic relations were established under the leadership of Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao.
 The end of the Cold War and evolving geopolitics allowed India to balance ties with the Arab world and
Israel.
Key Milestones in India-Israel Relations
1950 India recognized Israel’s sovereignty.
1992 Full diplomatic relations established.
2017 Indian PM Narendra Modi visited Israel, marking a paradigm shift.
2021 India joined the I2U2 Group, a strategic partnership with Israel.
Key Areas of Cooperation
1. Defense and Security
 Defense Imports:
 Israel is among the top arms suppliers to India, providing technologies like:
 Phalcon AWACS, Heron drones, Barak missile systems.
 Israeli defense firms such as IAI and Rafael collaborate with Indian entities under the Make in India
initiative.
 Counterterrorism:
 Both countries share intelligence and expertise in tackling radicalization and cyberterrorism.
 Joint Exercises:
 Growing military collaboration enhances interoperability.
 3

2. Agriculture and Water Management

 Centers of Excellence (CoE):
 Israel’s expertise in precision farming and water-efficient technologies has been implemented
through CoEs in India.
 Work Programs:
 Joint agricultural action plans, including the Fifth Three-Year Work Program, focus on enhancing
productivity.
 Water Management:
 A 2016 MoU on water resource management addresses India's water scarcity challenges.
3. Economic and Trade Relations
 Trade Growth:
 Bilateral trade increased from $200 million in 1992 to $10.1 billion in 2022-23.
 India exports textiles, machinery, and agricultural products; Israel exports precious stones,
chemicals, and defense equipment.
 I2U2 Partnership:
 India, Israel, UAE, and the US collaborate to promote regional stability, scientific innovation, and
economic development.
4. Science and Technology
 I4F Fund:
 The India-Israel Industrial R&D and Technological Innovation Fund supports joint research
projects.
 Key Collaborations:
 Joint ventures in cybersecurity, AI, and space technology reflect shared priorities.
5. Energy
 Natural Gas Exploration:
 Indian companies, such as ONGC, participate in exploration projects in Israeli gas fields like Tamar
and Leviathan.
 Renewable Energy:
 Collaboration on solar and green energy supports India's energy transition goals.
6. Cultural and Academic Exchange
 Indian Diaspora:
 Around 85,000 Indian-origin Jews reside in Israel, contributing to the shared heritage.
 Academic Ties:
 Joint research and university partnerships promote knowledge exchange.

India's Stand on the Israel-Palestine Conflict

1. Historical Support for Palestine:
 India recognized the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1974 and advocated for a two-state
solution.
 4

2. Dehyphenation Policy:
 India now pursues independent relationships with Israel and Palestine, maintaining ties with both.
 2018: India voted against the US decision to recognize Jerusalem as Israel’s capital.
 2021: India abstained from a UNHRC resolution against Israel, signaling neutrality.
Challenges in India-Israel Relations
1. Iran Factor:
 Israel views Iran as an existential threat, while India values its ties with Iran for energy and connectivity
projects (e.g., Chabahar Port).
2. Arab World Relations:
 India’s deep economic ties with Arab countries require careful diplomacy to balance its engagement with
Israel.
3. China-Israel Cooperation:
 Israel’s growing ties with China, especially in technology, raise concerns for India.
Way Forward
1. Strengthening Strategic Ties:
 Deepen defense and counterterrorism cooperation while leveraging Israeli expertise in cybersecurity.
2. Expanding Economic Collaboration:
 Expedite the signing of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and diversify the trade basket.
3. Boosting People-to-People Ties:
 Increase tourism, academic exchanges, and cultural diplomacy to enhance mutual understanding.
4. Energy Partnership:
 Collaborate on renewable energy projects, including green hydrogen and solar technologies.
5. Maintaining Diplomatic Balance:
 Continue the dehyphenation policy, balancing relationships with Israel, Palestine, and the Arab world.

India-Africa Relations
Introduction
 Africa, often referred to as the "land of the future," holds immense strategic importance for India.
 Its vast reserves of critical minerals, burgeoning economic potential, and geopolitical weight make it a key
partner in India's global aspirations.
 With $75 billion in investments and a three-million-strong diaspora, India's relationship with Africa is built
on historic, political, and economic ties.
Significance of Africa for India
1. Economic Potential
 Rapid Economic Growth:
 Africa’s GDP growth is projected at 4% in 2023 and 4.3% in 2024.
 India-Africa bilateral trade reached $98 billion in 2022-23, with mining and mineral sectors
contributing $43 billion.
 5

 Large Market:
 Africa’s population is expected to reach 2.5 billion by 2050, offering a vast consumer base for Indian
goods and services.
 AfCFTA Opportunity:
 The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), operational since 2021, creates a 1.3 billion-
person market, providing opportunities for Indian exports and investments.
2. Geopolitical Ally
 Global Representation:
 Africa's 54 nations represent a significant bloc in international forums.
 India advocates for African representation in the UN Security Council and other global bodies.
 Balancing Regional Powers:
 Strengthening ties with Africa helps India counter China’s growing influence and navigate shifting
global power dynamics.
3. Energy Security
 Oil and Gas:
 Africa supplies 15% of India’s oil demand, with key suppliers like Nigeria and Angola.
 Critical Minerals:
 Africa holds 30% of the world’s critical mineral reserves, essential for India’s energy transition and
technological growth.
 Renewable Energy Collaboration:
 India’s International Solar Alliance has committed $2 billion for African solar projects, aligning
with electrification goals.
4. Maritime Security
 Indian Ocean Region:
 Africa's eastern coast is vital for India's maritime security.
 Anti-Piracy Operations:
 Indian Navy operations off Somalia since 2008 have ensured safe trade routes.
 Naval Collaboration:
 Exercises like IMT TRILAT (India-Mozambique-Tanzania) highlight maritime security
cooperation.
5. Diaspora Dynamics
 Indian Diaspora:
 Over 3 million Indians in Africa serve as a bridge, contributing to local economies and fostering
bilateral ties.
 Cultural Linkages:
 Initiatives like Pravasi Bharatiya Divas strengthen economic and cultural connections.

Africa’s Role in India’s Critical Mineral Needs

1. Lithium
 Countries like Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Ghana hold significant lithium reserves.
 With India aiming for 30% EV penetration by 2030, securing African lithium could power millions of
EVs.
 6

2. Rare Earth Elements (REEs)

 Africa’s REE reserves in South Africa, Malawi, and Kenya are crucial for high-tech industries, including
defense and electronics.
3. Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)
 South Africa holds over 90% of global platinum reserves, vital for catalytic converters and hydrogen fuel
cells.
4. Copper
 Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) are major producers, essential for India’s
renewable energy and EV sectors.
5. Graphite
 Madagascar and Mozambique are key producers of flake graphite, critical for EV batteries and energy
storage systems.
Challenges in India-Africa Relations
1. Investment Gaps
 Indian investments lag behind those of China and Western countries.
 Example: ArcelorMittal’s exit from a $2.2 billion iron ore project in Senegal in 2020 highlights
challenges.
2. Perception of Indian Products
 Concerns about quality in sectors like pharmaceuticals and machinery affect India’s reputation.
 Incidents like tainted medicine in Gambia (2022) have further tarnished trust.
3. Diplomatic Imbalance
 India’s engagement focuses on East and Southern Africa, neglecting regions like West Africa.
4. Project Delays
 Indian development projects, such as the Rivatex textile factory revival in Kenya, often face delays,
impacting trust.
5. Resource Rivalry
 Competition with China for African resources inflates costs and complicates diplomatic efforts.
Measures to Enhance India-Africa Relations
1. Trade Agreements
 Negotiate partnerships with African regional blocs like AfCFTA to reduce tariffs and expand trade.
 Focus on mutual benefits, such as offering access to African agricultural products in exchange for Indian
pharmaceuticals and IT services.
2. Capacity Building
 Expand initiatives like Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) to train African youth in IT,
AI, and data science.
 Establish branches of IITs and IIMs in key African countries.
3. Strategic Resource Partnerships
 Develop joint ventures with African companies for critical mineral extraction.
 Establish an India-Africa Mineral Development Fund to finance these ventures.
 7

4. Infrastructure Development
 Create a dedicated India-Africa Infrastructure Commission to oversee and expedite projects.
 Prioritize solar power installations, water treatment plants, and digital connectivity projects.
5. Agriculture Modernization
 Launch an India-Africa Agriculture Innovation Corridor to transfer technologies and establish model
farms.
 Develop digital platforms like e-NAM to connect African farmers with markets.
Conclusion
 Africa’s strategic significance for India extends across economic, geopolitical, and energy dimensions.
 By addressing challenges and focusing on capacity building, infrastructure, and resource partnerships, India
can secure its critical mineral needs while supporting Africa’s development.
 This mutually beneficial relationship has the potential to shape a more equitable and sustainable global order.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi's State Visit to Abuja, Nigeria (November 16-17, 2024)
1. Strengthening Bilateral Relations
 Strategic Partnership: The visit emphasized the evolving India-Nigeria strategic partnership
encompassing diverse areas such as defense, trade, technology, healthcare, and capacity building.
 Historical Ties: Leaders highlighted shared historical experiences and long-standing cordial relations
between the two nations.
2. Economic and Trade Engagement
 Bilateral Trade: India remains one of Nigeria’s largest trading partners, with trade volumes reaching
USD 98 billion in 2022-23.
 Investment Boost: Over 200 Indian companies are actively contributing to Nigeria’s economy, creating
significant employment.
 Pending Agreements:
 Early finalization of Economic Cooperation Agreement (ECA), Double Taxation Avoidance
Agreement (DTAA), and Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) to encourage investments.
 Indian Lines of Credit (LoCs):
 Recognized for their role in Nigeria's infrastructural development, with an agreement to expand their
scope.
3. Defense and Security Cooperation
 Military Collaboration:
 Strengthened defense ties through specialized training programs, counter-terrorism collaboration,
and ongoing procurement.
 Regular naval exercises, including anti-piracy operations in the Gulf of Guinea, are set to continue.
 Cybersecurity:
 MoU signed between CERT-In and Ng-CERT for cooperation in cybersecurity.
 Condemnation of Terrorism:
 Joint call for zero tolerance towards terrorism and the adoption of the Comprehensive Convention
on International Terrorism.
 8

4. Capacity Building and Technical Cooperation

 ITEC and ICCR Programs:
 India reaffirmed its support for Nigerian officials and nationals through technical and academic
programs.
 Specialized Training:
 India agreed to expand training opportunities in health, law enforcement, and space sectors, aligned
with Nigeria's priorities.
5. Key Focus Areas
Agriculture and Food Security
 Enhanced collaboration in:
 Agricultural machinery, high-yield seeds, and technical expertise.
 Promotion of millet production following India’s 2023 International Year of Millets resolution.
Healthcare
 Expansion of Indian hospital networks in Nigeria.
 Offer to share CoWIN digital infrastructure and supply quality generic pharmaceuticals through
PMBJP.
Energy
 Strengthening cooperation in:
 Crude oil and LNG contracts, and pipeline/transmission line security.
 Renewable energy under the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and the development of solar
parks.
Education
 Increased scholarships for Nigerian students under schemes like eVBAB.
 Encouragement of academic exchanges and long-term capacity building.
6. Cultural and People-to-People Exchange
 Recognition of strong people-to-people ties, supported by a three-million-strong diaspora.
 Agreement to enhance cultural exchanges, including through festivals, literary events, and film collaborations.
7. Regional and Global Cooperation
 United Nations:
 Nigeria supported India’s bid for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council.
 Commitment to reforms reflecting contemporary global realities.
 African Union:
 Appreciation of India’s role in securing AU’s permanent membership in the G20.
 Regional Peace and Security:
 India congratulated President Tinubu on his reelection as ECOWAS Chairman and pledged support
for peace in the region.
8. Environmental and Climate Action
 Cooperation in mitigating climate change effects under the Paris Agreement and COP commitments.
 Participation in alliances like Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA) and International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA).
 9

9. MoUs Signed
1. Cultural Exchange Programme
2. Cooperation in Customs Matters
3. Survey Cooperation
10. Future Agreements
To be finalized and signed in subsequent engagements:
1. Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty
2. Extradition Treaty
3. Transfer of Sentenced Persons
4. Audio-Visual Co-Production Agreement
5. Cooperation in Digital Public Infrastructure
6. Hydrography Cooperation

Narendra Modi's Official Talks with Nigerian President Bola Ahmed Tinubu (November 17, 2024)
Highlights of the Meeting
1. Ceremonial Welcome
 Prime Minister Modi was accorded a ceremonial welcome, including a 21-gun salute, at the State House
in Abuja.
2. Bilateral Discussions
 Restricted Meeting:
 Prime Minister Modi and President Tinubu had a one-on-one meeting to discuss the special bonds
of friendship between India and Nigeria, defined by:
 Shared history
 Democratic values
 People-to-people ties
 Prime Minister expressed sympathies for the recent flood destruction in Nigeria and highlighted
India’s assistance with relief material and medicines.
 Delegation-Level Talks:
 Both leaders reviewed ongoing bilateral cooperation and identified key areas for further
collaboration, including:
1. Trade and Investment
2. Education
3. Energy and Health
4. Culture and People-to-People Ties
3. Key Agreements and Offers
 India's Contributions:
 Offered expertise in:
 Agriculture: Sharing knowledge on mechanization and high-yield practices.
 Transportation: Enhancing Nigeria’s infrastructure.
 10

 Affordable Medicines: Leveraging India's pharmaceutical capabilities.

 Renewable Energy: Collaborating under the International Solar Alliance (ISA).
 Digital Transformation: Extending India's tech innovations, including digital public
infrastructure.
 Defence and Security:
 Commitment to:
 Strengthening defense and security cooperation.
 Jointly fighting terrorism, piracy, and radicalization.
4. Global and Regional Collaboration
 Global South and ECOWAS:
 President Tinubu praised India’s initiatives through the Voice of the Global South Summits.
 Both leaders reaffirmed their commitment to addressing the development aspirations of Global
South countries.
 Prime Minister acknowledged Nigeria’s leadership in ECOWAS and its contributions to regional
stability.
 Pro-Planet Initiatives:
 Highlighted Nigeria’s membership in:
 International Solar Alliance (ISA)
 International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)
 Invited Nigeria to join other green initiatives launched by India.
5. Signing of MoUs
Three Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) were signed:
1. Cultural Exchange Programme: To promote cultural ties between the two countries.
2. Customs Cooperation: For streamlining trade and easing customs operations.
3. Survey Cooperation: To enhance scientific collaboration in mapping and research.
6. State Banquet
 The official discussions were followed by a state banquet, hosted by President Tinubu in honor of Prime
Minister Modi, symbolizing the deep respect and friendship between the two nations.

Outcomes and Takeaways

 Strengthened Strategic Partnership: Reinforced bilateral cooperation across diverse sectors, emphasizing
mutual growth and prosperity.
 Commitment to Global South: Both leaders resolved to work together for the development aspirations of
developing nations.
 MoUs: Facilitated enhanced collaboration in culture, trade, and scientific research.
 Focus on Green Goals: Highlighted shared commitments to sustainable development and climate change
mitigation.
This meeting signifies a new chapter in India-Nigeria relations, fostering deeper ties and aligning with shared
global and regional priorities.
 11

Zambia-India Joint Permanent Commission

 The meeting highlighted the growing momentum in bilateral relations and reaffirmed both countries'
commitment to strengthen ties for mutual benefit.
1. Diplomatic and Multilateral Engagement
 Acknowledgment of 60 years of diplomatic relations between Zambia and India.
 Emphasis on regular high-level exchanges and increased collaboration in multilateral fora such as the
United Nations.
2. Sectoral Cooperation
The following areas of collaboration were reviewed and expanded upon:
1. Agriculture:
 India proposed gifting 100 solar-powered irrigation pumps to Zambia to bolster agricultural
productivity.
 Discussion on enhancing cooperation in small-scale irrigation through private sector initiatives.
 Zambia requested additional ITEC slots for agricultural training.
2. Energy and Housing:
 Expedited implementation of the 400 MW solar power plant by NTPC under the International
Solar Alliance (ISA).
 Technical cooperation in affordable mass housing using innovative, low-cost, and environmentally
sustainable construction technologies.
3. Mines and Minerals:
 Emphasis on training and investment in the critical minerals sector.
 Call for structured cooperation through an early constitution of the Joint Defence Cooperation
Committee (JDCC).
4. Healthcare:
 Discussions on recognizing Indian pharmacopoeia for affordable medicine access.
 Proposals for setting up pharmaceutical and vaccine manufacturing facilities in Zambia.
 Plans to establish a Centre of Excellence for Health Services to facilitate skills transfer.
5. Disaster Relief:
 India pledged 2,500 MT of maize as drought relief for Zambia.
 Additional grant proposals included:
 Five fire tenders.
 500 sewing machines and 100 embroidery machines.
 Medical equipment worth $1 million.
6. Trade and Business:
 Identified potential to diversify trade baskets and strengthen trade events.
 Discussed the import of petroleum products from India to enhance Zambia’s energy security.
7. Education and Capacity Building:
 Zambia expressed gratitude for India’s e-VBAB programme, which has benefitted over 2,000
students through the learning centre at Mulungushi University, Kabwe.
 India pledged to expand training and capacity building to newer areas.
 12

3. Invitations and Alliances

 India invited Zambia to join:
 International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA).
 Coalition of Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).
 Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA).
 Welcomed Zambia’s ratification of the ISA Framework Agreement.
4. Regional and Multilateral Cooperation
 Both sides agreed to strengthen their collaboration in regional and multilateral forums, including the UN,
and exchanged views on key global issues.
The 6th JPC session was marked by productive deliberations, with both sides expressing satisfaction at the progress
made. The leaders underscored their commitment to implementing the outcomes of the session and enhancing the
bilateral relationship across various sectors.

India–Nigeria Strategic and Counter-Terrorism Dialogue

 The Second Strategic and Counter-Terrorism Dialogue between India and Nigeria was held from
November 4-5, 2024.
Key Discussions
1. Counter-Terrorism Cooperation
 Scope of Dialogue:
 Addressed threats from terrorism, extremism, radicalization (including through cyberspace), and
international crime, such as arms and drug smuggling.
 Firm Stance Against Terrorism:
 Reiterated a zero-tolerance policy toward terrorism, emphasizing that no form or manifestation of
terrorism is justifiable.
 Capacity Building:
 Agreed to enhance bilateral capacity building in counter-terrorism through specialized training
programs and technology sharing.
 International Cooperation:
 Committed to strengthening coordination in global counter-terrorism efforts through multilateral
platforms like the UN.
2. Cybersecurity and Radicalization
 Highlighted the growing threat of radicalization through cyberspace.
 Agreed to exchange knowledge and best practices in cybersecurity frameworks, digital monitoring, and
cyber threat mitigation.
3. Site Visit
 Mr. Nuhu Ribadu visited the National Security Guard (NSG) facility in Manesar, gaining insights into
India’s counter-terrorism operational capabilities and specialized training programs.
Outcomes
 Enhanced Bilateral Cooperation:
 Specific areas for collaboration were identified, focusing on counter-terrorism, intelligence sharing, and
combating international crimes.
 13

 Commitment to Capacity Building:

 India extended its support to Nigeria for specialized training and knowledge sharing to bolster Nigeria’s
security infrastructure.
 Strengthening International Ties:
 Both nations emphasized the importance of aligning their counter-terrorism efforts with global
frameworks.
Key Highlights of the Visit
1. Historic Significance
 This was the first-ever bilateral visit by an Indian Prime Minister to Brunei, symbolizing India’s
commitment to enhancing ties under the ‘Act East Policy’, now in its 10th year.
 Both leaders agreed to elevate their relationship to an Enhanced Partnership.
2. Bilateral Discussions
 Comprehensive Agenda: The leaders held discussions on:
 Defence and Security: Enhanced cooperation in strategic and defence sectors.
 Trade and Investment: Expanding economic ties and exploring fintech and ICT opportunities.
 Food Security: Strengthening agricultural and supply chain collaborations.
 Education and Capacity Building: Promoting partnerships in higher education and technical
training.
 Energy: Collaboration in renewable energy and sustainable energy solutions.
 Space Technology: Finalized a key MoU on satellite telemetry, tracking, and launch vehicle
operations.
 Health and Culture: Enhanced cooperation in healthcare and cultural exchanges.
 Emerging Technologies:
 Areas like cybersecurity, ICT, fintech, and renewable energy were identified as future avenues
of cooperation.
3. Regional and Global Cooperation
 ASEAN-India Partnership:
 Both leaders reiterated their commitment to strengthening the ASEAN–India Comprehensive
Strategic Partnership.
 His Majesty expressed appreciation for India’s support for Brunei’s ASEAN Centre for Climate
Change.
 Global Issues:
 Joint condemnation of terrorism in all forms and manifestations.
 Emphasis on the need for international collaboration to combat terrorism.
4. Key Outcomes
 MoU Signing:
 An MoU was signed on Cooperation in Telemetry, Tracking, and Telecommand Station
Operations for Satellite and Launch Vehicles.
 This agreement boosts India-Brunei collaboration in space technology and innovation.
 14

 Direct Flight Connection:

 Announcement of direct flights between Bandar Seri Begawan and Chennai, enhancing people-
to-people connectivity and tourism.
 Adoption of Joint Statement:
 A Joint Statement was adopted, reflecting shared priorities and outlining future collaboration.
Significance of the Visit
 Strengthening Act East Policy:
 This visit reaffirmed India’s vision for greater regional engagement under the Act East Policy and Indo-
Pacific cooperation.
 Indo-Pacific Vision:
 Enhanced bilateral cooperation aligns with India’s broader Indo-Pacific strategy, emphasizing regional
peace, stability, and shared prosperity.
 India-Brunei Relations:
 Marking a new chapter in the India-Brunei partnership, this visit sets the stage for deeper collaboration
in strategic, economic, and cultural areas.

India-Mauritius Relations
Introduction
India and Mauritius share a unique and robust relationship rooted in history, culture, and mutual economic and
strategic interests. Often described as a "special relationship," Mauritius serves as a vital gateway for India's
outreach in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). The two nations have consistently worked towards enhancing their
partnership in areas like trade, defense, culture, and regional security.
Historical and Cultural Ties
1. Shared Heritage:
 The majority of Mauritius’ population has Indian ancestry, primarily from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, who
arrived as indentured laborers during the colonial era.
 Festivals like Diwali and Eid are widely celebrated, reflecting deep cultural connections.
2. Indian Diaspora:
 The Indian-origin population in Mauritius constitutes about 68% of the total population, playing a
significant role in politics, business, and society.
Key Areas of Cooperation
1. Political and Strategic Relations
 Historic Ties:
 Mauritius was one of the first countries to join the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), with
India playing a pivotal role in its establishment.
 Defense and Security:
 India has signed several defense agreements with Mauritius, focusing on maritime security and anti-
piracy operations.
 15

 Key initiatives include:

 Providing Indian-built naval vessels like the CGS Barracuda, a multi-purpose offshore
patrol vessel.
 Establishing a Coastal Radar Surveillance System to enhance maritime domain awareness.
 Joint military exercises like Exercise VARUNA.
 Strategic Presence:
 Mauritius provides India with strategic access in the IOR, crucial for countering Chinese influence
and securing sea lines of communication.
2. Economic and Trade Relations
 Bilateral Trade:
 Trade between India and Mauritius stood at approximately $1.16 billion in 2022-23.
 India exports petroleum products, pharmaceuticals, machinery, and textiles to Mauritius.
 Special Economic Partnership:
 The Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA), signed in
2021, is India’s first such agreement with an African country.
 CECPA facilitates duty-free access for Indian goods like textiles, spices, and pharmaceuticals while
boosting Mauritius’ exports to India.
 Investment:
 Mauritius is one of the largest sources of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into India, often
attributed to favorable tax treaties.
 India has invested in infrastructure, IT, and financial services in Mauritius.
3. Developmental Assistance
 Grants and Loans:
 India has provided significant financial aid to Mauritius, including a $353 million package for
infrastructure development.
 Key Projects:
 Construction of the Supreme Court Building (inaugurated in 2020).
 Development of the Metro Express Project, an urban transportation system.
 Renovation of hospitals, educational institutions, and social infrastructure.
 Skill Development:
 Training programs under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) initiative
focus on capacity building and knowledge transfer.
4. Cultural and Educational Cooperation
 Cultural Exchanges:
 Organizations like the Indira Gandhi Centre for Indian Culture (IGCIC) promote Indian arts,
dance, and yoga.
 Regular film festivals and cultural events highlight shared heritage.
 Education:
 Scholarships are offered to Mauritian students under the Study in India Program.
 Collaboration in higher education, with Indian institutions supporting capacity building in Mauritius.
 16

5. Maritime Cooperation
 Blue Economy:
 Both nations collaborate on sustainable use of ocean resources, including fisheries, marine
biodiversity, and renewable energy.
 Anti-Piracy Operations:
 Indian Navy’s operations in the region secure trade routes and ensure maritime safety.
 IOR Engagement:
 Mauritius plays a crucial role in India's Indian Ocean strategy, particularly in countering Chinese
influence in the region.
Challenges in India-Mauritius Relations
1. Chinese Influence:
 China’s growing presence in Mauritius, through investments in infrastructure and economic aid, poses a
challenge to India’s influence.
2. FDI Concerns:
 Mauritius’ role as a conduit for FDI into India has faced scrutiny due to allegations of tax evasion and
money laundering.
3. Dependency:
 Mauritius’ heavy reliance on India for economic and security assistance may limit its diversification of
partnerships.
Recent Developments
1. Inauguration of Major Projects:
 PM Narendra Modi and his Mauritian counterpart jointly inaugurated key projects like the Metro
Express and the New Supreme Court Building.
2. Strategic Cooperation:
 Strengthening ties in the blue economy and maritime security through agreements and shared initiatives.
3. Digital Collaboration:
 Mauritius is leveraging India’s IT expertise for e-governance and digital infrastructure projects.
Way Forward
1. Deepening Economic Ties:
 Expand trade under CECPA and encourage Indian private sector investments in Mauritius.
2. Strengthening Maritime Collaboration:
 Enhance joint efforts in maritime security, including capacity building for the Mauritian Coast Guard.
3. Cultural Diplomacy:
 Promote people-to-people ties through cultural festivals, academic exchanges, and diaspora engagement.
4. Sustainable Development:
 Collaborate on renewable energy projects, particularly in solar and wind power, to support Mauritius’
transition to a green economy.
5. Countering Chinese Influence:
 Increase India’s investments and presence in critical sectors to balance China’s growing footprint in
Mauritius.
 17

 India-Mauritius relations exemplify a special partnership driven by shared history, cultural bonds, and strategic
interests.
 As India strengthens its engagement with the Indian Ocean Region, Mauritius remains a vital partner in
fostering regional stability, economic growth, and cultural exchange.
 By addressing challenges and deepening cooperation, the two nations can continue to build a mutually
beneficial relationship that aligns with their long-term aspirations.

China-Africa relations
 have deepened significantly over the past two decades, characterized by robust economic engagement,
infrastructure development, and strategic partnerships.
 As Africa emerges as a focal point of global geopolitical competition, China's active involvement in the
continent has raised its profile as a leading player in Africa's development narrative.
Historical Context
1. Early Ties:
 China's engagement with Africa dates back to the 1950s, with the Bandung Conference (1955) marking
a milestone in Afro-Asian solidarity.
 During the Cold War, China supported African liberation movements, aligning itself with anti-colonial
struggles.
2. Post-Cold War Era:
 The launch of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) in 2000 institutionalized China's
Africa policy, focusing on trade, investment, and development cooperation.
Key Aspects of China-Africa Relations
1. Economic Engagement
 Trade:
 China has been Africa's largest trading partner since 2009, with trade surpassing $254 billion in
2021.
 African exports to China are dominated by raw materials like oil, minerals, and agricultural
products, while imports include machinery, electronics, and consumer goods.
 Investment:
 Chinese FDI in Africa totaled $49 billion by 2021, primarily targeting infrastructure, mining, and
manufacturing.
 Key projects include:
 Railways (e.g., Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway).
 Ports (e.g., Bagamoyo Port in Tanzania).
 Energy plants and industrial zones.
 Debt Financing:
 China has extended significant loans to African nations under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI),
raising concerns about debt sustainability.
2. Infrastructure Development
 Belt and Road Initiative:
 Africa is a central pillar of the BRI, with over 40 African countries signing cooperation agreements.
 Investments focus on ports, highways, railways, and telecommunications, improving regional
connectivity.
 18

 Digital Infrastructure:
 Chinese firms like Huawei and ZTE are involved in developing Africa's telecom networks, including
5G infrastructure.
3. Energy and Resources
 Critical Minerals:
 Africa supplies a significant portion of China’s demand for critical minerals, including cobalt (from
DRC), copper (from Zambia), and rare earth elements.
 Oil and Gas:
 Major oil exporters to China include Angola, Nigeria, and Sudan.
 Renewable Energy:
 Chinese companies are investing in solar and hydropower projects, aligning with Africa's
electrification goals.
4. Political and Strategic Engagement
 Soft Power Diplomacy:
 China emphasizes "South-South Cooperation," portraying itself as a partner in Africa's development
journey.
 Scholarships, cultural exchanges, and training programs are key soft power tools.
 Peacekeeping and Security:
 China contributes troops to UN peacekeeping missions in Africa, such as in Mali and South Sudan.
 It has established its first overseas military base in Djibouti, highlighting its strategic interests in the
Indian Ocean Region.
5. Health and Development Aid
 COVID-19 Support:
 China provided vaccines, PPE, and medical equipment to African nations during the pandemic.
 Aid Projects:
 Infrastructure, education, and healthcare projects are central to China's development aid strategy.
 Example: Construction of the African Union Headquarters in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, funded by
China.
Significance of Africa for China
1. Economic Benefits
 Resource Security:
 Africa provides raw materials critical for China's industrial and technological growth.
 Market Expansion:
 Africa’s growing middle class and consumer market offer opportunities for Chinese exports.
 Infrastructure Projects:
 Chinese firms gain revenue and experience by executing large-scale projects in Africa.
2. Strategic Interests
 Geopolitical Influence:
 China views Africa as a key ally in shaping a multipolar world order.
 19

 Indian Ocean Region:

 Africa’s eastern coastline is critical for securing China's maritime routes under the BRI.
 Support in Multilateral Forums:
 Africa's 54 countries often align with China in global forums like the UN, boosting its diplomatic
clout.
3. Technological Dominance
 Digital Silk Road:
 Chinese companies are spearheading Africa's digital transformation, gaining influence in the
telecom and tech sectors.
Challenges in China-Africa Relations
1. Debt Concerns
 Several African nations face rising debt levels due to Chinese loans, raising fears of a "debt trap."
 Example: Zambia defaulted on its debt in 2020, with significant loans owed to China.
2. Trade Imbalance
 African countries largely export raw materials and import finished goods, perpetuating dependence and
limiting value addition.
3. Social Backlash
 Accusations of labor exploitation, environmental damage, and neo-colonialism have led to resentment in
some African countries.
4. Competition with Other Powers
 Rivalries with the US, EU, and India in Africa add complexity to China's engagement, particularly in
strategic sectors like critical minerals.
5. Political Risks
 Political instability and conflict in several African nations pose risks to Chinese investments and projects.

India-China Competition in Africa

1. Critical Minerals:
 Both India and China compete for Africa’s reserves of lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements.
2. Infrastructure:
 India focuses on capacity building and small-scale projects, while China prioritizes large-scale
infrastructure under the BRI.
3. Soft Power:
 India leverages its diaspora and historical ties, while China emphasizes financial aid and infrastructure
investments.
Way Forward for China-Africa Relations
1. Debt Sustainability
 Restructure loans and promote transparent financing mechanisms to address debt concerns.
2. Inclusive Development
 Support Africa’s industrialization and value addition, moving beyond raw material extraction.
3. Environmental Sustainability
 Implement eco-friendly practices in mining and infrastructure projects.
4. Cultural Engagement
 Strengthen people-to-people ties to counter negative perceptions of China’s presence in Africa.
 20

China-Africa relations are a cornerstone of China’s global strategy, driven by economic, geopolitical, and strategic
imperatives.
While challenges persist, the scale and scope of China's engagement have made it a key player in Africa's
development.
By addressing issues like debt sustainability and social backlash, China can further solidify its partnership with
Africa in a mutually beneficial manner.

Military Presence
 Peacekeeping Contributions: China has become a significant contributor to United Nations peacekeeping
missions in Africa, deploying personnel to countries such as Mali and South Sudan. This involvement
underscores China's commitment to maintaining stability and security on the continent.
 Naval Base in Djibouti: In 2017, China established its first overseas military base in Djibouti, strategically
located near the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait. This facility supports anti-piracy operations and enhances China's
ability to project power in the region.
 Arms Sales and Security Cooperation: China has increased arms exports to African nations, offering
competitive pricing and financing options. This strategy has enabled China to expand its presence in Africa's
defense markets, gradually surpassing traditional suppliers.
Challenges and Criticisms
 Debt Sustainability: The substantial loans provided by China for infrastructure projects have raised concerns
about debt sustainability in African countries. Critics argue that this could lead to increased dependency on
China and potential loss of sovereignty over strategic assets.
 Labor and Environmental Practices: Chinese investments have faced criticism over labor practices and
environmental impacts. Allegations of poor working conditions and environmental degradation have led to
social tensions in some African communities.
 Strategic Competition: China's growing influence in Africa has prompted responses from other global
powers, leading to increased competition for economic and political influence on the continent. This dynamic
adds complexity to Africa's international relations.

Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)

Objectives of IORA
1. Promote Regional Cooperation:
 Enhance economic, social, and cultural collaboration among member states.
2. Facilitate Sustainable Development:
 Focus on blue economy, disaster risk management, and environmental conservation.
3. Ensure Maritime Security:
 Address challenges like piracy, illegal fishing, and trafficking in the IOR.
4. Promote Trade and Investment:
 Facilitate open and free trade among member states, focusing on economic integration.
 21

Priority Areas
IORA focuses on six priority areas and two cross-cutting issues:
Priority Areas
1. Maritime Safety and Security:
 Combating piracy, human trafficking, and illicit activities in the Indian Ocean.
 Enhancing cooperation on disaster response.
2. Trade and Investment Facilitation:
 Promoting intra-IORA trade and creating a conducive environment for investment.
3. Fisheries Management:
 Ensuring sustainable exploitation of marine resources.
4. Disaster Risk Management:
 Strengthening regional cooperation on disaster preparedness and mitigation.
5. Academic and Scientific Cooperation:
 Encouraging research and knowledge sharing on issues like climate change and oceanography.
6. Tourism and Cultural Exchange:
 Leveraging the IOR’s diverse cultural heritage and natural beauty to boost tourism.
Cross-Cutting Issues
1. Women’s Economic Empowerment:
 Enhancing gender equality in economic and development programs.
2. Blue Economy:
 Promoting sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth.

Significance of IORA
Economic Importance
 Trade and Shipping:
 The IOR handles 50% of global container traffic and 70% of petroleum trade.
 Member states focus on developing maritime infrastructure and trade corridors.
 Fisheries and Marine Resources:
 The Indian Ocean is rich in marine biodiversity, offering significant economic opportunities.
 Blue Economy:
 IORA promotes sustainable use of ocean resources, aligning with global goals like the SDGs.
Strategic and Security Importance
 Maritime Security:
 The IOR faces challenges like piracy (e.g., Gulf of Aden), illegal fishing, and trafficking.
 IORA plays a key role in ensuring free and secure maritime routes.
 Energy Security:
 Major energy chokepoints, such as the Strait of Hormuz and Malacca Strait, lie in the IOR.
 Member states collaborate to secure uninterrupted energy supplies.
 22

Geopolitical Significance
 Strategic Location:
 The IOR connects major economic regions, including Asia, Africa, and Europe.
 It is critical for the global supply chain and trade connectivity.
 Balancing Global Powers:
 IORA provides a platform for regional powers like India and Australia to counterbalance China’s
growing influence in the region.

India’s Role in IORA

1. Founding Member:
 India played a pivotal role in the establishment of IORA and continues to champion its objectives.
2. Leadership:
 India chaired IORA from 2011 to 2013 and has been instrumental in shaping its agenda.
3. Maritime Diplomacy:
 India leverages IORA to enhance maritime security, address piracy, and secure its interests in the Indian
Ocean.
4. Economic Engagement:
 India supports initiatives for trade facilitation, investment promotion, and capacity building.
5. Blue Economy:
 India advocates sustainable practices in fisheries, energy, and marine resource management.
6. Disaster Preparedness:
 India provides technical and humanitarian assistance to IORA nations during natural disasters.
Challenges Facing IORA
1. Limited Institutional Capacity:
 IORA lacks a strong institutional framework to implement its objectives effectively.
2. Geopolitical Rivalries:
 Competing interests of major powers like the USA, China, and India affect cooperation.
3. Maritime Security Threats:
 Piracy, trafficking, and environmental challenges remain persistent concerns.
4. Economic Disparities:
 Varied economic capacities among member states hinder collective progress.
5. Climate Change:
 Rising sea levels and extreme weather events disproportionately affect IOR nations.
Way Forward for IORA
1. Strengthen Institutional Mechanisms:
 Establish a permanent secretariat with greater resources and autonomy.
2. Enhance Maritime Cooperation:
 Develop joint maritime patrols and intelligence-sharing frameworks.
 23

3. Promote Intra-IORA Trade:

 Facilitate trade agreements and remove barriers to investment.
4. Leverage Technology and Research:
 Collaborate on scientific studies for sustainable ocean resource management.
5. Foster Inclusive Development:
 Focus on empowering women and marginalized communities in IORA countries.
6. Climate Action:
 Enhance disaster preparedness and collaborate on climate change mitigation strategies.
The Lucknow Declaration refers to a significant statement of intent and cooperation made during the Defence
Expo 2020, held in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, from February 5 to February 9, 2020. This declaration
aimed to foster collaboration between India and African nations in the defense sector, emphasizing peace, security,
and development in the region.
Key Features of the Lucknow Declaration
1. India-Africa Partnership:
 Reaffirmed the commitment to deepening defense and security ties between India and African countries.
 Highlighted shared interests in ensuring peace and stability in Africa and the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
2. Commitment to Peacekeeping:
 Acknowledged the contributions of Indian and African soldiers in UN peacekeeping missions.
 Agreed to enhance cooperation in training and capacity-building for peacekeeping operations.
3. Counter-Terrorism and Maritime Security:
 Stressed the need for collaboration in counter-terrorism, combating piracy, and ensuring maritime
security.
 Focused on securing sea lanes in the Indian Ocean Region.
4. Defense and Security Cooperation:
 Advocated for stronger partnerships in defense manufacturing, trade, and technology transfer.
 Encouraged African nations to participate in India’s ‘Make in India’ initiative in the defense sector.
5. Capacity Building and Training:
 Emphasized India’s role in providing training to African defense forces, particularly through the Indian
Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program.
 Promoted knowledge sharing in areas such as cybersecurity, military medicine, and disaster management.
Significance of the Lucknow Declaration
1. Strengthening India-Africa Relations:
 Reinforced India's diplomatic outreach to Africa, a region with increasing geopolitical and economic
significance.
 Aligned with India's broader Africa strategy, as highlighted in the India-Africa Forum Summits
(IAFS).
2. Enhancing Security Cooperation:
 Strengthened collective efforts to combat common security challenges like terrorism, piracy, and
transnational crime.
 24

3. Boost to Defense Exports:

 Positioned India as a reliable partner for Africa in defense technology and manufacturing.
 Expanded opportunities for Indian defense firms in African markets.
4. Focus on Multilateralism:
 Underlined the importance of multilateralism and South-South cooperation in addressing global
challenges.
Contemporary Relevance
 India's Global Aspirations: The declaration aligns with India’s role as a responsible global power, advocating
for sustainable development and security partnerships in Africa.
 Maritime Security in the Indian Ocean: With China's growing influence in Africa and the IOR, the
declaration underscores India's intent to remain a key player in the region's security architecture.
 Defense Diplomacy: It reflects India's emphasis on defense diplomacy as a pillar of its foreign policy,
especially in fostering ties with developing regions.

 1

Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

India Korea
 2

India Korea
India and South Korea (Republic of Korea or ROK) share a vibrant bilateral relationship based on
shared values, robust economic ties, and strategic cooperation. The partnership, elevated to a
Special Strategic Partnership in 2015, plays a crucial role in India's 'Act East' policy and South
Korea’s New Southern Policy.
Key Dimensions
1. Strategic and Defense Relations
 Special Strategic Partnership (2015): Formalized closer defense, economic, and cultural ties.
 Defense Cooperation:
 Joint production of defense equipment under India’s Make in India initiative, including
collaboration on K-9 Vajra-T howitzers.
 South Korea participates in Indian defense exhibitions like DefExpo.
 Regular naval exercises and cooperation in anti-piracy missions in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
 Indo-Pacific Cooperation:
 Alignment on maintaining a rules-based order and freedom of navigation.
 South Korea’s New Southern Policy complements India’s Act East Policy.
2. Economic and Trade Relations
 Bilateral Trade:
 Trade volume stood at $27.8 billion in 2022, with plans to increase to $50 billion by 2030.
 Key exports to South Korea: Mineral fuels, iron and steel, organic chemicals.
 Key imports from South Korea: Electronics, automotive parts, machinery.
 Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA):
 Signed in 2010, it aims to boost trade and investment.
 Efforts are underway to revise CEPA for greater mutual benefits.
 Investment:
 South Korea is a major investor in India, with companies like Hyundai, Samsung, and LG deeply
integrated into India's economy.
 India encourages South Korean investments in renewable energy and infrastructure.
3. Technological Collaboration
 Digital Partnership:
 South Korean tech giants like Samsung and LG lead in India’s electronics market.
 Collaboration in AI, robotics, and 5G technologies.
 Start-Up Ecosystem:
 Bilateral cooperation in fostering innovation and start-ups, with South Korean start-ups entering
India’s fintech and e-commerce markets.
 3

4. Cultural and People-to-People Ties

 Shared Historical Linkages:
 The legend of Queen Heo, an Indian princess from Ayodhya, who married a Korean king,
symbolizes ancient ties.
 Rising Popularity of Korean Culture:
 K-pop, K-dramas, and Korean cuisine enjoy growing popularity in India.
 Indian festivals like Diwali are celebrated in South Korea.
 Education:
 Growing number of Indian students studying in South Korea, especially in STEM fields.

Convergence
1. Strategic Alignment:
 Shared vision for a free and open Indo-Pacific.
 Collaboration in countering traditional and non-traditional security threats like piracy and cybercrime.
2. Economic Complementarity:
 South Korea’s advanced technology and India’s growing market create opportunities for mutual benefit.
 South Korean expertise in manufacturing aligns with India’s Make in India and Digital India initiatives.
3. Multilateral Engagement:
 Cooperation in multilateral forums like the UN, G20, and East Asia Summit.
 Support for India's bid for permanent membership in the UN Security Council.
4. Energy and Climate Goals:
 Joint focus on renewable energy and green technology, including hydrogen energy.
 Collaboration in achieving carbon neutrality and tackling climate change.

Divergence
1. Trade Imbalance:
 India has a significant trade deficit with South Korea, which stood at $13 billion in 2022.
 South Korea's high non-tariff barriers hinder greater access for Indian exports.
2. China Factor:
 South Korea’s heavy economic dependence on China sometimes limits its engagement with India on
strategic issues.
 India’s strategic orientation toward Quad members may occasionally differ from South Korea’s
diplomatic balancing.
3. Limited Defense Cooperation:
 While defense collaboration exists, it has not reached the potential of a robust military partnership.
 South Korea's arms sales to India are relatively limited compared to other defense suppliers.

Recent Developments
 Strengthening CEPA:
 Talks are ongoing to upgrade the CEPA, focusing on reducing non-tariff barriers.
 4

 Space Collaboration:
 Both countries are exploring cooperation in satellite technology and space exploration.
 Green Energy Partnerships:
 Joint projects in green hydrogen and solar energy.
 Cultural Diplomacy:
 India opened a Swami Vivekananda Cultural Centre in Seoul to enhance cultural exchange.

Way Forward
1. Enhancing Trade and Investment
 Recalibrate CEPA to address trade imbalances and boost sectors like IT, textiles, and agriculture.
 Encourage greater South Korean investments in India’s manufacturing, infrastructure, and renewable
energy sectors.
2. Strengthening Strategic Ties
 Expand defense collaboration, focusing on co-production and technology transfer.
 Initiate more joint military exercises and enhance maritime cooperation in the Indo-Pacific.
3. Boosting Technological Collaboration
 Strengthen cooperation in AI, 5G, and renewable technologies.
 Foster joint ventures in start-ups and innovation.
4. Deepening Cultural and Educational Ties
 Promote academic exchanges and scholarships for Indian and South Korean students.
 Encourage cultural events and bilateral tourism initiatives.
5. Leveraging Multilateral Platforms
 Collaborate in regional forums like the East Asia Summit and Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF).
 Advocate for global governance reforms and sustainable development goals.

Conclusion
India-South Korea relations are poised for significant growth, driven by converging strategic interests, robust
economic ties, and shared cultural values. By addressing challenges like trade imbalances and limited defense
cooperation, the partnership can reach its full potential. Strengthening this relationship will not only benefit the two
nations but also contribute to regional stability and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific.

 1

Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

South East Asia

 2

South East Asia

India and Southeast Asia
 India's relationship with Southeast Asia has deep historical roots, reinforced by shared cultural, religious, and
economic exchanges over centuries. In modern times, these ties have been further cemented by strategic,
economic, and geopolitical interests.
 This dynamic relationship can be analyzed through historical context, cultural connections, economic
engagement, and strategic cooperation.

Historical and Cultural Context

1. Ancient Ties:
 Indian traders, priests, and scholars played a crucial role in the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to
Southeast Asia.
 The Indianized kingdoms such as Srivijaya, Majapahit, and Angkor show the cultural imprint of Indian
traditions, including temple architecture and epics like the Ramayana.
 Sanskrit and Pali were significant languages in Southeast Asia’s religious and political life.
2. Colonial Era:
 British rule in India facilitated migration to Southeast Asia, where Indians contributed to the plantation
economy, administration, and trade.
 The Indian National Army under Subhas Chandra Bose received support from Southeast Asia during
India’s independence struggle.

Post-Independence Engagement
1. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): India, as a founding member of NAM, sought to build solidarity with newly
independent Southeast Asian nations during the Cold War era.
2. Look East Policy (1991): Introduced by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao, this policy marked a turning
point in India-Southeast Asia relations, emphasizing economic and strategic engagement.
3. Act East Policy (2014): This upgraded policy under Prime Minister Narendra Modi focuses on deeper
strategic, cultural, and economic integration with Southeast Asia.
Key Areas of Engagement
1. Economic Relations:
 Trade and Investment: The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (2010) has strengthened trade ties,
with bilateral trade reaching over $100 billion. Major exports include petroleum products, machinery,
and textiles.
 Connectivity: Initiatives like the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway aim to enhance physical
connectivity and trade routes.
2. Strategic Cooperation:
 Indo-Pacific Strategy: India’s Indo-Pacific policy aligns with ASEAN’s centrality, emphasizing
maritime security and freedom of navigation in the South China Sea.
 Defense Partnerships: Joint military exercises like SIMBEX (with Singapore) and MILAN naval
exercises reflect strong defense ties.
 3

3. Cultural and People-to-People Links:

 Festivals, yoga, and Indian cinema have wide popularity in Southeast Asia.
 The ASEAN-India Pravasi Bharatiya Divas celebrates the Indian diaspora's contribution.
4. Development Partnerships:
 India has extended technical and financial assistance to CLMV countries (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and
Vietnam) through capacity-building programs like the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC).
Challenges
1. China's Influence: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and strong economic presence in Southeast Asia
pose a challenge to India’s strategic goals.
2. Border Instability: Issues along the India-Myanmar border, including insurgency and illegal migration, affect
bilateral ties.
3. Trade Imbalance: India has a trade deficit with ASEAN nations, requiring diversification of exports.
4. Connectivity Bottlenecks: Infrastructure gaps and bureaucratic hurdles hinder seamless connectivity projects.
Way Forward
1. Enhancing Regional Connectivity: Completing projects like the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport
Project and the Trilateral Highway should be prioritized.
2. Strengthening Defense Ties: Greater cooperation in cybersecurity, maritime surveillance, and counter-
terrorism can ensure mutual security.
3. Economic Diversification: Promoting trade in technology, pharmaceuticals, and services can reduce
dependency on traditional sectors.
4. Cultural Diplomacy: Expanding cultural exchanges and leveraging India’s soft power can enhance goodwill.
5. Leveraging ASEAN's Centrality: Aligning India's Act East Policy with ASEAN’s vision for the Indo-Pacific
will strengthen multilateral partnerships.

Significance of ASEAN for India

Historical Context and Strategic Elevation
 1992: India became a Sectoral Dialogue Partner with ASEAN.
 1995: Elevated to Dialogue Partner status.
 2002: Summit-level interactions began.
 2012: Upgraded to Strategic Partnership.
 2022: Elevated to Comprehensive Strategic Partnership.
Economic Significance
 ASEAN serves as a gateway to Southeast Asian markets, representing a $3.2 trillion GDP and 650 million
population.
 Bilateral trade: USD 110.39 billion (2021-22), with Singapore as India's largest trade partner in ASEAN and
its leading source of FDI.
Strategic Importance
 India's engagement aligns with ASEAN's 'Outlook on the Indo-Pacific,' emphasizing regional stability and
maritime security.
 ASEAN provides a counterbalance to China's growing influence in the region.
 4

Key Dimensions of India-Singapore Relations

1. Trade and Economic Ties
 India-Singapore CECA: The Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement has bolstered trade
and investment.
 Singapore is the largest source of FDI to India (USD 11.77 billion in 2022-23).
 Collaboration in renewable energy, semiconductors, and infrastructure is expanding.
2. Strategic and Defense Cooperation
 Maritime Security: Regular naval exercises like SIMBEX and access to the Changi Naval Base enhance
India's strategic presence.
 Indo-Pacific Strategy: Joint efforts align with India's SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the
Region) doctrine.
3. Technological Collaboration
 UPI-PayNow linkage fosters cross-border payment systems.
 Partnerships in fintech, AI, and semiconductor ecosystems are being strengthened.
4. Connectivity and Infrastructure
 Singapore plays a key role in facilitating India's integration with Southeast Asia through initiatives like
the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway.
5. People-to-People and Cultural Ties
 A strong Indian diaspora (9% of Singapore's population) promotes bilateral cultural exchange.
 Initiatives like the ASEAN-India Network of Universities enhance educational links.
Convergence
 Strategic Alignment: Shared commitment to an open, rules-based Indo-Pacific order.
 Economic Complementarity: India’s growing market complements Singapore’s status as a global financial
hub.
 Maritime Security: Joint focus on piracy prevention, disaster relief, and regional stability.
 Cultural Diplomacy: Shared historical and cultural ties strengthen soft power.
Divergence
1. Trade Disparities:
 India faces a trade deficit with Singapore and ASEAN, driven by tariff asymmetries and non-tariff
barriers.
2. Geopolitical Balancing:
 Singapore’s balancing act between China and India creates occasional friction.
 Differing approaches to RCEP and other regional trade agreements.
3. Regulatory Challenges:
 Divergent standards and procedures hinder seamless trade and investment.
Current Developments
 Semiconductor Agreement: A critical development in building technology ecosystems.
 Maritime Exercises: Expansion of SIMBEX to include new domains like anti-submarine warfare.
 Renewable Energy: Enhanced collaboration in green hydrogen and solar energy initiatives.
 5

Way Forward
1. Strengthening Trade and Economic Cooperation
 Recalibrate the India-Singapore CECA to address trade imbalances.
 Promote joint ventures in manufacturing, especially in semiconductors and green technologies.
 Leverage Singapore's financial expertise to fund India’s infrastructure projects.
2. Enhancing Connectivity
 Accelerate projects like the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway.
 Explore digital connectivity through a proposed India-ASEAN submarine cable project.
3. Deepening Strategic Ties
 Increase joint maritime domain awareness initiatives.
 Collaborate in defense technology and joint production with Singapore.
4. Boosting Cultural and People-to-People Links
 Promote academic exchanges through initiatives like the ASEAN-India Network of Universities.
 Expand cultural events showcasing Indian heritage in Singapore.
5. Expanding Technological Partnerships
 Joint research in AI, cybersecurity, and fintech to capitalize on Singapore’s tech capabilities.
 Develop innovation hubs focusing on start-ups from both countries.
6. Aligning on Sustainability
 Propose an ASEAN-India Green Partnership focusing on renewable energy and climate resilience.
 Share best practices in urban planning and sustainable development.
Conclusion
India-Singapore relations are a cornerstone of India's 'Act East' policy and its Indo-Pacific strategy. With strong
convergence in trade, technology, and strategic objectives, the partnership is set to reach new heights. Addressing
divergences through mutual engagement will not only strengthen bilateral ties but also enhance India's broader
outreach to ASEAN. The upcoming agreements on semiconductors and renewable energy are emblematic of a
shared vision for a resilient, sustainable, and strategically stable future.

India-Singapore Relations:
India and Singapore share a multifaceted relationship underpinned by historical, economic, cultural, and strategic
dimensions. As pivotal players in the Indo-Pacific region, both nations have demonstrated convergence in strategic
interests and strong economic ties while also facing certain divergences.
Dimensions of India-Singapore Relations
1. Historical and Cultural Connections:
 Indian traders have had links with Singapore since the Chola Empire.
 Indian diaspora constitutes around 9% of Singapore's population, contributing to its multicultural fabric.
2. Economic and Trade Relations:
 Singapore is India's largest trading partner in ASEAN and a significant source of Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI).
 The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been instrumental
in enhancing bilateral trade and investment.
 6

3. Strategic and Defense Cooperation:

 Regular joint military exercises such as SIMBEX (naval exercises) reflect strong defense ties.
 Strategic alignment in ensuring maritime security and freedom of navigation in the Indo-Pacific.
4. Technology and Digital Cooperation:
 Singapore's Smart Nation initiative and India’s Digital India mission offer synergies in digital governance
and fintech collaboration.
 Collaboration in Artificial Intelligence (AI), cybersecurity, and start-up ecosystems.
5. Education and People-to-People Relations:
 Institutions like the Global Indian International School in Singapore and scholarships for Indian students
foster educational ties.
 Yoga and Indian festivals are widely celebrated in Singapore, promoting cultural diplomacy.
Convergence
1. Indo-Pacific Security:
 Shared interest in maintaining a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific aligns both nations against
unilateral actions in the South China Sea.
 Singapore supports ASEAN centrality, a principle endorsed by India.
2. Economic Complementarity:
 India’s growing market and Singapore’s position as a financial hub create mutual economic benefits.
 Joint ventures in areas like urban planning and infrastructure development.
3. Defense Collaboration:
 Singapore was the first ASEAN country to sign a defense cooperation agreement with India.
 Access to Changi Naval Base strengthens India’s maritime logistics in the region.
4. Global Governance:
 Both countries advocate for multilateralism and reforms in global institutions like the UN.
 Singapore supports India’s membership in APEC and India’s bid for a permanent seat at the UN Security
Council.
Divergence
1. Trade Disputes:
 Issues over the misuse of the CECA framework by certain entities, including concerns about job
protection in Singapore, have caused friction.
2. Geopolitical Balancing:
 Singapore’s close economic ties with China occasionally create differing strategic priorities compared to
India’s stance on Chinese expansionism.
3. ASEAN Dynamics:
 While Singapore advocates for deeper ASEAN integration, India’s cautious approach to RCEP (Regional
Comprehensive Economic Partnership) negotiations was a point of divergence.
 7

Current Developments
1. Economic Engagement:
 In 2023, bilateral trade reached over $30 billion. Singapore remains one of the largest investors in India,
with significant investments in real estate, fintech, and infrastructure.
 New agreements were signed to boost renewable energy and green hydrogen collaboration.
2. Digital and Technological Cooperation:
 India-Singapore UPI-PayNow linkage, launched in 2023, revolutionized cross-border payments,
simplifying remittances.
 Singapore is actively involved in India’s data center and AI ecosystem projects.
3. Maritime and Defense Cooperation:
 Enhanced security cooperation under the renewed Defense Cooperation Agreement.
 Expansion of SIMBEX naval exercises to focus on anti-submarine warfare and maritime domain awareness.
4. Cultural Initiatives:
 The unveiling of the "Little India Heritage Trail" in Singapore highlights shared cultural heritage.
 India's cultural centers in Singapore actively promote Indian art and traditions.
Way Forward
1. Strengthening Economic Ties:
 Renew CECA with updated clauses to address contemporary trade challenges.
 Encourage Singaporean investment in India’s green energy, smart cities, and manufacturing sectors under
the "Make in India" initiative.
2. Deepening Strategic Cooperation:
 Expand naval cooperation to include multilateral exercises involving other Quad members.
 Build on maritime logistics agreements to enhance India’s reach in the Indo-Pacific.
3. Boosting People-to-People Connections:
 Increase educational exchanges and scholarships to deepen ties among the youth.
 Enhance cultural diplomacy by organizing large-scale events promoting Indian heritage in Singapore.
4. Leveraging Digital Partnerships:
 Scale up collaborations in blockchain, AI, and fintech sectors.
 Promote bilateral tech start-ups under platforms like Startup India and Singapore's Enterprise Singapore.
5. Engaging on Global Platforms:
 Collaborate on climate change and sustainable development goals at multilateral forums.
 Work together to counter emerging non-traditional threats such as cybercrime and pandemics.

India-Vietnam Relations
Key Dimensions
1. Strategic Partnership:
 Elevated to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2016.
 Shared concerns about China's assertiveness in the South China Sea.
 Regular military exercises and India's defense exports to Vietnam (e.g., BrahMos missiles).
 8

2. Economic Engagement:
 Bilateral trade reached $15 billion in 2022, with a target of $20 billion by 2025.
 Vietnam is a key partner in electronics and agriculture.
3. Maritime Cooperation:
 Collaboration under the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI).
 Joint efforts in the South China Sea for maritime domain awareness.
4. Cultural Ties:
 Shared Buddhist heritage.
 The annual Vietnam-India Friendship Year celebrates bilateral cultural exchanges.
Convergence
 Shared vision of a free and open Indo-Pacific.
 Strategic alignment in counterbalancing China's influence.
 Vietnam’s receptiveness to India's role in the South China Sea.
Divergence
 Limited trade diversification beyond a few sectors.
 Vietnam’s increasing economic dependence on China.
Way Forward
 Expand defense and cybersecurity cooperation.
 Promote joint ventures in renewable energy and electronics manufacturing.
 Accelerate India's integration into Vietnam-led supply chains.

India-Indonesia Relations
Key Dimensions
1. Strategic Partnership:
 Comprehensive Strategic Partnership established in 2018.
 Maritime Cooperation Agreement enhances collaboration in the Indian Ocean and South China Sea.
2. Economic Engagement:
 Bilateral trade surpassed $38 billion in 2022, with coal and palm oil as key commodities.
 Indonesia is India's largest trading partner in ASEAN after Singapore.
3. Cultural Ties:
 Shared civilizational links through Hindu and Buddhist influences.
 Indian epics like the Ramayana are integral to Indonesian culture.
4. People-to-People Ties:
 Indian diaspora actively contributes to Indonesia's economy.
Convergence
 Shared maritime interests in securing key sea lanes of communication.
 Complementary economic ties in natural resources and energy.
 Common commitment to counter-terrorism.
 9

Divergence
 Indonesia's cautious stance on Quad-related initiatives.
 Trade imbalance, with India importing significantly more than it exports.
Way Forward
 Diversify trade to include pharmaceuticals, textiles, and IT.
 Strengthen cooperation in renewable energy and infrastructure projects.
 Enhance maritime capacity-building programs.

India-Thailand Relations
Key Dimensions
1. Strategic Cooperation:
 Thailand is a key partner in India's Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative.
 Regular military exercises like "MAITREE" and maritime drills.
2. Economic Partnership:
 Bilateral trade stood at $15 billion in 2022.
 Thailand is India's fourth-largest trading partner in ASEAN.
3. Connectivity Initiatives:
 India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, although delayed, is a flagship project.
 Focus on expanding air and digital connectivity.
4. Cultural Diplomacy:
 Shared Buddhist heritage forms a strong cultural bond.
 Tourism flows promote people-to-people interactions.
Convergence
 Strategic alignment in the Indo-Pacific region.
 Mutual interest in promoting tourism and cultural exchanges.
 Thailand’s active support for India's 'Act East' policy.
Divergence
 Delays in connectivity projects hinder regional integration.
 Competition in tourism and export markets.
Way Forward
 Fast-track completion of the Trilateral Highway.
 Enhance cooperation in digital trade and technology.
 Promote joint ventures in clean energy and manufacturing.

India-Malaysia Relations
Key Dimensions
1. Economic and Trade Relations:
 Bilateral trade reached $19 billion in 2022-23.
 Malaysia is a major source of palm oil for India and imports Indian machinery, chemicals, and
pharmaceuticals.
 10

2. Strategic Partnership:
 Defense cooperation includes regular naval engagements and capacity-building programs.
 Collaboration under the ASEAN Defense Ministers' Meeting Plus (ADMM+).
3. Cultural and Diaspora Ties:
 A large Indian-origin population (~7% of Malaysia’s population) strengthens people-to-people ties.
 Shared cultural heritage with Tamil influences visible in Malaysia.
4. Technological Collaboration:
 Joint efforts in digital economy initiatives and renewable energy.
Convergence
 Alignment in multilateral forums like ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.
 Shared economic and cultural ties reinforce partnership.
Divergence
 Differences over India's domestic policies occasionally strain ties.
 Malaysia’s close economic relationship with China influences its stance on regional issues.
Way Forward
 Boost trade by focusing on high-growth sectors like IT, AI, and renewable energy.
 Promote cultural tourism leveraging Indian heritage sites in Malaysia.
 Deepen maritime and defense cooperation.

 1

Value Addition
Notes
International Relations

India-Nordic Relations
 2

India-Nordic Relations
Introduction and Context
India and the Nordic countries—Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden—have developed a strong
partnership based on shared values of democracy, innovation, and sustainability. The relationship gained
momentum with the first India-Nordic Summit in Stockholm in 2018, which formalized collaboration across
diverse fields. The 2nd India-Nordic Summit in Copenhagen (2022) further strengthened this bond by focusing
on post-pandemic recovery, climate change, and digitalization.
Key Issues/Concepts
1. Green Transition and Sustainability:
➢ The Green Strategic Partnership (2020) between India and Denmark set a precedent for collaboration
on renewable energy, circular economy, and sustainable growth.
➢ Norway’s Climate Investment Fund has invested over ₹1,500 crore in India’s renewable energy projects.
➢ Sweden and India launched Leadership for Industry Transition (LeadIT) in 2019 to focus on low-
carbon transitions.
2. Digitalization and Innovation:
➢ Nordic expertise in AI, quantum computing, and smart grids complements India’s digital initiatives.
➢ Nordic countries provide models for e-governance and tech-based public services.
3. Trade and Investment:
➢ Trade between India and the Nordic region has grown steadily, with over 700 Nordic companies
operating in India.
➢ Norway's Sovereign Wealth Fund is set to become one of India’s largest investors.
➢ Finland is part of EU-India FTA negotiations, while Norway negotiates through the EFTA.
4. Maritime Cooperation and Blue Economy:
➢ Collaborative efforts focus on sustainable ocean management, port modernization, and fisheries
development.
➢ These align with India's Sagarmala Project.
5. Arctic Cooperation:
➢ India’s Arctic Policy offers a framework for Nordic collaboration in polar research, climate studies, and
sustainable Arctic development.
Case Studies/Examples
❖ Denmark: The Green Strategic Partnership focuses on renewable energy and water management solutions.
❖ Norway: Investments in solar and wind projects have strengthened India’s green energy sector.
❖ Finland: Finnish companies like Nokia and Fortum have identified India as their largest growth market.
❖ Sweden: Initiatives like LeadIT and technological collaborations in healthcare and innovation drive the
bilateral agenda.
 3

Critical Analysis
1. Strengths:
➢ Complementary Strengths: India’s market size and Nordic technological expertise create a synergy for
innovation and growth.
➢ Shared Values: Both partners advocate for democracy, sustainability, and multilateralism.
2. Challenges:
➢ FTA Negotiations: The slow pace of EU-India and EFTA-India trade discussions limits potential growth.
➢ Regulatory Barriers: Differences in trade standards and compliance requirements may hinder
investments.
3. Opportunities:
➢ Accelerating technology transfer in green hydrogen and smart cities.
➢ Expanding partnerships in healthcare, education, and food processing.
Current Relevance
India’s rapid strides in green energy, digital transformation, and sustainable development align with Nordic
priorities. The partnership’s focus on climate action, innovation, and trade highlights its global significance in
addressing 21st-century challenges. Nordic countries also support India’s Arctic ambitions and multilateral
initiatives.
India-Nordic Relations
Introduction and Context
India and the Nordic countries—Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden—have developed a strong
partnership based on shared values of democracy, innovation, and sustainability. The relationship gained
momentum with the first India-Nordic Summit in Stockholm in 2018, which formalized collaboration across
diverse fields. The 2nd India-Nordic Summit in Copenhagen (2022) further strengthened this bond by focusing
on post-pandemic recovery, climate change, and digitalization.
Key Issues/Concepts
1. Green Transition and Sustainability:
➢ The Green Strategic Partnership (2020) between India and Denmark set a precedent for collaboration
on renewable energy, circular economy, and sustainable growth.
➢ Norway’s Climate Investment Fund has invested over ₹1,500 crore in India’s renewable energy projects.
➢ Sweden and India launched Leadership for Industry Transition (LeadIT) in 2019 to focus on low-
carbon transitions.
2. Digitalization and Innovation:
➢ Nordic expertise in AI, quantum computing, and smart grids complements India’s digital initiatives.
➢ Nordic countries provide models for e-governance and tech-based public services.
3. Trade and Investment:
➢ Trade between India and the Nordic region has grown steadily, with over 700 Nordic companies
operating in India.
➢ Norway's Sovereign Wealth Fund is set to become one of India’s largest investors.
➢ Finland is part of EU-India FTA negotiations, while Norway negotiates through the EFTA.
 4

4. Maritime Cooperation and Blue Economy:

➢ Collaborative efforts focus on sustainable ocean management, port modernization, and fisheries
development.
➢ These align with India's Sagarmala Project.
5. Arctic Cooperation:
➢ India’s Arctic Policy offers a framework for Nordic collaboration in polar research, climate studies, and
sustainable Arctic development.
Case Studies/Examples
❖ Denmark: The Green Strategic Partnership focuses on renewable energy and water management solutions.
❖ Norway: Investments in solar and wind projects have strengthened India’s green energy sector.
❖ Finland: Finnish companies like Nokia and Fortum have identified India as their largest growth market.
❖ Sweden: Initiatives like LeadIT and technological collaborations in healthcare and innovation drive the
bilateral agenda.
Critical Analysis
1. Strengths:
➢ Complementary Strengths: India’s market size and Nordic technological expertise create a synergy for
innovation and growth.
➢ Shared Values: Both partners advocate for democracy, sustainability, and multilateralism.
2. Challenges:
➢ FTA Negotiations: The slow pace of EU-India and EFTA-India trade discussions limits potential growth.
➢ Regulatory Barriers: Differences in trade standards and compliance requirements may hinder
investments.
3. Opportunities:
➢ Accelerating technology transfer in green hydrogen and smart cities.
➢ Expanding partnerships in healthcare, education, and food processing.
Current Relevance
India’s rapid strides in green energy, digital transformation, and sustainable development align with Nordic
priorities. The partnership’s focus on climate action, innovation, and trade highlights its global significance in
addressing 21st-century challenges. Nordic countries also support India’s Arctic ambitions and multilateral
initiatives.
India-Russia-Ukraine Relations
Introduction and Context
The ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict has posed significant challenges for India's foreign policy, as it navigates its
historic ties with Russia, evolving relations with Ukraine, and its commitments to global peace and diplomacy.
India’s response reflects its strategic autonomy and a balanced approach aimed at safeguarding national interests
while upholding its global responsibilities.
Key Issues/Concepts
1. India’s Position on the Russia-Ukraine Conflict:
➢ India has maintained a neutral stance, refraining from outright condemnation of Russia’s actions, while
advocating for dialogue and diplomacy.
 5

➢ At international platforms like the UN, India has abstained from voting on resolutions critical of Russia,
emphasizing the need for peaceful resolution rather than taking sides.
➢ Prime Minister Modi’s statement, "This is not an era of war," during his meeting with President Putin,
highlights India’s focus on dialogue.
2. Historical and Strategic Ties with Russia:
➢ India-Russia relations are grounded in decades of strategic partnership, particularly in defence and energy.
➢ Russia remains India's largest supplier of military equipment, even as India diversifies its defence imports.
3. Evolving Relationship with Ukraine:
➢ India has strengthened ties with Ukraine through humanitarian assistance and a recent historic visit to
Kyiv by PM Modi, showcasing India’s commitment to dialogue and peace.
4. Economic Dimensions:
➢ Energy Security: The conflict has led to increased imports of Russian oil and gas, with India taking
advantage of discounted prices amid Western sanctions on Russia.
➢ Trade Imbalance: While Russia has become a key supplier of energy, the conflict has created challenges
in bilateral trade dynamics, with a growing trade imbalance in favor of Russia.
5. Humanitarian Assistance:
➢ India has provided Ukraine with medical supplies and relief materials, reflecting its adherence to
humanitarian principles.
Case Studies/Examples
❖ India’s Neutrality in the UN: India abstained from voting on resolutions critical of Russia in the UN,
emphasizing that diplomacy should take precedence over confrontation.
❖ Aid to Ukraine: India’s humanitarian assistance during the conflict underscores its balanced approach to
global crises.
❖ India’s Energy Imports from Russia: The increased import of Russian oil post-conflict demonstrates India’s
pragmatic approach to energy security.
Critical Analysis
1. Strengths:
➢ Strategic Autonomy: India’s position underscores its ability to navigate complex geopolitical situations
independently.
➢ Energy Security: Strengthening energy ties with Russia helps India mitigate global price shocks and
meet domestic demand.
➢ Humanitarian Diplomacy: Providing aid to Ukraine balances India's neutrality and its commitment to
global peace.
2. Challenges:
➢ Geopolitical Balancing: India’s ties with Russia risk straining its relations with Western allies, especially
the US and EU.
➢ Defence Dependency: India’s reliance on Russian military equipment poses risks amid potential supply
chain disruptions.
➢ Russia-China Proximity: Russia’s growing ties with China could complicate India’s strategic
calculations, given its tensions with China.
 6

3. Opportunities:
➢ Strengthening multilateral cooperation through platforms like BRICS, SCO, and the G20.
➢ Expanding trade and economic partnerships with Ukraine post-conflict, especially in pharmaceuticals and
technology.
➢ Leveraging the conflict to deepen strategic engagement with Western allies while maintaining ties with
Russia.
Current Relevance
India’s stance on the Russia-Ukraine conflict has global implications. It highlights India’s balancing act as a
responsible global player, maintaining strategic ties with Russia while expanding its role as a mediator and
humanitarian actor. This approach aligns with India’s broader foreign policy strategy of multi-alignment.
Conclusion
The Russia-Ukraine conflict has tested India’s foreign policy resilience. By maintaining strategic neutrality,
enhancing energy security, and advocating for peace, India has reaffirmed its commitment to strategic autonomy
and global stability. Moving forward, India must continue to balance its relations with Russia and Ukraine, engage
with global powers, and uphold its principles of dialogue, peace, and mutual respect.
India and the Arctic Ocean
Introduction and Context
The Arctic Ocean, a region of strategic and environmental significance, has become a focal point of global
geopolitics due to its vast natural resources, potential shipping routes, and critical role in climate regulation. India's
engagement with the Arctic is guided by its interests in scientific research, environmental preservation, and
global governance. The adoption of India's Arctic Policy (2022) underlines its commitment to contributing to
sustainable development in the region.
Key Issues/Concepts
1. India’s Arctic Policy:
➢ Titled “India and the Arctic: Building a Partnership for Sustainable Development,” the policy
focuses on:
✓ Science and Research: Strengthening research on climate change, biodiversity, and Arctic
ecosystems.
✓ Environmental Protection: Addressing the impact of Arctic changes on India’s monsoon and
agriculture.
✓ Economic and Strategic Interests: Exploring potential trade routes and natural resources in
collaboration with Arctic states.
2. Scientific Research:
➢ India has been conducting research in the Arctic since 2007 through its research station, Himadri, located
in Svalbard, Norway.
➢ Key areas of study include glaciology, climate change, marine biology, and geosciences.
3. Geopolitical Significance:
➢ The Arctic is estimated to hold 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of natural gas reserves,
making it an energy hub.
➢ Melting ice caps have opened up potential shipping routes like the Northern Sea Route, reducing travel
times between Asia and Europe.
 7

4. Climate Linkages:
➢ Changes in the Arctic have a direct impact on global sea levels and India’s monsoon patterns.
➢ The Arctic acts as a climate stabilizer, and its degradation exacerbates extreme weather events worldwide.
5. International Cooperation:
➢ India is an Observer State in the Arctic Council since 2013, actively participating in its meetings and
working groups.
➢ Collaboration with countries like Norway, Russia, and Canada strengthens India’s Arctic engagement.
Case Studies/Examples
❖ Himadri Research Station: India’s base for Arctic research, focusing on the effects of climate change and
glacial dynamics.
❖ Observer Status in Arctic Council: India’s involvement in key discussions on sustainable development and
governance of the Arctic.
Critical Analysis
1. Strengths:
➢ Scientific Expertise: India’s strong research capabilities in polar studies enhance its contributions to the
Arctic dialogue.
➢ Geopolitical Neutrality: India’s non-aligned stance allows it to collaborate with all Arctic states without
aligning with specific blocs.
2. Challenges:
➢ Geopolitical Tensions: Rivalries among Arctic states like the US, Russia, and China create a complex
environment for India’s involvement.
➢ Resource Accessibility: Harsh climatic conditions and high exploration costs limit India’s ability to tap
Arctic resources.
3. Opportunities:
➢ Shipping Routes: Leveraging Arctic shipping routes could reduce India’s trade costs and transit times to
Europe.
➢ Collaborative Research: Strengthening ties with Arctic nations for joint research on climate and
renewable energy.
Current Relevance
India’s Arctic engagement is critical in the context of global climate action, energy security, and the strategic
need to diversify trade routes. The Arctic’s changing dynamics impact India’s monsoon system, agriculture, and
water security, making its involvement essential for national interests.
Cold War: USA and Russia
Introduction and Context
The Cold War (1947–1991) was a prolonged period of political, military, and ideological rivalry between the
United States and the Soviet Union (USSR). This confrontation shaped global geopolitics, creating a bipolar world
order divided between the capitalist bloc led by the USA and the communist bloc led by the USSR. Despite the
absence of direct military confrontation, the Cold War saw intense competition across political ideologies,
economic models, and technological advancements.
 8

Key Issues/Concepts
1. Origins of the Cold War:
➢ Post-World War II power vacuum and ideological differences between capitalism (USA) and
communism (USSR).
➢ Divergences in visions for post-war Europe, particularly over the reconstruction of Germany and Eastern
Europe.
➢ Key events like the Truman Doctrine (1947) and Marshall Plan (1948) to counter Soviet influence in
Europe.
2. Major Features of the Cold War:
➢ Proxy Wars: Indirect conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Cuba where the superpowers
supported opposing sides.
➢ Arms Race: Rapid development and stockpiling of nuclear weapons by both powers, leading to the
concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).
➢ Space Race: Competition for dominance in space exploration, highlighted by the USSR’s Sputnik
launch (1957) and the USA’s moon landing (1969).
➢ Espionage: Intelligence agencies like the CIA (USA) and KGB (USSR) played critical roles in global
spying and covert operations.
3. Key Cold War Events:
➢ Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–1949): The USSR's attempt to cut off access to West Berlin,
countered by a US-led airlift.
➢ Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): A near-nuclear confrontation after the USSR placed missiles in Cuba.
➢ Detente (1970s): Period of reduced tensions marked by treaties like SALT I (1972) and the Helsinki
Accords (1975).
➢ Afghan War (1979–1989): USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan, countered by US support for the
Mujahideen, which drained Soviet resources.
4. End of the Cold War:
➢ Gorbachev’s Reforms: Policies of Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (openness) aimed at
reforming the Soviet system but led to political instability.
➢ Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989): Symbolized the collapse of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe.
➢ Dissolution of the USSR (1991): Marked the definitive end of the Cold War and the emergence of the
USA as the sole superpower.
Case Studies/Examples
❖ Marshall Plan: US initiative to rebuild Western Europe, countering Soviet influence in post-war Europe.
❖ Vietnam War: Proxy conflict where the US supported South Vietnam against the communist North, backed
by the USSR and China.
Critical Analysis
1. Strengths of US and USSR Strategies:
➢ USA: Used economic power and alliances (NATO) to consolidate influence in Western Europe and
beyond.
 9

➢ USSR: Leveraged ideology to inspire communist movements globally and maintained control over
Eastern Europe through the Warsaw Pact.
2. Challenges:
➢ Economic Pressures: The arms race and space race strained both economies, particularly the USSR's.
➢ Third-World Conflicts: Proxy wars in Asia, Africa, and Latin America destabilized regions and often
failed to achieve clear victories for either side.
3. Global Impact:
➢ Division of the world into First World (USA-led), Second World (USSR-led), and Third World (non-
aligned nations).
➢ Proliferation of nuclear weapons, increasing the risk of global annihilation.
Current Relevance
The Cold War shaped modern geopolitics, including the establishment of military alliances like NATO and the
Warsaw Pact, the United Nations' role in peacekeeping, and the ideological struggles that continue to influence
global conflicts. The resurgence of tensions between the USA and Russia in recent years is often referred to as a
"new Cold War," reflecting unresolved rivalries.
India-USA Relations
Introduction and Context
India-USA relations have evolved significantly, transforming from limited engagement during the Cold War to a
comprehensive global strategic partnership. Shared values of democracy, pluralism, and rule of law, combined with
mutual economic and security interests, underpin this relationship. The partnership now spans diverse areas,
including defence, trade, energy, technology, and global governance.
Key Issues/Concepts
1. Historical Background:
➢ During the Cold War, Indo-US relations were limited due to India’s non-aligned stance and US ties with
Pakistan.
➢ The relationship improved after the end of the Cold War, particularly following India’s economic
liberalization in 1991.
➢ The signing of the Indo-US Nuclear Deal (2008) marked a watershed moment, bringing the two nations
closer.
2. Defence and Security Cooperation:
➢ India and the US have elevated their defence ties through agreements like:
✓ Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA).
✓ Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA).
✓ Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA).
➢ Regular bilateral and multilateral military exercises such as Malabar strengthen operational cooperation.
➢ The US is one of India's top defence suppliers, providing platforms like the Apache helicopters and C-
17 Globemaster transport aircraft.
 10

3. Economic and Trade Relations:

➢ Bilateral Trade: Reached $191 billion in FY 2023–24, making the US India's largest trading partner.
➢ Key sectors include IT, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and renewable energy.
➢ India is a major destination for US foreign direct investment (FDI), while Indian companies contribute
significantly to the US economy.
➢ Challenges include disputes over tariffs, market access, and intellectual property rights.
4. Energy Cooperation:
➢ The US-India Strategic Energy Partnership (SEP) focuses on renewable energy, clean technology, and
energy security.
➢ India imports significant quantities of US crude oil and LNG, diversifying its energy sources.
5. Science, Technology, and Space:
➢ Collaboration in cutting-edge technologies, including artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and
5G.
➢ Space cooperation is exemplified by partnerships between ISRO and NASA, including joint missions like
NISAR.
6. People-to-People Ties:
➢ Over 4 million Indian-Americans form a vital link between the two nations, contributing to culture,
technology, and politics in the US.
➢ India is the largest source of international students in the US, boosting educational ties.
7. Global and Regional Cooperation:
➢ Indo-Pacific Strategy: The US supports India’s leadership in the Indo-Pacific, countering China’s
assertiveness.
➢ QUAD Partnership: India, the US, Japan, and Australia collaborate on security, economic, and
technological issues in the region.
➢ Multilateral forums like G20, UN, and WTO strengthen their global cooperation.
Case Studies/Examples
❖ Indo-US Nuclear Deal (2008): Enabled civil nuclear cooperation, marking a new era in bilateral relations.
❖ Malabar Naval Exercise: Demonstrates growing defence interoperability among India, the US, and QUAD
partners.
❖ H-1B Visa Program: Highlights the role of Indian professionals in driving US innovation and technology
sectors.
Critical Analysis
1. Strengths:
➢ Convergence of Interests: Shared goals in combating terrorism, maintaining regional stability, and
fostering economic growth.
➢ Democratic Values: Common commitment to democracy and human rights strengthens the foundation
of the partnership.
➢ Strategic Importance: Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific enhances both nations' security and geopolitical
influence.
 11

2. Challenges:
➢ Trade Disputes: Tariff disagreements and market access restrictions remain contentious.
➢ Immigration Policies: US visa restrictions impact Indian professionals and students.
➢ Divergences in Foreign Policy: Differences in approach toward Russia, Iran, and Afghanistan
occasionally strain relations.
3. Opportunities:
➢ Expanding renewable energy cooperation, particularly in green hydrogen and solar power.
➢ Strengthening technology collaboration in AI, semiconductors, and cybersecurity.
➢ Enhancing cooperation in supply chain resilience to reduce dependence on China.
Current Relevance
India-USA relations are critical for addressing global challenges, from climate change to counterterrorism. The
partnership is pivotal in shaping the future of the Indo-Pacific, ensuring free and open trade routes, and fostering
sustainable development.
Conclusion
India-USA relations have matured into a comprehensive strategic partnership, underpinned by shared values and
mutual interests. While challenges persist, the potential for collaboration across diverse sectors remains immense.
Strengthening this partnership will not only benefit both nations but also contribute significantly to global peace,
stability, and prosperity.
India-USA Relations under Trump 2.0
Introduction and Context
With Donald Trump securing a second term as President of the United States, India-USA relations face both
opportunities and challenges. Trump's ‘America First’ policies are expected to influence bilateral trade, defence,
immigration, and energy relations. For India, navigating these dynamics requires a careful blend of diplomacy and
economic adaptability.
Key Issues/Concepts
1. Strategic Interests:
➢ India aims to become the world’s third-largest economy, while the US seeks to counterbalance China’s
growing influence.
➢ Shared goals include Indo-Pacific stability, counterterrorism, and strengthening democratic values.
➢ Trump’s focus on reducing US involvement in foreign conflicts could position India as a key regional
security partner, encouraging greater defence collaborations and arms deals.
2. Economic Interests:
➢ Pro-Business Alignment: Trump's ‘America First’ policy aligns with Modi’s ‘Make in India’ initiative,
fostering potential synergies in manufacturing and trade.
➢ Free Trade Agreement (FTA): Renewed negotiations for an FTA could reshape trade dynamics, though
tariff and market access issues remain contentious.
➢ Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: India’s export-friendly policies like PLI and the
semiconductor program can mitigate trade challenges.
➢ Trade Challenges:
 12

✓ Protectionist tariffs on Indian goods may re-emerge.

✓ Potential trade skirmishes in sectors like IT, pharmaceuticals, and textiles, which heavily depend
on the US market.
3. Immigration Overhaul:
➢ Visa Restrictions: Stricter policies on H-1B visas and legal migration could impact Indian professionals
in the US tech sector.
➢ Deportations: Tighter immigration laws might disrupt the flow of skilled Indian workers to the US,
affecting bilateral knowledge exchange.
4. Defence and Security:
➢ Increased US military hardware sales to India, enhancing India's capabilities.
➢ Collaboration on advanced technologies and joint exercises like Malabar.
➢ Potential for India to play a more prominent role in regional security, complementing US interests in the
Indo-Pacific.
5. Energy Cooperation:
➢ Lower global oil prices due to Trump's pro-fossil fuel policies could reduce India's import bill.
➢ However, a fossil fuel-centric approach may hinder global climate change efforts, an area where India has
shown leadership.
6. Geopolitical Dynamics:
➢ Trump’s transactional foreign policy may demand closer alignment from India while managing its ties
with Russia and China.
➢ Opportunities for India to attract US firms looking to diversify supply chains away from China.
➢ India's balancing act in multilateral forums like the QUAD, G20, and UN will be crucial.
Case Studies/Examples
❖ Trade Tariffs (First Term): India faced tariffs on steel and aluminium under Trump's first term, setting a
precedent for potential future trade tensions.
❖ H-1B Visa Policies: Previous restrictions under Trump limited Indian professionals’ entry into the US,
highlighting potential future challenges.
❖ Indo-Pacific Strategy: Strengthened defence ties through initiatives like the COMCASA and LEMOA
agreements.
Critical Analysis
1. Strengths:
➢ Strategic Alignment: Shared interests in security and economic growth enhance the partnership.
➢ Supply Chain Diversification: India’s potential as an alternative to China offers opportunities for US
investments.
➢ Energy Savings: Lower oil prices could strengthen India’s fiscal health.
2. Challenges:
➢ Trade Tensions: Protectionist measures and high tariffs may disrupt exports.
➢ Immigration Policies: Stricter visa rules could limit talent mobility, impacting India’s IT sector.
➢ Climate Leadership: Divergence on climate change priorities may create policy mismatches.
 13

3. Opportunities:
➢ Leveraging US-China tensions to attract American firms to India.
➢ Expanding collaborations in technology, green energy, and defence.
➢ Strengthening people-to-people ties through the Indian-American diaspora.
Current Relevance
Trump’s second term highlights the interplay between protectionism and pro-business policies. India must adapt to
these shifts, leveraging its strategic importance while addressing trade and climate challenges.
Conclusion
India-USA relations under Trump 2.0 present a mixed landscape. While opportunities for enhanced defence
collaboration, supply chain diversification, and economic growth exist, challenges like trade tensions, immigration
restrictions, and differing climate goals require strategic diplomacy. By fostering bilateral dia logue and pursuing
adaptable policies, India can navigate this phase, maximizing benefits while mitigating risks. The India-US
partnership, rooted in shared democratic values, remains a cornersto ne of 21st-century global relations.
India-Russia-USA Relations
Introduction and Context
India’s foreign policy reflects a pragmatic balancing act between its ties with Russia and the United States, two
global powers with often conflicting interests. While Russia has been a traditional partner, especially in defence
and energy, India’s relations with the US have seen a meteoric rise in recent decades. India’s approach to managing
these relationships underscores its commitment to strategic autonomy, aimed at securing its national interests amid
a dynamic global order.
Key Issues/Concepts
1. India-Russia Relations:
➢ Historical Partnership: Rooted in Cold War cooperation, India and Russia have built a relationship based
on mutual trust, particularly in defence, space, and energy.
➢ Defence Dependence: Russia remains India’s largest supplier of military hardware, including the S-400
missile defence system. Around 60% of India’s military inventory is of Russian origin.
➢ Energy Security: India has increased oil imports from Russia, especially post-Ukraine conflict,
benefiting from discounted prices.
➢ Global Cooperation: India and Russia collaborate in multilateral platforms like BRICS, SCO, and the
UN, with Russia supporting India’s bid for a UNSC permanent seat.
2. India-USA Relations:
➢ Rising Strategic Partnership: From post-Cold War rapprochement to the Indo-US Nuclear Deal
(2008), the relationship now encompasses trade, technology, defence, and global governance.
➢ Defence and Technology: India has diversified its defence imports with platforms like the Apache
helicopters and C-17 Globemaster, strengthening its interoperability with the US. The QUAD
partnership enhances cooperation in the Indo-Pacific.
➢ Economic Ties: The US is India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching $191 billion in FY
2023-24. US firms are major investors in India's technology, energy, and manufacturing sectors.
3. Key Balancing Factors:
 14

➢ Defence:
✓ India’s reliance on Russian military technology necessitates continued ties.
✓ Simultaneously, the US offers advanced systems and joint defence initiatives.
➢ Energy:
✓ India diversifies energy sources by importing oil and gas from both the US and Russia.
✓ Russia’s discounted crude post-Ukraine conflict complements India’s energy security goals.
➢ Geopolitics:
✓ India’s role in the Indo-Pacific Strategy aligns with US interests, countering China’s assertiveness.
✓ With Russia, India balances its multilateral alignments, especially within BRICS and SCO.
Case Studies/Examples
❖ S-400 Missile Deal: India purchased this system from Russia despite potential US sanctions under CAATSA
(Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act), reflecting its independent foreign policy
stance.
❖ Malabar Naval Exercise: India’s participation alongside the US, Japan, and Australia underscores its growing
defence ties with the US in the Indo-Pacific.
❖ Oil Imports from Russia: India’s decision to increase imports of Russian oil amid the Ukraine conflict
highlights its pragmatic approach to energy security.
Critical Analysis
1. Strengths:
➢ Strategic Autonomy: India maintains a non-aligned approach, leveraging relationships with both powers
to maximize its strategic interests.
➢ Economic Synergies: Strong trade relations with the US and energy collaboration with Russia enhance
India’s economic resilience.
➢ Global Standing: India’s ability to balance these relationships strengthens its leadership in multilateral
forums.
2. Challenges:
➢ Geopolitical Pressures:
✓ US-Russia tensions, particularly post-Ukraine conflict, complicate India’s balancing act.
✓ Russia’s growing ties with China create strategic discomfort for India.
➢ Defence Diversification:
✓ India’s dependency on Russian military hardware risks operational challenges amid geopolitical
instability.
➢ Energy Dynamics:
✓ Fluctuating oil prices and sanctions-related risks impact India’s energy security.
3. Opportunities:
➢ Supply Chain Diversification: US-China tensions provide India with opportunities to attract American
firms and investments.
➢ Technology Partnerships: Expanding collaborations in AI, space exploration, and semiconductors
with the US.
➢ Global Mediation Role: India’s neutral stance in the Ukraine conflict positions it as a potential mediator
on the global stage.
 15

Current Relevance
India’s ties with Russia and the US are critical in shaping its global strategy, particularly in the context of:
❖ Rising China-US tensions.
❖ The Russia-Ukraine conflict and its impact on global energy and defence markets.
❖ India’s aspirations for leadership in multilateral forums like the UN, G20, and QUAD.
Conclusion
India’s relationship with Russia and the US underscores its strategic autonomy and commitment to a multipolar
world. While challenges such as trade tensions, defence dependencies, and geopolitical rivalries persist, India’s
balanced approach enables it to safeguard its national interests. By fostering partnerships in trade, energy, defence,
and technology, India positions itself as a key player in shaping global stability and prosperity. Strategic diplomacy
and a focus on self-reliance will be crucial for India to continue thriving in this complex trilateral dynamic.
India-Canada Relations
❖ Historical Context:
➢ India and Canada share democratic and multicultural values.
➢ Early ties during India's freedom struggle, with many Indian migrants settling in Canada.
➢ Diplomatic relations established in 1947.
➢ Influence of Canadian federalism on India's Constitution.
❖ Key Developments:
➢ Early cooperation in development assistance and education.
➢ Strain during Cold War due to nuclear tests and Air India Flight 182 bombing (1985).
➢ Revival post-1990s economic liberalization, focusing on trade and investment.
➢ 2015: Strategic partnership strengthened during Indian PM’s visit to Canada.
❖ Current Dimensions:
➢ Political: Ministerial dialogues and agreements like Air Services, Nuclear Cooperation, and Social
Security.
➢ Economic: Bilateral trade of $12 billion (2023), with negotiations ongoing for a Comprehensive
Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA).
➢ Cultural: A significant Indian diaspora in Canada, contributing to mutual soft power.
➢ Technological: Collaborations in R&D, space, and nuclear energy.
Challenges in India-Canada Relations
1. Trade Barriers:
➢ Tariffs and non-tariff barriers limit trade potential.
➢ Concerns over agricultural import restrictions (e.g., pulses).
2. Human Rights:
➢ Canada’s criticism of religious minority treatment in India.
➢ India's concerns over attacks on Hindu minorities in Canada.
3. Khalistan Issue:
➢ Vocal Khalistani diaspora in Canada advocating separatism.
 16

➢ September 2023: Allegations by Canadian PM of India’s involvement in the killing of Hardeep Singh
Nijjar.
➢ Diplomatic expulsions, visa suspensions, and stalled trade talks followed.
4. Geopolitical Divergences:
➢ Differing perspectives on Afghanistan, China, and Pakistan.
➢ Canada’s perceived lack of focus on Indo-Pacific and India.
5. Visa and Immigration:
➢ India suspended visa services for Canadians amid escalating tensions.
6. Role of External Actors:
➢ Five Eyes intelligence-sharing network supporting Canadian claims.
Khalistan Issue in Focus
❖ Historical Tensions:
➢ Long-standing presence of Khalistani sympathizers in Canada.
➢ India criticizes Canada’s lack of action against separatist activities.
❖ Recent Developments:
➢ September 2023: Diplomatic crisis over accusations linked to Nijjar's assassination.
➢ Resulted in strained ties, trade negotiation pauses, and visa suspensions.
❖ India’s Stance:
➢ Allegations divert attention from Canada’s leniency toward Khalistani elements.
➢ Emphasis on sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Measures to Strengthen Relations
1. Diplomatic Engagement:
➢ Regular high-level dialogues and Track II diplomacy.
➢ Focus on rebuilding trust through constructive discussions.
2. Addressing Khalistan Issue:
➢ Open dialogue to address separatist advocacy in Canada.
➢ Joint frameworks to counter extremism and terrorism.
3. Economic Collaboration:
➢ Resume stalled CEPA negotiations.
➢ Reduce trade barriers and increase investment flows, especially in infrastructure and renewable energy.
4. Strategic Cooperation:
➢ Counter China in Indo-Pacific, promote freedom of navigation, and uphold a rules-based order.
➢ Frameworks for counter-terrorism cooperation.
5. People-to-People Ties:
➢ Strengthen cultural exchanges and educational programs.
➢ Leverage the Indian diaspora as a bridge for better relations.
6. Environmental Collaboration:
➢ Partner on renewable energy and climate change commitments.
 17

Way Forward
Despite current tensions, India and Canada share significant historical, economic, and cultural ties. Both countries
need to:
❖ Prioritize dialogue over confrontation.
❖ Recognize mutual benefits in trade, technology, and strategic cooperation.
❖ Build on their shared values of democracy and multiculturalism.

Five Eyes Alliance: Overview and Features

What is the Five Eyes Alliance?
❖ The Five Eyes (FVEY) is an intelligence-sharing alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the
United Kingdom, and the United States.
❖ The alliance originated during World War II with intelligence collaboration between the UK and the US.
❖ It is formalized under the UK-USA Agreement, a treaty focused on signals intelligence (SIGINT).
Key Features of the Five Eyes Alliance
1. Intelligence Sharing:
➢ Member nations share a wide spectrum of intelligence, including signals, electronic surveillance, and
cybersecurity data.
➢ It is considered one of the most tightly-knit and trusted intelligence-sharing alliances globally.
2. Focus Areas:
➢ Counterterrorism, cybersecurity, counter-espionage, and tracking emerging threats.
➢ Monitoring communications and data for national security purposes.
3. Expansion into Multilateral Agreements:
➢ Nine Eyes: Extends the group to include Netherlands, Denmark, France, and Norway.
➢ 14 Eyes: Adds Belgium, Italy, Germany, Spain, and Sweden to the intelligence network.
➢ These extended alliances focus on broader intelligence-sharing partnerships but maintain lesser
integration than the core Five Eyes group.
4. Operational Structure:
➢ The alliance operates through joint collection, analysis, and dissemination of intelligence.
➢ Members share facilities, technical expertise, and classified intelligence without restriction.
5. Global Influence:
➢ The alliance has played a key role in post-9/11 counterterrorism efforts.
➢ Its surveillance programs, such as PRISM, have raised concerns about privacy and oversight.
Relevance in Contemporary Context
❖ The Five Eyes Alliance plays a critical role in addressing:
➢ Cybersecurity threats: Protecting against cyberattacks from state and non-state actors.
➢ Geopolitical challenges: Monitoring the activities of adversaries like China and Russia.
➢ Counterterrorism: Sharing intelligence to disrupt terrorist networks globally.

 1

Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

 2

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

World Trade Organisation (WTO)
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is vital to maintaining a rules-based global trading system. It acts as a
platform for negotiating trade agreements, resolving disputes, and fostering global economic integration. The
detailed analysis below outlines its objectives, evolution, structure, principles, challenges, and potential reforms.
About the World Trade Organisation (WTO)
 Established: 1 January 1995
 Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
 Membership:
 164 Members (including the European Union)
 23 Observer Governments (e.g., Iraq, Iran, Bhutan)
 Primary Role: Facilitates free and fair trade through rule-making, dispute resolution, and trade liberalization.
Key Objectives
1. Enforcing Trade Rules: To ensure compliance with international trade agreements.
2. Trade Liberalization: Reducing trade barriers and eliminating discriminatory practices.
3. Dispute Resolution: Providing a platform to resolve trade conflicts amicably.
4. Inclusivity: Supporting developing countries in maximizing trade benefits.
5. Global Cooperation: Collaborating with international organizations like the IMF and World Bank.
Evolution of WTO
1. Post-WWII Initiatives (1945):
 Proposal for an International Trade Organisation (ITO) to manage global trade.
 The ITO treaty failed to be ratified, leading to its abandonment.
2. GATT (1948-1994):
 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signed by 23 countries.
 Focused on tariff reduction and eliminating quotas.
3. Uruguay Round (1986-1994):
 Expanded trade negotiations to services, intellectual property, and agriculture.
 Resulted in the Marrakesh Agreement, forming the WTO.
4. WTO Era (1995 onwards):
 Replaced GATT and introduced a structured organization for trade governance.
Organizational Structure
1. Ministerial Conference (MC):
 Supreme decision-making body.
 Comprises trade ministers from all member nations; meets biennially.
2. General Council (GC):
 Manages day-to-day operations.
 Functions as:
 Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB)
 Dispute Settlement Body (DSB)
 3

3. Subsidiary Councils:
 Council for Trade in Goods
 Council for Trade in Services
 Council for TRIPS (Intellectual Property Rights)
4. Director-General (DG):
 Oversees administrative functions.
 Supported by Deputy Directors.
Principles of WTO
1. Non-Discrimination:
 Most Favored Nation (MFN): Equal treatment of all trading partners.
 National Treatment Obligation: Equal treatment of domestic and foreign goods/services.
2. Market Access:
 Tariff Reduction: Binding tariffs to predetermined levels.
 Prohibition of Quantitative Restrictions: Eliminating quotas.
3. Special Treatment for Developing Countries:
 Extended deadlines for compliance.
 Market access provisions.
4. Transparency and Governance:
 Promotes accountability in trade policies.
Challenges and Issues
1. State Capitalism (China):
 Lack of WTO mechanisms to address industrial subsidies and state-owned enterprises.
2. Dispute Settlement Mechanism:
 Dysfunctional Appellate Body (AB) since 2019 due to member non-appointment.
3. E-Commerce and Digital Trade:
 Disagreements over data localization and digital tariffs.
4. Special and Differential Treatment:
 Contentious self-designation of countries as "developing" for benefits.
5. Sustainability:
 Limited emphasis on aligning trade policies with climate goals.
Reforms for a Resilient WTO
1. Reviving the Dispute Settlement Body:
 Address the appointment impasse in the Appellate Body.
2. Addressing Digital Trade:
 Develop rules for e-commerce and data localization.
3. Environmental Integration:
 Align trade agreements with global sustainability goals.
4. Inclusive Governance:
 Strengthen the voice of developing nations in decision-making.
5. New Trade Challenges:
 Enhance mechanisms to address emerging trade issues like fisheries subsidies.
 4

Conclusion
The WTO plays a pivotal role in fostering economic growth, resolving trade disputes, and promoting international
cooperation. While it faces challenges like digital trade, climate concerns, and disputes over special treatments,
reforms can rejuvenate its relevance. A modernized WTO will ensure equitable sharing of the benefits of
globalization, sustaining its position as the cornerstone of the global trade architecture.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) plays a critical role in ensuring global monetary stability, fostering
international trade, and supporting economic growth. Below is a detailed exploration of its objectives, history,
functions, and its relationship with India.
Objectives of the IMF
1. Foster Global Monetary Cooperation: Encourage collaboration between nations on monetary issues.
2. Secure Financial Stability: Assist in stabilizing exchange rates and the global financial system.
3. Facilitate International Trade: Promote free trade as a driver of global economic growth.
4. Promote Employment and Growth: Support policies that ensure high employment and sustainable growth.
5. Reduce Global Poverty: Provide financial assistance to developing nations.
6. Policy Advice and Exchange Rate Stability: Guide developing countries in policy reforms and maintain
exchange rate predictability.
Functions of the IMF
1. Financial Assistance:
 Provides loans to member countries facing balance-of-payment crises.
 Requires structural adjustments to address economic imbalances.
2. IMF Surveillance:
 Monitors global financial and economic systems.
 Advises countries on policy reforms to ensure stability.
3. Capacity Development:
 Offers technical assistance to improve financial systems and governance.
 Supports progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
4. Exchange Rate System:
 Promotes stability in exchange rates.
 Encourages member countries to avoid currency manipulation.
History of the IMF
1. Formation:
 Established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference, USA.
 Initially focused on a fixed exchange rate system using the US dollar and gold as reserves.
2. Transition to Floating Exchange Rates (1971):
 After the collapse of Bretton Woods, countries adopted market-driven currency valuation.
3. Major Crises and Responses:
 1973 Oil Crisis: Introduced Oil Facility to assist oil-importing nations.
 1997 East Asian Financial Crisis: Provided bailout packages tied to financial reforms.
 2008 Global Financial Crisis: Enhanced surveillance and policy response to spillover risks.
 5

Governance Structure of the IMF

1. Board of Governors:
 Comprises representatives from each member country (e.g., Finance Ministers).
 Approves major decisions like quota changes and new memberships.
2. Executive Board:
 24 members represent constituencies or individual nations.
 Conducts daily operations and policy discussions.
3. Managing Director:
 Head of the IMF and Executive Board.
 Selected by voting or consensus of the Executive Board.
4. Voting Power and Quotas:
 Voting power is based on quotas, determined by a formula reflecting GDP, economic variability, and
reserves.
 The US has the largest voting share, ensuring significant influence.
5. Special Drawing Rights (SDRs):
 Reserve assets valued in a basket of five major currencies.
 Used to supplement member countries' official reserves.
IMF and India
1. Membership and Contributions:
 India is a founding member with a quota of SDR 5,821.5 million (13th largest).
 Holds 2.44% of total voting power.
2. Assistance to India:
 Post-Independence: Helped address balance-of-payment crises.
 1991 Economic Crisis: Provided emergency loans against gold reserves, leading to liberalization reforms.
3. India’s Role:
 Plays an active role in IMF decision-making and governance.
 Part of the Executive Board constituency with Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka.
4. Current Engagements:
 India has not taken financial assistance since 1993.
 Contributed to IMF resources through the New Arrangement to Borrow (NAB).
Criticism of the IMF
1. Governance Issues:
 Dominance of the US and Europe in decision-making.
 Lack of representation for emerging economies.
2. Conditionality of Loans:
 Imposes stringent conditions, often compromising sovereignty.
 Policies like privatization and fiscal austerity are controversial.
 6

3. Policy Effectiveness:
 Uniform policy prescriptions often overlook country-specific challenges.
 Rapid reforms demanded can lead to social and economic disruption.
4. Delayed Reforms:
 Quota reform and governance changes are slow, despite demands from developing nations.
IMF Reforms
1. Quota Reforms (2010):
 Increased quotas of emerging economies (e.g., India) to reflect their growing economic significance.
 Enhanced the total IMF capital base to SDR 477 billion.
2. Executive Board Reforms:
 Shifted to an all-elected board for greater representation.
3. BRICS Bank and Alternatives:
 Establishment of new institutions like the BRICS Bank to counter IMF dominance.
India’s Challenges and Opportunities with IMF
1. Challenges:
 Limited voting power compared to developed nations.
 Dependence on consensus for reforms.
2. Opportunities:
 Leverage IMF's capacity-building programs for sustainable growth.
 Advocate for governance changes to better reflect emerging markets' role.
Conclusion
The IMF remains central to global financial stability, addressing crises, and promoting economic growth. While its
assistance has been crucial for India, the country must continue advocating for reforms that ensure equitable
representation and align IMF policies with the needs of developing nations. India’s proactive engagement can
contribute to a more inclusive and effective global financial architecture.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) plays a critical role in ensuring global monetary stability, fostering
international trade, and supporting economic growth. Below is a detailed exploration of its objectives, history,
functions, and its relationship with India.
Objectives of the IMF
1. Foster Global Monetary Cooperation: Encourage collaboration between nations on monetary issues.
2. Secure Financial Stability: Assist in stabilizing exchange rates and the global financial system.
3. Facilitate International Trade: Promote free trade as a driver of global economic growth.
4. Promote Employment and Growth: Support policies that ensure high employment and sustainable growth.
5. Reduce Global Poverty: Provide financial assistance to developing nations.
6. Policy Advice and Exchange Rate Stability: Guide developing countries in policy reforms and maintain
exchange rate predictability.
 7

Functions of the IMF

1. Financial Assistance:
 Provides loans to member countries facing balance-of-payment crises.
 Requires structural adjustments to address economic imbalances.
2. IMF Surveillance:
 Monitors global financial and economic systems.
 Advises countries on policy reforms to ensure stability.
3. Capacity Development:
 Offers technical assistance to improve financial systems and governance.
 Supports progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
4. Exchange Rate System:
 Promotes stability in exchange rates.
 Encourages member countries to avoid currency manipulation.
History of the IMF
1. Formation:
 Established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference, USA.
 Initially focused on a fixed exchange rate system using the US dollar and gold as reserves.
2. Transition to Floating Exchange Rates (1971):
 After the collapse of Bretton Woods, countries adopted market-driven currency valuation.
3. Major Crises and Responses:
 1973 Oil Crisis: Introduced Oil Facility to assist oil-importing nations.
 1997 East Asian Financial Crisis: Provided bailout packages tied to financial reforms.
 2008 Global Financial Crisis: Enhanced surveillance and policy response to spillover risks.
Governance Structure of the IMF
1. Board of Governors:
 Comprises representatives from each member country (e.g., Finance Ministers).
 Approves major decisions like quota changes and new memberships.
2. Executive Board:
 24 members represent constituencies or individual nations.
 Conducts daily operations and policy discussions.
3. Managing Director:
 Head of the IMF and Executive Board.
 Selected by voting or consensus of the Executive Board.
4. Voting Power and Quotas:
 Voting power is based on quotas, determined by a formula reflecting GDP, economic variability, and reserves.
 The US has the largest voting share, ensuring significant influence.
5. Special Drawing Rights (SDRs):
 Reserve assets valued in a basket of five major currencies.
 Used to supplement member countries' official reserves.
 8

IMF and India

1. Membership and Contributions:
 India is a founding member with a quota of SDR 5,821.5 million (13th largest).
 Holds 2.44% of total voting power.
2. Assistance to India:
 Post-Independence: Helped address balance-of-payment crises.
 1991 Economic Crisis: Provided emergency loans against gold reserves, leading to liberalization reforms.
3. India’s Role:
 Plays an active role in IMF decision-making and governance.
 Part of the Executive Board constituency with Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka.
4. Current Engagements:
 India has not taken financial assistance since 1993.
 Contributed to IMF resources through the New Arrangement to Borrow (NAB).
Criticism of the IMF
1. Governance Issues:
 Dominance of the US and Europe in decision-making.
 Lack of representation for emerging economies.
2. Conditionality of Loans:
 Imposes stringent conditions, often compromising sovereignty.
 Policies like privatization and fiscal austerity are controversial.
3. Policy Effectiveness:
 Uniform policy prescriptions often overlook country-specific challenges.
 Rapid reforms demanded can lead to social and economic disruption.
4. Delayed Reforms:
 Quota reform and governance changes are slow, despite demands from developing nations.
IMF Reforms
1. Quota Reforms (2010):
 Increased quotas of emerging economies (e.g., India) to reflect their growing economic significance.
 Enhanced the total IMF capital base to SDR 477 billion.
2. Executive Board Reforms:
 Shifted to an all-elected board for greater representation.
3. BRICS Bank and Alternatives:
 Establishment of new institutions like the BRICS Bank to counter IMF dominance.
India’s Challenges and Opportunities with IMF
1. Challenges:
 Limited voting power compared to developed nations.
 Dependence on consensus for reforms.
2. Opportunities:
 Leverage IMF's capacity-building programs for sustainable growth.
 Advocate for governance changes to better reflect emerging markets' role.
 9

Conclusion
The IMF remains central to global financial stability, addressing crises, and promoting economic growth. While its
assistance has been crucial for India, the country must continue advocating for reforms that ensure equitable
representation and align IMF policies with the needs of developing nations. India’s proactive engagement can
contribute to a more inclusive and effective global financial architecture.

Special Drawing Rights (SDR) - Explained

Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) are international reserve assets created by the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
to supplement the foreign exchange reserves of its member countries. SDRs are not a currency but represent a claim
to currency that IMF member countries can exchange among themselves in times of balance-of-payments crises.
Key Features of SDRs
1. Basket of Currencies:
 The value of an SDR is determined based on a basket of five major international currencies:
 US Dollar (USD)
 Euro (EUR)
 Chinese Renminbi (RMB)
 Japanese Yen (JPY)
 British Pound Sterling (GBP)
 The basket is reviewed every five years to ensure its relevance to the global economy.
2. Not a Currency:
 SDRs are not physical money and cannot be used directly for transactions like buying goods or services.
3. Unit of Account:
 SDRs are used as a unit of account for the IMF and some international organizations.
4. Allocation:
 SDRs are allocated to IMF member countries in proportion to their IMF quotas (financial contributions
to the IMF).
5. Exchange Mechanism:
 Member countries can exchange SDRs for freely usable currencies (e.g., USD, EUR) with other
members.
Valuation of SDRs
 The SDR value is calculated daily based on the exchange rates of the five basket currencies.
 Example:
 Suppose the SDR basket is as follows (weights are hypothetical):
 USD: 40%
 EUR: 30%
 RMB: 15%
 JPY: 10%
 GBP: 5%
 If exchange rates change, the value of the SDR in terms of USD or other currencies will adjust accordingly.
 10

Practical Use of SDRs

1. Reserves Supplement:
 SDRs provide an additional reserve asset for countries to stabilize their foreign reserves.
 Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the IMF allocated SDR 456 billion to help countries
strengthen reserves and combat economic disruptions.
2. Balance-of-Payments Support:
 Countries facing a foreign exchange shortage can use SDRs to acquire hard currency.
 Example: If a country has a trade deficit and lacks sufficient USD reserves, it can exchange SDRs for
USD with another country.
3. Debt Repayment:
 Countries can use SDRs to settle obligations with the IMF or other international creditors.
Example of SDR Allocation
 2021 SDR Allocation:
 The IMF allocated SDR 650 billion (approx. $943 billion) globally to help countries recover from the
pandemic.
 Distribution:
 Developed countries: Received a larger share due to higher quotas.
 Developing countries: Received smaller shares but benefited significantly to bolster reserves.
 India: Received approximately SDR 12.57 billion (about $17.86 billion).
Benefits of SDRs
1. Global Liquidity:
 Provides an additional tool for countries to manage international liquidity shortages.
2. Non-Burdensome:
 Unlike loans, SDRs do not come with repayment obligations or interest.
3. Stability in Crisis:
 Offers immediate assistance during economic crises without needing complex negotiations.
Challenges and Limitations
1. Not Freely Usable:
 SDRs cannot be directly used like regular currencies; they require an exchange mechanism.
2. Limited Allocation:
 SDR allocations are infrequent and depend on global economic needs.
3. Inequity in Distribution:
 Larger quotas for developed nations result in an unequal share of SDR allocations.
Conclusion
SDRs are a valuable financial instrument that enhance global economic stability by providing liquidity and
supporting countries during crises. While not a direct substitute for hard currency, they play a critical role in
stabilizing global monetary systems. Countries like India have used SDR allocations to strengthen reserves and
manage external vulnerabilities, demonstrating their utility in today's interconnected global economy.
 11

The Group of Seven (G7): Historical Context and Relevance

The Group of Seven (G7) is a prominent forum for addressing global economic, security, and developmental
challenges. Established during an era of economic turbulence, its role has expanded to include discussions on
technological advancements, climate change, and geopolitical stability.
Historical Context and Evolution of the G7
1. Formation as G6 (1975):
 Founded by six leading industrialized nations—United States, France, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom,
and West Germany.
 Focus: Address global economic challenges such as inflation and the 1973-74 oil embargo.
2. Expansion to G7 (1976):
 Canada joined the group, forming the G7.
3. G8 (1997-2014):
 Russia was included in 1997 but was suspended in 2014 following the annexation of Crimea.
4. European Union Participation:
 The EU has been represented in G7 meetings since 1981 by the Presidents of the European Council and
Commission.
Functioning of the G7
1. Membership:
 Informal grouping of wealthy democracies with no formal criteria.
 Members: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United States, and the European
Union (non-presiding member).
2. Annual Presidency:
 Rotates among members.
 The presiding nation sets the agenda and organizes the summit.
3. Sherpas:
 Senior officials who prepare the groundwork for the summit.
 They negotiate policy directions and finalize the summit’s communiqué.
Key Focus Areas of G7
1. Economic Stability and Growth:
 Facilitating trade, addressing inflation, and fostering global economic recovery.
2. Geopolitical Issues:
 Focus on conflicts like Russia-Ukraine and Israel-Gaza.
3. Climate Change:
 Strategies to meet emission targets and accelerate clean energy transitions.
4. Technological Governance:
 Ethical use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and cybersecurity.
5. Engagement with the Global South:
 Building partnerships with emerging economies and addressing migration, food security, and infrastructure
development.
 12

Achievements of the G7
1. Global Crisis Response:
 Coordinated actions during the 2008 financial crisis and COVID-19 pandemic.
 Sanctions and economic measures against Russia during the Ukraine conflict.
2. Innovations in Governance:
 Initiatives like the Hiroshima AI Process to regulate emerging technologies.
3. Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGI):
 Aimed at countering China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) through sustainable infrastructure
investments.
Challenges and Limitations
1. Limited Representation:
 Represents less than 30% of global GDP today, compared to nearly 50% in the 1970s.
 Criticized for its Western-centric and pro-capitalist approach.
2. Internal Disagreements:
 Divergent priorities among members, such as the US focus on China versus Europe’s focus on Ukraine.
3. Economic Uncertainty:
 Challenges like slow growth and aging populations in Japan, Italy, and other members.
4. Climate Change:
 Inability to meet emission reduction targets due to divergent member priorities.
5. Geopolitical Shifts:
 Rising influence of BRICS nations and China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
Key Highlights of the 2024 G7 Summit in Italy
1. Focus on the Global South:
 Emphasis on partnerships with Africa for food security, infrastructure, and climate adaptation.
2. Conflict Resolution:
 Plans to utilize frozen Russian assets for Ukraine’s reconstruction.
 Addressing the Israel-Gaza conflict with proposals for ceasefire and peace agreements.
3. Economic Security:
 Countering China’s influence in the Indo-Pacific region.
 Strengthening trade alliances and investment frameworks.
4. Artificial Intelligence:
 Establishing governance frameworks for ethical AI use.
5. Migration Management:
 Coordinating policies to address global migration flows with secure borders and humanitarian assistance.
6. Climate Action:
 Commitment to phasing out coal power by the mid-2030s.
 Addressing shortfalls in emission reduction targets.
 13

Significance of G7 for India

1. Economic Opportunities:
 Access to cutting-edge technologies and new markets.
 Collaboration in renewable energy, AI, and digital technologies.
2. Strategic Partnerships:
 Aligning with G7 nations on Indo-Pacific security.
 Strengthening ties with the US, UK, Japan, and Italy.
3. Development Assistance:
 Leveraging G7 initiatives in global education and infrastructure for domestic growth.
4. Global Influence:
 A platform to showcase India’s leadership, especially post-G20 Summit, as a voice for the Global South.
5. Balancing Geopolitical Interests:
 Maintaining relations with both Russia and the West amidst evolving global dynamics.
6. Climate Cooperation:
 Collaborating on emission reduction goals and climate adaptation strategies.
Conclusion
The G7 continues to play a pivotal role in addressing global challenges, but it must adapt to the evolving geopolitical
landscape by engaging with emerging economies like India. For India, the G7 is a vital platform to expand its
influence, forge strategic alliances, and address global issues collaboratively, especially in areas like technology,
climate change, and economic security. Strengthening its engagement with the G7 aligns with India's aspirations as
a key player in shaping global governance.

18th G20 Summit

The 18th G20 Summit, held in New Delhi on September 9-10, 2023, marked a historic moment as India hosted
the G20 Leaders' Summit for the first time. With the theme "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" (The World is One
Family), the summit focused on inclusive and sustainable development, global economic stability, and cooperation
on pressing international challenges.
Major Outcomes of the G20 Summit 2023
1. Admittance of the African Union (AU) into G20
 Significance:
 The inclusion of AU as a permanent member elevates G20 to G21, enhancing representation of the
Global South.
 Amplifies Africa’s voice on global trade, finance, and sustainable development.
 Impact:
 Strengthens global economic inclusivity and reforms international decision-making frameworks.
 Brings African priorities like climate adaptation, food security, and infrastructure development to
the forefront.
 14

2. Launch of the Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA)

 About GBA:
 An India-led initiative to promote biofuels as part of the energy transition.
 Founding members: India, US, Brazil, and six other countries.
 Supported by 19 countries and 12 international organizations.
 Significance:
 Boosts India's biofuel programs like PM-JIVAN Yojana and SATAT.
 Aligns with global Net Zero targets, leveraging biofuels for clean energy and economic growth.
3. India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)
 Details:
 MoU signed by India, US, Saudi Arabia, UAE, and European nations.
 Aims to establish a rail and sea trade corridor connecting India, the Middle East, and Europe.
 Strategic Implications:
 Counters China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) by providing an alternative trade network.
 Enhances connectivity, trade, and strategic collaboration across the regions.
4. Financial Inclusion and Digital Transformation
 India’s Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI):
 Cited as a global model for financial inclusion, achieving 47 years’ worth of progress in just 6
years.
 Key achievements:
 Over 80% financial inclusion rate through Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM).
 Unified Payments Interface (UPI): Over 9.41 billion transactions in May 2023 alone.
 Government-to-Person (G2P) Transfers: USD 361 billion transferred, saving USD 33
billion.
 Enhanced cross-border payments via UPI-PayNow linkage with Singapore.
5. Climate and Renewable Energy Commitments
 Tripling Global Renewable Energy Capacity by 2030:
 Targets reducing carbon emissions by 7 billion tonnes by 2030.
 Aligns with efforts to limit global warming to 1.5°C under the Paris Agreement.
 Climate Financing:
 Calls for USD 5.8-5.9 trillion for developing nations and USD 4 trillion annually for clean energy
technologies.
6. Food Security and Nutrition
 Key Initiatives:
 Adoption of MAHARISHI (Millets and Other Ancient Grains International Research Initiative).
 Implementation of Deccan G20 High-Level Principles on food security and nutrition.
 Expansion of the Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS) for better food price
transparency.
 15

7. Small Arms and Terrorism

 Focus Areas:
 Strong condemnation of terrorism in all forms.
 Support for Financial Action Task Force (FATF) initiatives to combat terror financing and recover
criminal assets.
8. Healthcare Resilience
 Key Emphases:
 Strengthening primary healthcare and integrating traditional medicine with modern practices.
 Commitment to tackling long COVID and antimicrobial resistance.
9. Finance and Crypto Regulation
 Framework for Crypto Regulation:
 India's presidency emphasized a global policy framework for crypto-assets.
 Recognition of risks in the crypto ecosystem and the need for robust oversight.
10. India-Mercosur Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA)
 Expansion of India-Mercosur PTA:
 Strengthens ties between India and Mercosur (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay).
 Promotes trade by reducing customs duties on goods.
Significance for India
1. Global Leadership Role
 Hosting the G20 Summit showcased India’s ability to lead on global issues, including financial inclusion,
climate change, and digital transformation.
2. Strategic Partnerships
 Strengthened alliances with major powers like the US, EU, and Middle Eastern nations through initiatives
like IMEC and defence collaborations.
3. Climate Leadership
 Positioned India as a champion of sustainable development through biofuels and renewable energy
commitments.
4. Boosting Domestic Programs
 Global acknowledgment of India’s DPI, including UPI, Aadhaar, and PMJDY, highlighted India's
technological and policy innovation.
Key Cultural Highlights
 Showcase of India’s Heritage:
 Bharat Mandapam, Chola-style bronze statue of Lord Nataraja, and other cultural elements reflected
India's rich history.
 Handing Over G20 Presidency:
 PM Narendra Modi transferred the G20 presidency to Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva.
Conclusion
The 18th G20 Summit in New Delhi was a landmark event, with outcomes that addressed critical global challenges
while highlighting India's role as a pivotal player on the international stage. From including the African Union to
launching the Global Biofuels Alliance and advancing climate and financial goals, the summit underscored the
importance of collective action and India’s emerging global leadership.
 16

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

NATO is a military alliance formed in 1949 under the North Atlantic Treaty (Washington Treaty) to ensure
collective security against threats, initially aimed at countering the Soviet Union's influence during the Cold War.
It is now a key player in global security, adapting its mission to address contemporary threats like terrorism,
cyberwarfare, and geopolitical conflicts.
Key Features of NATO
1. Members:
 Original Members (1949): Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, the UK, and the US.
 Later Members: Includes Greece, Turkey, Germany, Spain, and Eastern European nations post-1999
(e.g., Poland, Hungary, Baltic states).
 Recent Additions:
 Montenegro (2017)
 North Macedonia (2020)
 Potential Members: Finland and Sweden have expressed interest in joining.
2. Headquarters: Located in Brussels, Belgium.
3. Collective Defense (Article 5):
 An attack on one member is considered an attack on all. This principle underpins NATO's strength and unity.
4. France's Withdrawal and Return:
 Withdrew from NATO's integrated military command in 1966 but remained a political member. Rejoined
the military command in 2009.
India-NATO Political Dialogue
Background:
 India engaged in its first political dialogue with NATO in Brussels on December 12, 2019.
 The dialogue reflects India’s growing geopolitical importance and NATO's desire to engage with key global
players beyond its traditional focus.
Significance of the Dialogue:
1. Balancing NATO's Perceptions:
 Engagement allows India to provide its perspective on regional issues, such as China's rise, terrorism,
and Pakistan's role in Afghanistan.
 It helps address biases in NATO's stance influenced by its engagement with China and Pakistan.
2. Convergence on Key Issues:
 Both India and NATO share concerns over:
 China's aggressive posture in the Indo-Pacific and globally.
 Terrorism and its state-sponsored dimensions.
 Stability in Afghanistan, particularly after NATO's withdrawal.
3. Strategic Cooperation:
 Enhances NATO’s understanding of India's geo-strategic importance and its role in promoting security
in South Asia and the Indo-Pacific.
 17

Challenges in NATO-India Relations:

1. NATO’s Focus on Russia:
 NATO perceives Russia as its primary security threat, particularly due to:
 Aggression in Ukraine.
 The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty disputes.
 This focus can divert attention from Asia-Pacific concerns like China's rise or Pakistan’s role in fostering
instability.
2. Mixed Views on China:
 Within NATO, there are divergent opinions on how to address China's rise.
 While some see China as a strategic competitor, others see economic opportunities.
3. NATO’s View on Taliban:
 NATO views the Taliban as a political entity, differing from India's perspective, which emphasizes the
group's links to terrorism.
NATO’s Perspective on India:
1. Strategic Location:
 India's geo-strategic position is critical for regional and international security.
2. Collaborative Potential:
 NATO values dialogue with India to enhance its understanding of the Indo-Pacific region and strengthen
global security frameworks.
3. Complementing NATO’s Global Role:
 India’s strong democratic institutions and growing economic and military power align with NATO's
principles of collective security and democratic governance.
Conclusion
The NATO-India political dialogue represents a strategic step forward in aligning the interests of a global security
alliance with a key regional power. While challenges like divergent priorities exist, this engagement offers
opportunities for India to influence NATO's understanding of regional dynamics and secure greater cooperation in
addressing shared challenges such as terrorism, geopolitical stability, and emerging global threats.
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
Overview and Significance
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a pivotal regional organization in Eurasia, encompassing
significant geopolitical, economic, and cultural cooperation. With its expansive coverage, SCO plays a crucial role
in addressing security challenges and fostering regional collaboration.
Key Features of the SCO
1. Geographic and Economic Scale:
 Covers 60% of Eurasia and represents 40% of the global population.
 Combined GDP accounts for around 20% of the world's GDP.
2. Core Focus Areas:
 Political cooperation: Building mutual trust among member states.
 Security collaboration: Countering terrorism, separatism, and extremism.
 Economic development: Promoting trade, investment, and resource sharing.
 Cultural exchange: Strengthening cultural and educational ties.
 18

3. Permanent Secretariat: Based in Beijing, China.

4. Associated Bodies:
 Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS): Based in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, focuses on counterterrorism
cooperation.
 SCO Business Council: Promotes economic and business collaboration.
Historical Evolution
1. Shanghai Five (1996):
 Founding members: China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan.
 Focus: Border demilitarization and regional stability.
2. Formation of SCO (2001):
 Established with the addition of Uzbekistan.
 Expanded to include India and Pakistan in 2017.
 Iran became a full member in 2023.
3. Governance:
 Heads of State Council (HSC): The highest decision-making body, meeting annually.
Members of SCO
 Current Members (9):
 Founding Members: China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.
 Recent Members: India, Pakistan, Iran.
Significance of SCO for India
1. Security Cooperation:
 Addresses regional security concerns, including terrorism, separatism, and extremism.
 Leverages RATS for intelligence sharing and coordinated counterterrorism efforts.
 Enhances focus on cybersecurity and combating illicit activities like drug trafficking.
2. Military Collaboration:
 Participates in joint military exercises to counter terrorism and foster regional peace.
 Builds strategic trust through defense cooperation.
3. Economic Opportunities:
 Access to energy-rich Central Asia for oil and gas exploration.
 Collaboration on joint infrastructure and connectivity projects, enhancing Eurasian trade links.
 Potential for increased trade through the Chabahar Port and other initiatives.
4. Cultural Exchange:
 Promotes India’s rich cultural heritage through festivals and exhibitions.
 Strengthens people-to-people ties in Eurasia.
Challenges for SCO
1. Internal Conflicts:
 India-China border tensions: Standoff in the Ladakh region and unresolved disputes.
 India-Pakistan hostility: Ceasefire violations and state-sponsored terrorism.
 Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan disputes: Ongoing border skirmishes threatening regional stability.
 19

2. Power Imbalance:
 Dominance of China and Russia risks marginalizing smaller members.
 Disproportionate influence may lead to unequal decision-making.
3. Divergent Interests:
 Different priorities of members make consensus difficult.
 For instance:
 Russia focuses on countering NATO and Western influence.
 China emphasizes economic dominance through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
4. Economic Integration:
 Lack of cohesive economic policies among members.
 Limited progress on trade and investment cooperation.
5. External Pressures:
 Geopolitical rivalries with the US and NATO influence SCO’s functioning.
 Balancing external interests while maintaining unity is challenging.
6. Human Rights and Democratic Values:
 Members have varying commitments to democracy and human rights, causing friction on international
platforms.
7. Counterterrorism Coordination:
 Differing views on terrorism complicate intelligence-sharing efforts.
 Pakistan’s role in supporting terrorism undermines regional trust.
Opportunities for India in SCO
1. Strategic Presence in Eurasia:
 Strengthens India’s influence in Central Asia, complementing its Connect Central Asia Policy.
2. Energy Security:
 Access to Central Asian resources to diversify India’s energy imports.
3. Counterterrorism:
 Leverages RATS to counter cross-border terrorism from Pakistan.
4. Balancing China’s Influence:
 Ensures India’s participation in shaping SCO’s policies to counterbalance China’s dominance.
5. Cultural Diplomacy:
 Promotes Indian values, fostering goodwill among member states.
Way Forward for SCO
1. Addressing Power Imbalances:
 Ensuring equitable participation of smaller members to foster trust and unity.
2. Enhancing Economic Integration:
 Focus on collaborative infrastructure and trade projects that benefit all members.
 Encouraging non-BRI alternatives for economic connectivity.
 20

3. Building Trust:
 Resolving bilateral conflicts like India-China and Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan disputes through dialogue.
4. Strengthening Counterterrorism Efforts:
 Enhancing intelligence-sharing mechanisms to combat terrorism effectively.
5. Focusing on Climate and Development:
 Promoting regional initiatives for environmental sustainability and disaster management.
Conclusion
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation holds immense potential for regional stability, economic cooperation,
and cultural exchange. For India, it offers a platform to engage with Eurasian nations, counter security threats, and
foster economic opportunities. However, challenges like internal conflicts, power imbalances, and divergent
priorities need to be addressed through dialogue and cooperation to ensure the organization’s long-term
effectiveness and relevance.

India and the Global South

India’s role in the Global South is a pivotal aspect of its foreign policy. As a leader among developing nations,
India seeks to represent the collective interests of countries from Asia, Africa, and Latin America, addressing issues
of poverty, inequality, climate change, and global governance.

Understanding the Global South

1. Definition:
 Refers to developing nations primarily in the Southern Hemisphere, encompassing Africa, Latin
America, and parts of Asia.
 Historically marginalized in global decision-making due to colonial legacies and economic disparities.
2. Characteristics:
 Shared challenges: Poverty, inequality, underdevelopment, and climate vulnerability.
 Common aspirations: Economic growth, equitable global governance, and sustainable development.

India’s Historical Role in the Global South

1. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM):
 India co-founded NAM in 1961 to assert the autonomy of developing countries during the Cold War era.
 Advocated for decolonization, disarmament, and economic independence.
2. South-South Cooperation:
 Promoted collaboration among developing nations for mutual benefit.
 Championed initiatives in trade, technology transfer, and cultural exchange.
3. Voice for Decolonization:
 Actively supported African and Asian nations in their struggles for independence.

India’s Contemporary Role in the Global South

1. Leadership on Climate Change:
 Played a central role in creating the International Solar Alliance (ISA) to promote clean energy in
developing nations.
 Advocates for climate justice, emphasizing the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities
(CBDR).
 21

2. Economic Collaboration:
 Supports trade and investment among Global South countries through preferential trade agreements.
 Launched Duty-Free Tariff Preference Scheme for least developed countries (LDCs).
3. Digital and Technological Partnerships:
 Promotes the India Stack model (Aadhaar, UPI, and JAM trinity) as an example of affordable and
scalable digital infrastructure.
 Encourages the sharing of technology to improve governance and financial inclusion.
4. Humanitarian and Development Assistance:
 Provides concessional loans, technical expertise, and capacity-building through the Indian Technical
and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program.
 Extends humanitarian aid during natural disasters and pandemics to countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America.
5. Multilateral Engagement:
 Actively participates in platforms like the G20, BRICS, and IBSA Dialogue Forum to amplify the
concerns of the Global South.
 Advocates for reforms in global institutions like the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), World
Bank, and IMF to increase the representation of developing nations.
6. Food and Health Security:
 Leads initiatives to address hunger and malnutrition in the Global South.
 Contributed significantly to global vaccine equity during the COVID-19 pandemic through Vaccine
Maitri.

India’s Key Initiatives for the Global South

1. South-South Cooperation:
 Partnered with African nations under the India-Africa Forum Summit.
 Expanded developmental cooperation with Latin America and CARICOM nations.
2. Solar and Renewable Energy:
 Launched the One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) initiative to integrate global solar power grids.
3. Post-G20 Summit Initiatives (2023):
 Established platforms to enhance technology transfer, climate financing, and trade opportunities for
developing countries.
 Advocated for the inclusion of the African Union in the G20 as a permanent member.
4. Cultural and Educational Exchange:
 Offers scholarships to students from Global South countries through initiatives like the Study in India
program.

Challenges in India’s Engagement with the Global South

1. Limited Resources:
 Balancing domestic developmental needs with international commitments.
2. Competition with China:
 China’s significant economic footprint through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) poses challenges for
India’s influence.
 22

3. Geopolitical Tensions:
 Conflicts with Pakistan and China can hinder India’s broader role in the region.
4. Representation in Global Governance:
 Despite India’s leadership, structural inequities in global institutions limit the collective influence of the
Global South.

Future Prospects
1. Enhanced Multilateral Leadership:
 Use platforms like G20, BRICS, and ISA to champion the Global South’s interests.
2. Strengthening Partnerships:
 Deepen cooperation with Africa, Latin America, and ASEAN nations through trade, infrastructure, and
education.
3. Driving Sustainable Development:
 Expand efforts in renewable energy, digital inclusion, and climate resilience.
4. Reform Advocacy:
 Lead the charge for equitable reforms in global financial and political institutions.

Conclusion
India’s engagement with the Global South underscores its commitment to building a more equitable and inclusive
global order. By addressing shared challenges and fostering collaborative solutions, India aspires to be the voice of
the developing world, bridging gaps in global governance and promoting sustainable growth. Its leadership in
climate action, technology sharing, and multilateral diplomacy solidifies its role as a champion of the Global South.

Current Status of the Indian Diaspora

The Indian Diaspora, with an estimated 18 million people, is the largest in the world. It plays a vital role in
fostering global economic, cultural, and diplomatic ties for India.
Demographics of the Indian Diaspora
1. Population Distribution:
 Major host countries: USA (2.7 million), UAE (3.5 million), Saudi Arabia (2.5 million), Malaysia, UK,
and Canada.
 High concentration in Gulf countries:
 Qatar (30.5% of the population).
 UAE (27%), Bahrain (19%), Oman (18%).
2. Remittance Contributions:
 India received $87 billion in remittances in 2021, with the USA contributing 23.4%.
 Other major sources: UAE (18%), UK (6.8%), Singapore (5.7%).
Who Qualifies as Part of the Indian Diaspora?
1. Categories:
 Non-Resident Indians (NRIs): Indian citizens residing abroad for more than 182 days a year.
 Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs): Foreign nationals of Indian origin or their spouses with permanent
residency and rights in India.
 People of Indian Origin (PIOs): Individuals of Indian ancestry who are citizens of other countries.
(Merged with OCI in 2015).
 23

Characteristics of the Indian Diaspora

1. Diverse and Large Population:
 Includes people of varied regions, religions, castes, and professions.
2. Economic Success:
 Many hold influential positions in business, entrepreneurship, and global organizations.
3. Cultural Preservation:
 Celebrates Indian festivals, traditions, and languages abroad.
4. Political and Advocacy Roles:
 Active in politics and policy-making in host countries (e.g., UK Prime Minister Rishi Sunak).
5. Strong Identity and Family Values:
 Deep-rooted connection to Indian heritage and family networks.
Factors Leading to a Large Indian Diaspora
1. Historical:
 Migration during colonial times as indentured laborers to countries like Mauritius, South Africa, Fiji,
and the Caribbean.
2. Economic:
 Limited domestic job opportunities drive Indians to seek employment abroad, especially in Gulf nations.
3. Social and Cultural:
 Family ties and entrepreneurial networks support Indians in settling abroad and thriving.
4. Education and Skills:
 Highly skilled professionals, especially in IT, medicine, and engineering, contribute to the global
workforce.
Significance of the Indian Diaspora
1. Economic Contributions:
 Largest source of remittances globally, supporting India's foreign reserves and economic stability.
2. Cultural Influence:
 Indian cuisine, festivals, and Bollywood culture have gained global recognition.
3. Political Impact:
 Indian-origin leaders in global politics foster stronger India-host country ties (e.g., Rishi Sunak in the
UK).
4. Diplomatic Bridge:
 Acts as a cultural ambassador, strengthening India's international relations.
5. Knowledge and Skills Transfer:
 Diaspora professionals contribute expertise to India through reverse brain drain or collaborative projects.
 24

Government Initiatives to Engage the Indian Diaspora

1. Engagement Platforms:
 Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD): Annual event celebrating Diaspora contributions.
 Know India Program: Connects young Diaspora members with Indian culture.
2. Legal and Financial Assistance:
 Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI): Grants permanent residency and investment rights.
 Pravasi Bhartiya Bima Yojana: Insurance for Indian workers in ECR (Emigration Check Required)
countries.
 Indian Community Welfare Fund (ICWF): Supports Indians in distress abroad.
3. Educational and Cultural Programs:
 Scholarships for Indian-origin students.
 Initiatives promoting Indian languages and traditions.
4. Trade and Investment Facilitation:
 Encourages Diaspora investments through special schemes and advisory forums.
5. Social Security Agreements:
 Bilateral agreements ensuring social security for Indian workers abroad.
Challenges Faced by the Indian Diaspora
1. Discrimination and Xenophobia:
 Racism and cultural stereotyping in some host countries.
2. Legal and Employment Issues:
 Vulnerability of low-skilled workers in Gulf countries to exploitation.
3. Health and Welfare:
 Lack of access to affordable healthcare and social security benefits in some nations.
4. Identity and Integration:
 Balancing cultural preservation with integration into host societies.
Measures for the Welfare of the Indian Diaspora
1. Strengthening Consular Services:
 Enhancing visa, passport, and emergency services at Indian embassies.
2. Employment Support:
 Providing skill training and certifications to boost employability abroad.
3. Crisis Response Mechanisms:
 Expanding ICWF to address emergencies like natural disasters or political unrest.
4. Educational and Cultural Support:
 Promoting Indian studies in global universities and cultural exchange programs.
5. Legal Assistance:
 Providing legal aid for workers facing disputes or exploitation.
6. Health Initiatives:
 Establishing health camps and affordable insurance schemes for Indian workers.
 25

Conclusion
The Indian Diaspora is a vital asset for India's global influence, contributing to economic growth, cultural
diplomacy, and international relations. By addressing challenges and strengthening engagement mechanisms, India
can further empower its Diaspora to act as ambassadors of Indian values and drivers of global progress.

 1

Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

India Italy
 2

India Italy
India-Canada Relations: A Detailed Overview
Introduction
India and Canada share a long-standing bilateral relationship rooted in democratic values, pluralism, and a
multicultural ethos. These ties are reinforced by a robust diaspora and a shared commitment to peace, prosperity,
and global stability. However, recent geopolitical tensions, particularly concerning the Khalistani separatist issue,
have strained this partnership, necessitating a recalibration of priorities and strategies.
Historical Context
1. Colonial Period and Early Immigration:
 Indian migrants, during the freedom struggle, settled in Canada and contributed to anti-colonial activities,
including the establishment of “Swadesh Sevak Home” in Vancouver.
2. Post-Independence Relations:
 India and Canada established diplomatic ties in 1947.
 Constitutional inspiration: India's federal structure was influenced by Canada’s model of a strong Centre
with residual powers.
 Canada was a significant provider of developmental aid to India during the early years.
3. Challenges in the Cold War Era:
 Bilateral relations were strained following India’s nuclear tests and the Air India Flight 182 bombing by
Sikh extremists in 1985.
4. Economic Liberalization and Strategic Shift:
 Post-1990s, economic liberalization expanded ties to include trade, investment, and scientific collaboration.
 Elevation to a strategic partnership during PM Modi's 2015 visit marked a turning point.
Pillars of India-Canada Relations
1. Political Relations
 Ministerial Dialogues: High-level discussions on foreign policy, trade, energy, and technology.
 Key Agreements:
 Air Services Agreement
 Nuclear Cooperation Agreement
 Extradition Treaty
2. Economic Ties
 Bilateral Trade: $12 billion in 2023, with potential for growth. India exports pharmaceuticals, textiles,
and machinery, while Canada exports pulses, timber, and mining products.
 FDI: Canada is the 18th largest investor in India, with investments of $3.3 billion (2000–2023).
 Ongoing Negotiations: Efforts to finalize a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA).
3. Cultural and Diaspora Relations
 Diaspora: Over 1.3 million Canadians are of Indian origin, contributing to Canada’s economy and
politics.
 Soft Power: India remains the top source country for international students in Canada. Sikh Heritage
Month (April) underscores cultural connections.
 3

4. Technological and Strategic Cooperation

 Space and R&D: ISRO-CSA collaboration and IC-IMPACTS initiative for industrial R&D.
 Nuclear Energy: The 2010 Nuclear Cooperation Agreement facilitates peaceful nuclear collaboration.
Challenges in Bilateral Relations
1. Khalistan Issue
 The rise of Khalistani advocacy in Canada has been a longstanding irritant.
 The Canadian PM's recent allegations against India have escalated tensions, leading to diplomatic
expulsions and visa suspensions.
2. Trade and Economic Barriers
 Delays in CEPA negotiations due to agricultural import restrictions and non-tariff barriers.
 India’s concerns over Canada’s perceived lack of prioritization of Indo-Canadian trade relations.
3. Divergent Geopolitical Perspectives
 Disagreements over Afghanistan, China, and Pakistan have led to policy mismatches.
 Canada’s criticism of India’s domestic policies, particularly concerning Kashmir and minority rights, has
been contentious.
Way Forward: Enhancing Bilateral Cooperation
1. Political Engagement
 Regular high-level diplomatic engagements and Track II dialogues to rebuild trust.
 Frameworks to counter terrorism and extremism, addressing the Khalistan issue transparently.
2. Economic Integration
 Prioritize CEPA negotiations to unlock trade potential.
 Encourage Canadian investments in India's Smart Cities Mission and renewable energy sectors.
3. Leveraging Diaspora and Cultural Diplomacy
 Foster educational exchanges and cultural programs to bridge societal gaps.
 Strengthen Indian diaspora networks to enhance bilateral relations.
4. Strategic and Environmental Collaboration
 Joint initiatives on Indo-Pacific security, emphasizing rule-based maritime order.
 Collaboration on renewable energy projects and climate change commitments.
Conclusion
India and Canada are natural partners, bound by shared values and mutual interests. Despite current challenges,
including the Khalistan issue, both nations have immense potential to deepen their partnership. By addressing
political and economic irritants and leveraging people-to-people ties, India and Canada can transform their bilateral
relationship into a robust pillar of stability in an increasingly polarized global order.
The 18th G20 Summit, held in New Delhi on September 9–10, 2023, provided a platform for global leaders to
discuss pressing international issues. On the summit's sidelines, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Canadian
Prime Minister Justin Trudeau engaged in a bilateral meeting. During this interaction, Prime Minister Modi
expressed India's concerns regarding the activities of extremist elements in Canada that promote secessionism and
incite violence against Indian diplomats. He emphasized the importance of mutual respect and trust for the progress
of India-Canada relations.
This brief interaction occurred against the backdrop of strained relations following allegations by Canada regarding
India's involvement in the killing of Hardeep Singh Nijjar, a Canadian citizen and Sikh separatist leader. These
allegations have led to reciprocal expulsions of diplomats and heightened diplomatic tensions.
 4

India-Italy Relations and Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029

Why in News?
India and Italy issued the Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-29 to deepen bilateral cooperation in key sectors like
defence, trade, energy, and space. This development followed a meeting between PM Narendra Modi and Italian
PM Giorgia Meloni on the sidelines of the G20 Summit in Brazil.
India-Italy Bilateral Relations: Overview
1. Political Relations
 Established in 1947, India and Italy have progressively built strong political ties.
 Notable milestones include:
 2020-2025 Action Plan, launched during a virtual summit in November 2020.
 Elevation of ties to a Strategic Partnership during Italian PM Giorgia Meloni's state visit to India
in March 2023.
 Regular participation in global fora like G20, underscoring shared multilateral commitments.
2. Economic Relations
 Trade:
 In 2023, bilateral trade reached €14.34 billion, with a trade surplus of €3.98 billion in India's favor.
 Italy is India’s 4th largest trading partner in the EU and a key investor.
 Investments:
 Italy has invested USD 3.53 billion in India, with a focus on green technologies, manufacturing, and
infrastructure.
3. Defence and Security Cooperation
 Historical connection: Indian soldiers made significant sacrifices during WWII on Italian soil.
 Contemporary initiatives include:
 Deployment of Italian officials at the Information Fusion Center-Indian Ocean Region (IFC-
IOR) to enhance maritime security.
 Ongoing exploration of joint defence production and technology transfers.
4. Energy and Science Cooperation
 The Strategic Partnership on Energy Transition (2021) focuses on green hydrogen, biofuels, and
renewable energy.
 The annual India-Italy Innovation Day promotes collaborations in science and technology.
5. Cultural and Diaspora Ties
 The Indian diaspora in Italy (~180,000) plays a vital role in fostering cultural exchanges.
 Bilateral programs like exhibitions, heritage preservation, and film co-productions further deepen ties.
Key Features of the Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029
1. Political Dialogue
 Annual consultations at ministerial levels to intensify cooperation across key sectors.
 Collaboration through regular bilateral visits and meetings of Heads of Government and Foreign Ministers.
2. Economic Cooperation
 Strengthen trade and investment in high-potential sectors like green technologies, sustainable mobility,
and semiconductors.
 Promote joint ventures in food processing, automotive, and advanced manufacturing.
 5

3. Connectivity
 Develop sustainable transport and maritime infrastructure under initiatives like the India-Middle East-
Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC).
4. Science and Technology
 Expand partnerships in emerging technologies like AI, telecom, and Industry 4.0.
 Launch the Indo-Italian Innovation and Incubation Exchange Programme to facilitate start-up
collaborations.
5. Space Cooperation
 Collaboration between ISRO and ASI (Italian Space Agency) on lunar exploration and Earth observation.
 Strengthen peaceful and commercial use of space technologies.
6. Energy Transition
 Collaborate on green hydrogen, biofuels, and renewables through Tech Summits.
 Support global platforms like the International Solar Alliance.
7. Defence and Security
 Develop a Defence Industrial Roadmap to enhance joint production and R&D.
 Increase maritime and cyber cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region.
8. Migration and Mobility
 Pilot projects to facilitate skilled migration, focusing on sectors like healthcare.
 Enhance mobility for students, researchers, and professionals.
9. Cultural and Tourism Cooperation
 Promote tourism, cultural exchanges, and film co-productions.
 Strengthen collaboration in heritage restoration and academic partnerships.
Strategic Significance for India
1. Geo-Economic Relevance
 Italy is a key partner in the EU and a significant contributor to trade, investment, and technology
collaborations.
 The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor provides a strategic connectivity framework linking
Europe with India.
2. Strengthening Defence Capabilities
 Defence production and maritime cooperation with Italy contribute to India’s self-reliance in defence
and security in the Indo-Pacific.
3. Energy Security and Sustainability
 Collaboration in green hydrogen and biofuels aligns with India’s energy transition goals and global
climate commitments.
4. People-to-People Engagement
 Enhanced mobility agreements and diaspora contributions boost cultural ties and mutual goodwill.
Challenges in India-Italy Relations
 Regulatory hurdles in trade and investments.
 Need for clarity on Italy’s role in broader EU-India dynamics.
 Balancing collaboration with global competition in critical technologies.
 6

Conclusion
The Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029 is a roadmap for transforming India-Italy relations into a robust
partnership spanning diverse sectors. By leveraging opportunities in trade, technology, energy, and defence, the
plan aligns with India’s broader goals of enhancing global partnerships and fostering regional stability. Strategic
cooperation with Italy also strengthens India’s presence in Europe, complementing its engagement with the EU.

Why Italy Matters to India: A Strategic Partnership for the Future

Strategic Gateway to Europe
As a G7 member and a significant player in the European Union (EU), Italy acts as India’s gateway to European
markets and decision-making circles. Its geopolitical position in the Mediterranean, combined with its influence
within the EU, positions Italy as a vital partner for India in advancing trade, diplomacy, and geopolitical strategies.
Defence and Security Cooperation
The evolving India-Italy defence partnership reflects a growing trust and alignment on global security concerns.
Key areas include:
1. Maritime Cooperation:
 Strengthening naval exercises and information sharing.
 Enhancing interoperability in the Indo-Pacific region to ensure freedom of navigation and counter-
piracy initiatives.
2. Counter-Terrorism:
 Collaborative efforts to share intelligence and improve counter-terrorism strategies.
 Focus on combating global threats, including cybercrime and transnational terrorism.
3. Defence Technology:
 Co-development of military hardware.
 Joint research in cybersecurity solutions and defence innovation.
Economic Ties
Italy is India's 4th largest trading partner in the EU, contributing significantly to trade and investment:
 Bilateral Trade:
 Trade volume crossed $14.25 billion in 2022-23, with India enjoying a trade surplus of $3.5 billion.
 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):
 Italy ranks 17th in FDI inflows to India, investing $3.5 billion (April 2000–March 2023).
 Key sectors: Automobile (29.8%), Trading (17.1%), and Industrial Machinery (5.6%).
India’s IT firms are increasingly finding opportunities in Italy, aligning with its digitalisation drive.
Technological Synergies
Italy’s expertise in aerospace, robotics, and advanced manufacturing aligns with India’s focus on innovation-led
growth. Key collaborations include:
1. Green Technologies:
 Partnerships in renewable energy, biofuels, and sustainable urban development.
2. Space Initiatives:
 Italian Space Agency (ASI) and ISRO collaborations focus on earth observation, heliophysics, and
space exploration.
 Italy’s acknowledgment of Chandrayaan-3 has fostered deeper scientific engagement.
 7

Cooperation in Multilateral Bodies

Italy actively collaborates with India in global initiatives:
 International Solar Alliance (ISA): Promoting renewable energy.
 Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Advancing infrastructure resilience.
 India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC): Enhancing connectivity.
 Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA): Driving green energy transitions.
 Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI): Supporting a rules-based maritime order.
Cultural Diplomacy
The shared cultural heritage of both nations strengthens people-to-people ties:
1. Exchanges and Programs:
 Executive Programme on Cultural Cooperation (2023–27) enhances cultural, academic, and tourism
collaboration.
 Promotion of Indian yoga and Italian cuisine as symbols of soft power.
2. Diaspora:
 The 180,000-strong Indian community in Italy serves as a bridge for bilateral ties, contributing to
cultural and economic growth.
Conclusion
Italy's strategic significance to India lies in its role as a gateway to Europe, a partner in defence and security, and a
collaborator in advancing green technologies and innovation. By fostering ties through multilateral platforms,
economic partnerships, and cultural exchanges, India and Italy are poised to elevate their bilateral relationship into
a robust strategic partnership that addresses regional and global challenges effectively.

16th BRICS Summit: Highlights and Analysis

Why in News?
The 16th BRICS Summit was held in Kazan, Russia, bringing together member nations to discuss pressing global
and regional issues. On the sidelines of the summit, the Indian Prime Minister welcomed a recent agreement with
China for complete disengagement and resolution of the 2020 border issues, marking the first bilateral meeting
between the two leaders since 2020.
What is BRICS?
Formation and Evolution
 BRICS was initially formed in 2006 during a meeting of Brazil, Russia, India, and China (BRIC) on the
sidelines of the G8 Outreach Summit.
 South Africa joined in 2010, expanding the grouping to BRICS.
 Currently, BRICS includes 9 member countries: Brazil, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Iran, Russia, South
Africa, and UAE.
 The inaugural summit was held in Yekaterinburg, Russia (2009).
 The New Development Bank (NDB) was established during the 6th BRICS Summit (2014) in Fortaleza, Brazil.
Significance
 BRICS countries represent 40% of the world’s population and contribute 26% of global GDP (as of August
2023).
 The bloc addresses economic, political, and social inequalities in global institutions such as the UNSC, IMF,
and World Bank, where members feel underrepresented.
 8

Why BRICS Matters

1. Engagement of Non-Western Countries
 The Kazan Summit underscored the bloc’s ability to engage non-Western nations, emphasizing Russia’s
strategic importance as a supplier of weapons and energy.
2. Institutional Strength
 Despite diverse membership, BRICS has remained cohesive through:
 Annual summits.
 Effective management of institutions like the New Development Bank, which has funded $30
billion worth of projects since 2015.
3. Influence on Global Politics
 BRICS has emerged as a powerful bloc, challenging Western-led institutions like the G7.
 It emphasizes:
 A multipolar world order.
 Reforms in global governance for fairer representation of developing nations.
 The Kazan Declaration reaffirmed the bloc's ambition to reform international frameworks.
Challenges Related to BRICS
1. Countering the Dollar
 Efforts to establish a multipolar financial system face hurdles:
 Limited progress in the NDB compared to the World Bank.
 Slow adoption of non-dollar currencies in international trade.
2. Geopolitical Contradictions
 The inclusion of countries like the UAE, Egypt, and Iran introduces complexity:
 UAE and Egypt maintain strong ties with the US, while Iran is a US adversary.
 These contradictions may hinder a unified agenda.
3. Decision-Making Challenges
 Expansion to 9 members increases complexity due to the consensus-based decision-making model.
 Risk of becoming like the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) or Group of 77 (G77)—existing but with
limited global influence.
4. Internal Rivalries
 Geopolitical tensions, such as those in West Asia, could undermine BRICS’ functionality.
 Concerns over China’s dominance within the group may also deter unity.

India-Brazil Relations: A Strategic Partnership for the Future

Why in News?
India and Brazil have deepened their strategic partnership, focusing on diverse areas like defence, trade, space, and
energy. A key development is the resolution of the WTO trade dispute over sugar subsidies, signaling stronger
collaboration in areas such as ethanol technology and addressing global sugar surplus issues.
 9

Major Areas of Cooperation Between India and Brazil

1. Institutional Engagements
India and Brazil maintain close ties through bilateral and multilateral platforms, including BRICS, IBSA,
G20, BASIC, and the International Solar Alliance (ISA). Institutional frameworks include:
 Strategic Dialogue: Addresses key regional and global issues.
 India-Brazil Business Leaders Forum: Focuses on trade and investment.
 Joint Defence Commission (JDC): Facilitates cooperation in defence, including joint exercises and
intelligence sharing.
 Economic and Financial Dialogue: Covers trade, investment, and monetary policy.
 Joint Committee on Science & Technology: Promotes R&D and knowledge exchange.
2. Trade and Investment
 Growing Bilateral Trade:
 From $7.05 billion in 2020 to $15.2 billion in 2022.
 In 2023, India's exports to Brazil reached $6.9 billion, while imports stood at $4.7 billion.
 Key Sectors:
 Exports: Agrochemicals, auto components, synthetic yarns.
 Imports: Crude oil, gold, vegetable oil, and sugar.
 Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA):
 India’s PTA with MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay) enhances trade
cooperation.
 Investment:
 Indian firms are active in Brazil’s IT, energy, and biofuels sectors.
 Brazil has invested in India’s automobile and mining sectors.
3. Defence and Security
 Defence Cooperation Agreement (2003):
 Institutionalized through regular JDC meetings.
 Cybersecurity:
 MoU between CERT-In and Brazil’s CERT signed in 2020.
 Strategic Dialogue:
 Led by National Security Advisors to address regional and global security concerns.
4. Science and Technology
 Space Collaboration:
 Brazil participated in ISRO’s launch of the Amazonia-1 satellite.
 A recent joint declaration promotes collaboration in earth observation and space exploration.
 Traditional Medicine:
 MoU on Ayurveda and Yoga reflects growing cultural acceptance.
 Innovation:
 Joint R&D initiatives in renewable energy, biotechnology, and ICT.
 10

5. Energy Security
 Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA):
 Launched during the G20 Summit 2023, promoting biofuel adoption and technology exchange.
 Ethanol Blending Programme:
 Brazil’s expertise in ethanol production has supported India’s ethanol blending, which reached
15.83% in 2024, targeting 20% by 2025.
 Joint Research:
 MoU between Indian Oil Corporation and Brazil’s CNPEM focuses on bioenergy research.
6. Cultural and People-to-People Exchanges
 Ayurveda and yoga are recognized in Brazil’s health policies.
 Tourism, academic exchanges, and festivals promote cultural ties.
 Efforts are needed to enhance people-to-people interactions, especially in education and business.
Challenges in India-Brazil Relations
1. Trade Deficit and Protectionism
 India has a persistent trade deficit with Brazil due to heavy imports of agricultural commodities like
soybeans and sugar.
 Protectionist policies, such as tariffs and subsidies, hinder trade growth.
2. Diverging Multilateral Interests
 Climate Change:
 India emphasizes emissions intensity reduction and energy access.
 Brazil prioritizes Amazon deforestation reduction.
 WTO and UN:
 Divergences in priorities affect cooperation within multilateral forums.
3. Limited People-to-People Contact
 Insufficient exchanges in business, culture, and education reduce mutual understanding and economic
benefits.
4. Influence of China
 China’s role as Brazil’s largest trading partner could overshadow India-Brazil economic relations.
Way Forward
1. Economic Cooperation
 Diversify trade by focusing on value-added products and services.
 Promote joint ventures in infrastructure, logistics, and technology sectors.
 Strengthen trade agreements like MERCOSUR to eliminate trade barriers.
2. Energy and Innovation
 Accelerate R&D in biofuels, renewable energy, and green technologies.
 Expand collaborations on India’s ethanol blending and bioenergy goals.
 11

3. Strategic Collaboration
 Enhance defence cooperation through joint military exercises and technology transfers.
 Align policies within global platforms like the UN and WTO to advocate for shared interests.
4. People-to-People Engagement
 Promote cultural diplomacy and student exchanges.
 Enhance tourism through bilateral agreements and promotional campaigns.
Conclusion
India and Brazil are natural partners, with strong complementarities in trade, energy, and multilateral cooperation.
By addressing trade imbalances, enhancing people-to-people ties, and deep

Evolution of India-South America Relations

Historical Context and Divergence
1. Historical Background
 Post-1947, India emerged as a newly independent nation, while Latin American countries had achieved
independence over a century earlier.
 Cultural Contrast:
 Latin America: Influenced by European colonization, with African and minor indigenous impacts.
 India: A South Asian society shaped by British colonial education and cultural integration.
 Divergence:
 Latin America aligned with Europe and the U.S.
 India followed non-alignment, creating limited interaction despite mutual cultural admiration.
2. Initial Relations
 Post-Colonial Solidarity:
 Early diplomatic engagements were driven by shared colonial experiences.
 However, geographic distance and lack of direct disputes led to limited impact.
Current Status
1. Diplomatic Framework
 India has 20 embassies in Latin America and the Caribbean and maintains 14 embassies in the region.
 Engagement through multilateral platforms:
 BRICS, IBSA, G20, and CELAC.
 Participation in sub-regional forums like MERCOSUR and the Pacific Alliance.
2. Geopolitical Focus
 Latin America remains peripheral in India’s foreign policy, despite India’s global influence.
 Geographic distance has not hindered China’s robust trade ties with the region, which significantly
surpass India’s.
3. Travel and Exchange
 Both regions view each other with interest, but travel and exchanges remain underdeveloped.
 12

Key Drivers of India-South America Relations

1. Trade and Economic Relations
 Export-Import Dynamics:
 India imports crude oil (Venezuela, Brazil) and exports pharmaceuticals, textiles, and vehicles.
 Examples: Brazilian company Surya Brasil sources henna from India.
 Investment Opportunities:
 Tata Motors operates in Argentina, while Mahindra invests in Brazil’s agriculture sector.
2. Agriculture and Food Security
 Collaborations:
 Transfer of high-yield seed technology and cultivation practices (India to Argentina, Brazil).
 Joint food security projects in Colombia.
3. Technology and Innovation
 IT and Digital Services:
 Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) and Infosys have operations in Brazil and Argentina.
 Establishment of innovation hubs in collaboration with Latin American governments.
4. Energy and Natural Resources
 Energy Partnerships:
 ONGC Videsh Limited invests in Venezuelan oil projects.
 Vedanta operates in Peruvian mining, extracting copper and zinc.
 Biofuels:
 Collaboration on ethanol blending; Brazil achieved 27% blending, supporting India’s goal of 20%
by 2025.
5. Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare
 Generic Medicines:
 Indian companies like Cipla and Sun Pharma reduce healthcare costs in Brazil.
 Joint Ventures:
 Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories partners with Mexican firms for manufacturing.
6. Cultural Exchange and Education
 Bollywood influences Latin America; Mexican actress Bárbara Mori starred in "Kites."
 Scholarships for Latin American students under the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR).
7. Infrastructure and Development
 Indian companies like L&T Construction contribute to infrastructure projects in Brazil.
 Development assistance includes concessional loans for renewable energy projects in Guyana.
8. Strategic Cooperation
 Global Advocacy:
 India and Brazil collaborate on UN reforms and multipolarity.
 Both are active in BRICS and IBSA.
 13

9. Tourism and Travel

 Promotional Efforts:
 India Tourism Office in Buenos Aires promotes cultural exchange.
 Visa Agreements:
 Travel agreements with Chile and Brazil ease business and tourism.
10. Sustainable Development
 Climate Action:
 Collaborative renewable energy projects (solar and wind).
 Agriculture:
 Exchange of techniques like No-Till farming for soil conservation.
Challenges in India-South America Relations
1. Complex Political Landscape
 Lack of regional cohesion in Latin America complicates bilateral engagements.
2. Political Instability
 Shifts in leadership and ideology disrupt long-term cooperation.
3. Economic Disparities
 Sluggish growth in Latin America hinders trade dynamics.
4. High Tariffs
 India imposes 65% tariffs on Latin American agricultural goods, higher than China’s 12.5%.
5. Connectivity Barriers
 High shipping costs and lack of direct shipping routes limit trade potential.
6. Institutional Weakness
 Minimal Indian banking presence and lack of participation in regional financial institutions.
7. Uneven Investment
 Indian investments in hydrocarbons and pharma contrast with Latin America’s minimal presence in India.
8. Cultural and Linguistic Barriers
 Limited fluency in Spanish and Portuguese hampers engagement.
9. Competitive Pressures
 India faces competition from China, which dominates trade and investment in the region.
The Way Forward
1. Strengthening Diplomatic Frameworks
 Institutionalize regular high-level dialogues and revisit the India-CELAC joint statement.
2. Enhancing Trade and Investment
 Expand the FOCUS LAC program and negotiate new trade agreements.
 Address tariff disparities to promote smoother trade flows.
3. Leveraging Synergies
 Match India’s strengths in IT, biotech, and space with Latin America’s expertise in agriculture and
energy.
 14

4. Addressing Connectivity Issues

 Invest in infrastructure, including direct shipping routes and warehousing facilities.
5. Promoting People-to-People Ties
 Increase academic exchanges and scholarships.
 Strengthen cultural diplomacy to build mutual appreciation.
6. Learning from China
 Focus on incremental improvements in engagement, adopting pragmatic and predictable policies.
7. Strategic Sector Collaboration
 Enhance cooperation in defence, space, and renewable energy sectors.
Way Forward
1. Clear Objectives
 Define shared goals focusing on:
 Trade facilitation.
 Advancements in technology and security.
2. Strengthened Collaboration
 Enhance cooperation in:
 Supply chains.
 Energy and food security.
 Financial resilience through institutions like the NDB.
3. Universal Security
 Promote dialogue over confrontation.
 Respect the security concerns of all member nations.
4. Incremental Reforms
 Advocate for phased reforms in global institutions to enhance the representation of developing nations.
Conclusion
The 16th BRICS Summit reinforced the bloc’s potential to shape a multipolar world order while addressing challenges
like internal contradictions and geopolitical tensions. By fostering economic resilience, institutional cohesion, and
universal security, BRICS can enhance its global standing and promote equitable global governance.

Why in News?
The 6th Quad Summit was held in Delaware, United States, marking the 4th in-person Quad Leaders' Summit.
The meeting showcased the Quad’s commitment to addressing critical challenges in the Indo-Pacific region across
health, climate, cybersecurity, and more.
What is Quad?
About
 The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is a partnership among Australia, India, Japan, and the
United States, aimed at promoting peace, stability, and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific region.
 Focus Areas: Health security, climate change, infrastructure, technology, cybersecurity, maritime security,
countering disinformation, and counter-terrorism.
 15

Origins
 Formed in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami to provide humanitarian assistance.
 Officially established in 2007 under Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe but went dormant in 2008 due to
Australia’s withdrawal over concerns about China’s response.
 Revived in 2017, with its first formal summit held in 2021.
Membership
 Quad's "Quad-plus" meetings have included nations like South Korea, New Zealand, and Vietnam,
suggesting potential for future expansion.
Key Highlights of the 6th Quad Summit
1. Health
 Quad Health Security Partnership (QHSP):
 Launched in 2023 to enhance health security in the Indo-Pacific.
 Quad Cancer Moonshot:
 New initiative focused on treating cervical cancer.
 Pandemic Preparedness:
 The US pledged $84.5 million to strengthen infectious disease prevention in 14 Indo-Pacific nations.
2. Maritime Security
 MAITRI:
 The Maritime Initiative for Training in the Indo-Pacific aims to enhance regional maritime
security capabilities.
 Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA):
 Launched in 2022, focusing on monitoring illegal activities.
 Indo-Pacific Logistics Network:
 Enhances disaster response capabilities through improved logistics.
 Coast Guard Cooperation:
 A Quad-at-Sea Ship Observer Mission is planned for 2025 to strengthen interoperability.
3. Infrastructure Development
 Digital Infrastructure Principles:
 Focus on secure and inclusive digital public infrastructure.
 Quad Ports of the Future Partnership:
 Supports resilient port development and regional connectivity.
 The inaugural Regional Ports and Transportation Conference will be held in Mumbai (2025).
 Undersea Cables:
 Quad partners committed $140 million to connect Pacific island nations by 2025.
4. Critical and Emerging Technologies
 Open Radio Access Network (RAN):
 Deployment in Palau with a $20 million investment to build secure telecommunications
ecosystems.
 AI-ENGAGE Initiative:
 Promotes AI and robotics in agriculture.
 16

 BioExplore Initiative:
 Utilizes AI for disease diagnosis and clean energy solutions.
 Semiconductors:
 A Memorandum of Cooperation to address semiconductor supply chain risks.
 Quantum Technology:
 Collaboration through the Quad Investors Network (QUIN).
5. Climate and Clean Energy
 Early Warning Systems:
 The US will provide 3D-printed weather stations for Pacific Island nations.
 Quad Clean Energy Supply Chain Diversification Program:
 India committed $2 million for solar projects in Fiji, Comoros, Madagascar, and Seychelles.
6. Cybersecurity
 Quad Action Plan:
 Focuses on protecting undersea telecommunication cables and countering disinformation.
 Countering Disinformation Working Group:
 Addresses media freedom and foreign information manipulation.
7. Space
 Shared expertise in space situational awareness (SSA) to ensure the sustainability of the space
environment.
8. Counter-Terrorism
 The Quad Counter-Terrorism Working Group (CTWG) focuses on:
 Countering unmanned aerial systems (C-UAS).
 Addressing chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear threats (CBRN).
9. People-to-People Initiatives
 India announced 50 Quad scholarships worth $500,000 for Indo-Pacific students pursuing undergraduate
engineering in India.

Principles for Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)

About DPI
 Shared digital systems that are secure, reliable, and interoperable to improve public service delivery.
 Developed through public and private sector collaboration.
Quad Principles for DPI
1. Inclusivity: Ensure equitable access, avoiding algorithmic bias.
2. Interoperability: Use open standards while considering constraints.
3. Scalability: Design systems for unexpected demand increases.
4. Security and Privacy: Protect individual data through privacy-enhancing technologies.
5. Governance for Public Benefit: Promote transparency, competition, and inclusion.
6. Sustainability: Ensure continuous operations with adequate support.
7. Intellectual Property Protection: Respect intellectual property rights.
8. Alignment with SDGs: Develop systems aligned with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
 17

Significance of the Quad

Strategic Importance
 The Quad promotes a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific, countering challenges posed by China’s
growing assertiveness.
 Strengthens regional partnerships in critical areas like health, technology, and climate resilience.
Collaborative Framework
 The Quad operates as a platform for:
 Technology transfer.
 Infrastructure development.
 Maritime security.
 Its focus extends beyond security to include socioeconomic and technological initiatives.
Challenges
1. China’s Perception:
 Beijing views the Quad as a containment strategy, leading to diplomatic tensions.
2. Diverging Priorities:
 Member nations face varying domestic and international challenges, complicating consensus.
3. Implementation:
 Translating initiatives into tangible outcomes requires sustained political will and financial commitment.
Way Forward
1. Strengthen Collaboration:
 Enhance coordination in supply chains, clean energy, and technology.
2. Expand Partnerships:
 Include more countries under "Quad-plus" initiatives to amplify regional impact.
3. Promote Inclusivity:
 Ensure that Quad’s initiatives address diverse regional needs and promote equitable development.
Conclusion
The 6th Quad Summit underscores the bloc's evolving role as a comprehensive strategic partnership. By
addressing challenges in health, technology, and security, the Quad reinforces its commitment to a stable and
resilient Indo-Pacific, fostering regional growth and global stability.

 1

Value Addition
NOTES
International Relations

India UN
 2

India UN
India-Japan 2+2 Foreign and Defence Ministerial Meeting: Key Takeaways
Why in News?
India and Japan recently held their third 2+2 Foreign and Defence Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi. The dialogue
addressed growing geopolitical tensions in the Indo-Pacific, focusing on enhancing bilateral cooperation across
defence, security, technology, and regional stability.
Key Highlights of the Meeting
1. Indo-Pacific Vision
 Commitment to a Free and Open Indo-Pacific:
 Both nations reiterated the importance of a rules-based order in the Indo-Pacific, countering China’s
growing military presence.
 ASEAN Unity and Centrality:
 Endorsed the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP), emphasizing cooperation, peace, and
stability in Asia-Pacific and Indian Ocean regions.
 Highlighted adherence to the UN Charter’s principles.
 Quad Collaboration:
 Reaffirmed intentions to work within the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) framework for
regional stability and peace.
 Third-Country Collaboration:
 Agreed to provide security assistance to third countries to promote regional stability.
2. Defence and Security Cooperation
 Defence was acknowledged as a pillar of their Special Strategic and Global Partnership.
 Key Progress:
 Joint exercises: Veer Guardian (air), Dharma Guardian (military), JIMEX (naval), SHINYUU
Maitri (air force), and Malabar (Quad-based).
 Technological advancements: Focus on unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) and robotics.
 Revision of 2008 Joint Declaration:
 Agreed to update the declaration to address contemporary security challenges, aligning with
evolving global priorities.
3. Counterterrorism
 Condemnation of Terrorism:
 Stressed the need to eliminate terrorist safe havens, disrupt financing channels, and ensure justice
for acts like the 26/11 Mumbai attacks.
 Targeted Groups:
 Specific mention of Al Qaeda, ISIS/Daesh, Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LeT), and Jaish-e-Mohammad
(JeM).
 Shared Practices:
 Supported measures to counter terrorism through information sharing and strategic messaging.
 3

4. Technology Collaboration
 Unified Complex Radio Antenna (UNICORN):
 Discussions on the transfer of Japan’s UNICORN technology, enhancing warship stealth and
situational awareness.
 Naval Maintenance:
 Agreed to explore Japanese naval ship maintenance in India.
 Future Cooperation:
 Discussions on potential collaboration in defence technologies.
5. Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) Agenda
 Emphasized the role of women in peacekeeping.
 Supported the WPS framework, aligned with UN Security Council Resolution 1325, highlighting
women’s critical roles in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.
What are 2+2 Meetings?
 About:
 High-level dialogues involving the foreign and defence ministers of two countries.
 Facilitates in-depth discussions on strategic, security, and defence issues.
 India’s 2+2 Partners:
 United States (since 2018), Russia (2021), Japan, Australia, Brazil, and United Kingdom.

India-Japan Relations: Strategic Evolution

Historical Ties
 Early Exchanges:
 Introduced through Buddhism in the 6th century.
 Post-WWII Relations:
 Established diplomatic ties in 1952, following India’s peace treaty with Japan.
 India supported Japan’s post-war recovery by supplying iron ore.
Key Developments
 2000s: Elevation to a "Global Partnership."
 2014: Upgraded to a "Special Strategic and Global Partnership."
 2023: Japan pledged 5 trillion yen (USD 42 billion) in investments over five years.
Key Areas of India-Japan Cooperation
1. Defence
 Agreements:
 Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA) signed in 2020 facilitates reciprocal defence
supplies.
 Joint Military Exercises: Enhance interoperability and security cooperation.
 4

2. Economic
 Investments:
 Japan is a significant investor in India, focusing on sectors like infrastructure, clean energy, and
technology.
 Key projects: Delhi Metro and High-Speed Rail (Shinkansen).
 Development Assistance:
 India is the largest recipient of Japanese Official Development Assistance (ODA).
3. Cultural
 Cultural exchanges, such as the Year of Japan-India Friendly Exchanges (2017), deepen people-to-people
ties.
ASEAN: Strategic Importance for India and Japan
 India:
 ASEAN forms a vital part of India’s Act East Policy, focusing on trade, connectivity, and maritime
security.
 Japan:
 ASEAN is a significant trade partner, with Japan leveraging development aid and investment projects.
 Joint Engagement:
 Both countries collaborate with ASEAN to ensure regional stability and promote a rules-based Indo-
Pacific.
Conclusion
The India-Japan 2+2 Meeting reinforced their commitment to a rules-based Indo-Pacific, bolstered by defence,
technology, and economic cooperation. With a focus on shared values and strategic alignment, the partnership is
set to play a critical role in promoting regional stability and addressing global challenges.
India-Australia Relations: A Strategic Overview
The Australian Prime Minister visited India in March 2023 for the India-Australia Summit, emphasizing the
growing momentum in bilateral ties through deeper trade, investment, and defence relations.

Evolution of India-Australia Relations

Historical Perspective
 Pre-Independence:
 Diplomatic ties began in 1941 when India opened a Trade Office in Sydney.
 Post-Independence:
 Relations deteriorated after India’s 1998 nuclear tests, which Australia condemned.
 Improved ties with the 2014 Uranium Supply Deal, recognizing India’s impeccable non-proliferation
record.
Shared Values
 Both countries are Westminster-style democracies with vibrant, secular, multicultural societies, an
independent judiciary, and a free press.
 Common membership in organizations like the Commonwealth fosters cooperation.
 5

People-to-People Ties
 India is a major source of skilled immigrants to Australia.
 As per the 2021 Census, 976,000 Australians reported Indian ancestry, making Indians the second-largest
overseas-born community.
Key Areas of Cooperation
1. Strategic and Defence Cooperation
 Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (2020):
 Elevated the bilateral relationship during the India-Australia Leaders’ Virtual Summit.
 2+2 Ministerial Dialogue:
 Inaugurated in 2021, focusing on defence and foreign policy coordination.
 Mutual Logistics Support Agreement (MLSA):
 Signed in 2020, enhancing military cooperation.
 Joint Military Exercises:
 Malabar (Quad-based), Talisman Sabre, Dharma Guardian, and AUSINDEX.
 China Factor:
 Both countries face security challenges from China:
 India: Border aggression in Galwan Valley.
 Australia: Economic coercion and trade barriers.
 Shared commitment to a rules-based Indo-Pacific order.
2. Multilateral Engagement
 Active members of Quad, IORA, ASEAN Regional Forum, and East Asia Summit.
 Cooperation in APEC, where Australia supports India’s membership.
 Shared participation in the Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI) with Japan to enhance supply chain
security in the Indo-Pacific.
3. Economic Cooperation
 Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA):
 Entered into force in December 2022, marking India’s first FTA with a developed nation in over a
decade.
 Tariff Reductions:
 Zero duty on 96% of Indian exports to Australia.
 Zero duty on 85% of Australian exports to India.
 Bilateral Trade:
 Stood at $27.5 billion in 2021, with potential to reach $50 billion by 2026.
 Critical Minerals Partnership:
 Joint investment of $5.8 million for sustainable mining and renewable energy development.
4. Education
 Mutual Recognition of Educational Qualifications (MREQ):
 Signed in March 2023 to facilitate student mobility.
 6

 Australian University Campuses:

 Deakin University and University of Wollongong plan to open campuses in India.
 Indian Students:
 Over 100,000 Indian students pursue higher education in Australia, forming the second-largest
cohort.
5. Clean Energy and Climate Cooperation
 Joint commitments to renewable energy, including:
 ISA Pacific Initiatives: AUD 10 million for Pacific Island countries.
 Investment in ultra-low-cost solar and clean hydrogen technologies.
Challenges in India-Australia Relations
1. Adani Coal Mine Controversy:
 Protests against environmental concerns caused temporary friction.
2. Visa Issues:
 Restrictions affecting Indian students and professionals seeking work opportunities in Australia.
3. Diaspora Violence:
 Recent attacks on Indian temples and diaspora members by Khalistan supporters have strained ties.
Way Forward
1. Strengthen Defence Collaboration
 Expand joint military exercises and operational coordination under Quad and bilateral agreements.
2. Enhance Economic Engagement
 Realize the full potential of the ECTA to achieve the $50 billion bilateral trade target.
 Deepen cooperation in critical minerals and clean energy investments.
3. Address Diaspora Concerns
 Ensure protection and integration of the Indian community through dialogue and stricter enforcement of
anti-violence measures.
4. Promote Education and Research
 Support partnerships between universities and research institutions to foster innovation and student
mobility.
5. Advance the Indo-Pacific Agenda
 Strengthen cooperation under Quad to promote a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific.
 Collaborate in SCRI to enhance supply chain resilience.
Conclusion
India-Australia relations have transformed into a comprehensive strategic partnership, driven by shared values,
strategic convergence, and economic complementarities. By addressing challenges and building on existing
initiatives, both nations can ensure a rules-based Indo-Pacific order and deepen their partnership for mutual growth
and regional stability.
 7

India-New Zealand Relations: A Growing Partnership

Why in News?
The first Round Table Joint Meeting between India and New Zealand with industry associations of both nations
was recently held in New Delhi. The meeting aimed to explore opportunities for enhancing bilateral trade,
investment, and economic collaboration.
Key Highlights of the Meeting
1. Synergizing Economic Relations:
 Both countries acknowledged the potential for enhancing economic ties beyond a Free Trade
Agreement (FTA).
 Agreed to focus on complementary areas for mutual benefits.
2. Joint Trade Committee (JTC):
 Discussions emphasized advancing the objectives of the JTC, established under the Bilateral Trade
Agreement (1986).
3. Priority Areas:
 Promoting the Unified Payment Interface (UPI) system for cross-border digital payments.
 Facilitating carbon credit cooperation to address climate change.
 Addressing non-tariff measures to benefit businesses on both sides.
4. Air Connectivity:
 Recognized the need for improving direct air links to enhance trade, tourism, and cultural exchanges.
India-New Zealand Relations
1. Historical Relations
 Early Engagements:
 Indian immigrants settled in Christchurch in the 1850s, with larger migrations from Punjab and
Gujarat in the 1890s.
 Indian troops fought alongside Anzacs in Gallipoli (1915) during World War I.
2. Political Relations
 Cordial relations rooted in Commonwealth membership, parliamentary democracy, and the English
language.
 Diplomatic ties established in 1950, the same year New Zealand became independent.
 Shared interests in disarmament, human rights, ecological preservation, and combating terrorism.
3. Economic Relations
 Bilateral Trade:
 India is New Zealand’s 11th largest two-way trading partner, with trade valued at USD 1.8 billion
(2020).
 Imports from New Zealand:
 Logs, forestry products, wool, and edible fruit & nuts.
 Exports to New Zealand:
 Pharmaceuticals, gems, textiles, and motor vehicles.
 8

 Business Alliances:
 Prominent organizations include the India-New Zealand Business Council (INZBC) and India-
New Zealand Trade Alliance (INZTA).
 Education and Tourism:
 Indian students (~15,000 pre-pandemic) are the second-largest source of international students in
New Zealand.
 Tourism is a growing sector with significant two-way potential.
4. Cultural Relations
 Indian festivals like Diwali, Holi, Onam, and Baisakhi are widely celebrated in New Zealand.
 Approximately 250,000 persons of Indian origin reside in New Zealand, contributing to strong cultural
and people-to-people ties.
5. Cooperation during the Covid-19 Pandemic
 Ensured the continuity of supply chains for essential commodities and vaccines.
 Facilitated the repatriation of stranded nationals from both countries.
6. Civil Aviation
 Recognized the potential for direct air connectivity to bolster:
 Tourism.
 Trade and economic exchanges.
 Indian diaspora engagement.
 Vande Bharat Mission flights strengthened prospects for direct weekly flights.
Key Challenges
1. Trade Barriers:
 Addressing non-tariff measures and aligning trade standards remains a challenge.
2. Limited Air Connectivity:
 Lack of direct flights affects tourism and people-to-people exchanges.
3. Relatively Low Trade Volume:
 Bilateral trade remains modest compared to other nations despite significant potential.
Way Forward
1. Enhance Economic Cooperation:
 Explore sectors like digital payments (UPI), carbon credit markets, and green technologies.
 Increase collaboration under the JTC framework.
2. Strengthen People-to-People Ties:
 Promote cultural diplomacy through academic exchanges and tourism initiatives.
3. Improve Connectivity:
 Establish direct air links to enhance two-way trade, tourism, and diaspora engagement.
4. Diversify Trade Portfolio:
 Expand trade in high-potential sectors such as technology, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture.
5. Sustain Momentum in Industry Collaboration:
 Engage industry associations for sustained dialogue and investments in priority areas.
 9

Conclusion
India-New Zealand relations are rooted in shared democratic values, historical ties, and growing trade and
cultural exchanges. By focusing on trade diversification, connectivity, and economic collaboration, both
countries can unlock the full potential of their partnership and contribute to mutual growth and global stability.

Comprehensive Overview of the United Nations (UN)

The United Nations (UN), established on October 24, 1945, has played a pivotal role in maintaining international
peace, promoting development, and addressing global challenges. Observed annually as United Nations Day, the
occasion underscores the relevance of the organization in uniting nations and fostering global cooperation.
However, to sustain its effectiveness in the 21st century, the UN must undergo significant reforms.
Historical Background of the United Nations
Formation of the UN (1945)
 Aftermath of World War II: The devastation caused by World War II necessitated a new international order
prioritizing peace. The Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944) laid the foundation for the UN, culminating in
the signing of the UN Charter on June 26, 1945.
 United Nations Charter: Officially came into force on October 24, 1945, with its principles emphasizing
collective security, peaceful resolution of conflicts, and human rights protection.
Founding Principles
 Collective Security: Mechanisms for addressing threats to peace through diplomatic, economic, or military
measures.
 Disarmament: A commitment to arms control and reduction to prevent global conflict.
 Peacekeeping: Deployment of missions to conflict zones, upholding ceasefires, and fostering negotiations.
Structure of the UN
1. General Assembly (GA):
 Comprises 193 member states; acts as the main deliberative body.
 Addresses global issues and serves as a platform for international diplomacy.
2. Security Council (SC):
 Responsible for maintaining global peace and security.
 Includes 15 members, with 5 permanent members (P5) wielding veto power.
3. Specialized Agencies:
 Agencies like UNICEF, WHO, and UNESCO focus on areas such as health, education, and
humanitarian aid.
Importance of the United Nations
1. Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution:
 Deployed missions to mitigate violence and foster stability.
2. Humanitarian Assistance:
 Provides relief during crises, such as natural disasters or conflicts.
3. Global Development:
 Advocates for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) under the 2030 Agenda.
4. Climate Change and Environmental Efforts:
 Played a central role in the Paris Agreement, fostering international cooperation on climate challenges.
 10

Need for Reforms in the UN

1. Outdated Structure and Representation
 P5 Power Imbalance:
 The dominance of the P5 (China, France, Russia, UK, USA) reflects a post-WWII world, not
current geopolitical realities.
 Limited representation for Global South nations from Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
2. Ineffectiveness in Decision-Making
 Bureaucratic Inefficiencies:
 Complex processes hinder rapid responses to crises.
 Duplication in Agencies:
 Overlapping mandates across UN bodies result in resource wastage.
3. Financial Instability
 Budget Constraints:
 Arrears and inconsistent contributions from member states undermine the UN's financial stability.
Proposals for Reform
1. Reforming the UNSC:
 Expanding Membership: Including nations like India, Brazil, Germany, and Japan for balanced
representation.
 Veto Reform: Limiting or abolishing the veto to enhance decision-making.
 Global South Representation: Increasing non-permanent seats for underrepresented regions.
2. Enhancing Efficiency:
 Streamlining Administration: Reducing bureaucratic delays.
 Transparency Mechanisms: Introducing robust oversight and accountability frameworks.
3. Strengthening Financial Stability:
 Equitable Contributions: Revising the funding formula to ensure fairness.
 Penalties for Arrears: Sanctions for countries delaying payments.
India's Role in UN Reform
1. Advocacy for UNSC Permanent Seat:
 India emphasizes its democratic credentials, economic strength, and peacekeeping contributions.
2. Inclusivity Agenda:
 Advocates for a democratized world order, ensuring representation for developing nations.
3. Historical Commitment:
 Active participant in peacekeeping missions and UN development programs.
Relevance of the UN in the 21st Century
1. Global Crisis Management:
 Effective in addressing crises like the COVID-19 pandemic and humanitarian emergencies.
2. Sustainability Leadership:
 Driving initiatives like the SDGs and climate action frameworks.
 11

Conclusion
The UN remains central to global governance, promoting peace, and addressing humanitarian and developmental
challenges. However, reforms are essential to adapt to 21st-century realities, ensuring inclusivity, efficiency, and
financial stability.
By embracing these changes, the UN can reinforce its legitimacy as a multilateral institution capable of addressing
complex global challenges while upholding its foundational principles.

India and UNSC Permanent Membership: Pros and Cons

India's aspiration for a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is driven by its growing
global stature and the need for a more representative and inclusive global governance system. However, this
ambition has both advantages and challenges.
Pros of India’s Permanent Membership in UNSC
1. Representative of Contemporary Power Dynamics
 India is the world's largest democracy and the fifth-largest economy.
 Its geostrategic importance and active role in regional and global security demand greater representation
in the UNSC.
2. Commitment to Multilateralism
 India has consistently advocated for a rules-based international order and multilateral diplomacy.
 As a founding member of the UN and a major contributor to UN peacekeeping missions, India has
demonstrated its commitment to global peace.
3. Regional Stability
 India’s inclusion could amplify the voice of the Global South, particularly Asia, Africa, and Latin
America, addressing concerns of underrepresentation.
 It would enhance the regional balance within the UNSC, particularly in South Asia.
4. Advancing Global Issues
 India has been a proactive player in addressing key global challenges like climate change, sustainable
development, and counterterrorism.
 With a permanent seat, India could influence policy-making on these critical issues more effectively.
5. Strengthened Global Legitimacy
 Including India would enhance the legitimacy and credibility of the UNSC, aligning its structure with
contemporary global realities.
 India’s participation would bridge the gap between developed and developing nations, fostering trust and
collaboration.
Cons of India’s Permanent Membership in UNSC
1. Resistance from Existing P5
 The P5 members (China, France, Russia, the UK, and the USA) are reluctant to dilute their power,
particularly the veto privilege.
 China has opposed India's bid, citing geopolitical tensions, including border disputes and regional
rivalries.
 12

2. Geopolitical Sensitivities
 India's inclusion might heighten regional tensions, particularly with Pakistan, which opposes India's
candidature.
 Rivalry with other contenders like Brazil, Germany, and Japan for permanent seats under the G4
framework complicates India's bid.
3. Risk of Diluting Consensus
 Increasing permanent members could lead to gridlock in decision-making if additional veto powers are
granted.
 This could weaken the UNSC's ability to act decisively on global crises.
4. Global South Dissent
 Some countries in the Global South argue that India’s inclusion might not necessarily represent the
broader interests of smaller developing nations.
 African nations, in particular, demand greater inclusion for their region, complicating the reform process.
5. Challenges to Veto Reform
 India supports either abolishing or limiting the veto. However, achieving consensus on veto reform
among the P5 is exceedingly challenging.
 Without veto reform, a permanent seat may not provide India with proportional influence in UNSC
decisions.
6. Domestic Criticism
 Critics within India argue that the country might bear significant financial and diplomatic costs for
UNSC membership without guaranteed benefits.
 India's domestic challenges, including economic inequality and social issues, could draw criticism about
prioritizing global ambitions over internal needs.
Balanced Perspective
While India's inclusion in the UNSC as a permanent member is both logical and justified, the path to achieving this
goal is fraught with diplomatic, political, and structural challenges. The debate underscores the need for broader
UN reforms, focusing on inclusivity, efficiency, and equity.
Way Forward
1. Diplomatic Alliances:
 Strengthen partnerships with like-minded nations, particularly G4 countries and African nations, to
push for comprehensive UNSC reforms.
2. Promoting Inclusivity:
 Advocate for reforms that ensure fair representation for Global South nations, addressing concerns of
smaller developing countries.
3. Balanced Approach to Veto Reform:
 Propose gradual limitations on veto use, ensuring the UNSC remains effective while reducing power
imbalances.
4. Enhanced Contribution to Global Governance:
 Continue active participation in peacekeeping, climate action, and global health initiatives, reinforcing
India's commitment to the UN's objectives.
 13

Conclusion
India's bid for permanent membership in the UNSC aligns with its growing stature as a global power and its
commitment to multilateralism. While the journey is fraught with challenges, India’s inclusion would make the
UNSC more representative, equitable, and effective in addressing 21st-century challenges.

 ‭Lecture 22: India-Canada, India-Italy, India-‬
‭Brazil, India-South America, Quad, Japan,‬
‭Australia (Part-02)‬

‭India-Japan 2+2 Foreign and Defence Ministerial Meeting: Key‬

‭Takeaways‬

‭Why in the News?‬

‭●‬ ‭India and Japan recently held their third‬‭2+2 Foreign‬‭and Defence Ministerial Meeting in‬
‭New Delhi.‬‭The dialogue addressed growing geopolitical‬‭tensions in the Indo-Pacific,‬
‭focusing on enhancing bilateral cooperation across‬‭defense, security, technology, and‬
‭regional stability.‬

‭Key Highlights of the Meeting‬

‭1. Indo-Pacific Vision‬

‭●‬ ‭Commitment to a Free and Open Indo-Pacific:‬

‭○‬ ‭Both nations reiterated the importance of a rules-based order in the Indo-Pacific,‬
‭countering China’s growing military presence.‬
‭●‬ ‭ASEAN Unity and Centrality:‬
‭○‬ ‭Endorsed the ASEAN Outlook on the‬‭Indo-Pacific (AOIP),‬‭emphasizing‬
‭cooperation, peace, and stability in Asia-Pacific and Indian Ocean regions.‬
‭○‬ ‭Highlighted adherence to the UN Charter’s principles.‬
‭●‬ ‭Quad Collaboration:‬
‭○‬ ‭Reaffirmed intentions to work within the‬‭Quadrilateral‬‭Security Dialogue (QUAD)‬
‭framework for regional stability and peace.‬
‭●‬ ‭Third-Country Collaboration:‬
‭○‬ ‭Agreed to provide security assistance to third countries to promote regional stability.‬

‭2. Defence and Security Cooperation‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Defence was acknowledged as a pillar of their Special Strategic and Global Partnership.‬
‭●‬ ‭Key Progress:‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint exercises:‬‭Veer Guardian (air), Dharma Guardian‬‭(military), JIMEX (naval),‬
‭SHINYUU Maitri (air force), and Malabar (Quad-based).‬
‭○‬ ‭Technological advancements:‬‭Focus on unmanned ground‬‭vehicles (UGVs) and‬
‭robotics.‬
‭●‬ ‭Revision of 2008 Joint Declaration:‬
‭○‬ ‭Agreed to update the declaration to address contemporary security challenges,‬
‭aligning with evolving global priorities.‬

‭3. Counterterrorism‬

‭●‬ ‭Condemnation of Terrorism:‬

‭○‬ ‭Stressed the need to eliminate terrorist safe havens, disrupt financing channels, and‬
‭ensure justice for acts like the 26/11 Mumbai attacks.‬
‭●‬ ‭Targeted Groups:‬
‭○‬ ‭Specific mention of Al Qaeda, ISIS/Daesh, Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LeT), and‬
‭Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM).‬
‭●‬ ‭Shared Practices:‬
‭○‬ ‭Supported measures to counter terrorism through information sharing and strategic‬
‭messaging.‬

‭4. Technology Collaboration‬

‭●‬ ‭Unified Complex Radio Antenna (UNICORN):‬

‭○‬ ‭Discussions on the transfer of Japan’s‬‭UNICORN technology,‬‭enhancing warship‬
‭stealth and situational awareness.‬
‭●‬ ‭Naval Maintenance:‬
‭○‬ ‭Agreed to explore Japanese naval ship maintenance in India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Future Cooperation:‬
‭○‬ ‭Discussions on potential collaboration in defence technologies‬‭.‬

‭5. Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) Agenda‬

‭●‬ ‭Emphasized the role of women in peacekeeping.‬

‭●‬ ‭Supported the WPS framework, aligned with UN Security Council Resolution 1325,‬
‭highlighting women’s critical roles in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.‬

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‭What are 2+2 Meetings?‬

‭●‬ ‭About:‬
‭○‬ ‭High-level dialogues involving the‬‭foreign and defense‬‭ministers of the two‬
‭countries.‬
‭○‬ ‭Facilitates in-depth discussions on‬‭strategic, security,‬‭and defense issues.‬
‭●‬ ‭India’s 2+2 Partners:‬
‭○‬ ‭United States (since 2018), Russia (2021), Japan, Australia, Brazil, and the United‬
‭Kingdom.‬

‭India-Japan Relations: Strategic Evolution‬

‭Historical Ties‬

‭●‬ ‭Early Exchanges:‬

‭○‬ ‭Introduced through Buddhism in the 6th century.‬
‭●‬ ‭Post-WWII Relations:‬
‭○‬ ‭Established diplomatic ties in 1952, following India’s peace treaty with Japan.‬
‭○‬ ‭India supported Japan’s post-war recovery by supplying iron ore.‬

‭Key Developments‬

‭●‬ ‭2000s:‬‭Elevation to a "Global Partnership."‬

‭●‬ ‭2014:‬‭Upgraded to a "Special Strategic and Global‬‭Partnership."‬
‭●‬ ‭2023:‬‭Japan pledged 5 trillion yen (USD 42 billion)‬‭in investments over five years.‬

‭Key Areas of India-Japan Cooperation‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense:‬
‭○‬ ‭Agreements:‬
‭■‬ ‭Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA) signed in 2020‬
‭facilitates reciprocal defense supplies.‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint Military Exercises:‬‭Enhance interoperability‬‭and security cooperation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic:‬
‭●‬ ‭Investments:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Japan is a significant investor in India, focusing on sectors like‬
‭infrastructure, clean energy, and technology.‬
‭○‬ ‭Key projects:‬‭Delhi Metro and High-Speed Rail (Shinkansen).‬
‭●‬ ‭Development Assistance:‬
‭○‬ ‭India is the largest recipient of Japanese Official Development Assistance‬
‭(ODA).‬

‭3. Cultural:‬

‭●‬ ‭Cultural exchanges, such as the Year of Japan-India Friendly Exchanges (2017), deepen‬
‭people-to-people ties.‬

‭ASEAN: Strategic Importance for India and Japan‬

‭●‬ ‭India:‬
‭○‬ ‭ASEAN forms a vital part of India’s Act East Policy, focusing on trade,‬
‭connectivity, and maritime security.‬
‭●‬ ‭Japan:‬
‭○‬ ‭ASEAN is a significant trade partner, with Japan leveraging development aid and‬
‭investment projects.‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint Engagement:‬
‭○‬ ‭Both countries collaborate with ASEAN to ensure regional stability and promote a‬
‭rules-based Indo-Pacific.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭●‬ ‭The India-Japan 2+2 Meeting reinforced their commitment to a rules-based Indo-Pacific,‬
‭bolstered by defense, technology, and economic cooperation. With a focus on shared values‬
‭and strategic alignment, the partnership is set to play a critical role in promoting regional‬
‭stability and addressing global challenges.‬

‭India-Australia Relations: A Strategic Overview‬

‭The Australian Prime Minister visited India in March 2023 for the India-Australia Summit,‬
‭emphasizing the growing momentum in bilateral ties through deeper trade, investment, and defense‬
‭relations.‬

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‭Evolution of India-Australia Relations‬

‭Historical Perspective‬

‭●‬ ‭Pre-Independence:‬
‭○‬ ‭Diplomatic ties began in 1941 when India opened a Trade Office in Sydney.‬
‭●‬ ‭Post-Independence:‬
‭○‬ ‭Relations deteriorated after India’s 1998 nuclear tests, which Australia condemned.‬
‭○‬ ‭Improved ties with the 2014 Uranium Supply Deal, recognizing India’s impeccable‬
‭non-proliferation record.‬

‭Shared Values:‬

‭●‬ ‭Both countries are Westminster-style democracies with‬‭vibrant, secular, multicultural‬

‭societies, an independent judiciary, and a free press.‬
‭●‬ ‭Common membership in organizations like the Commonwealth fosters cooperation.‬

‭People-to-People Ties‬

‭●‬ ‭India is a‬‭major source of skilled immigrants to Australia.‬

‭●‬ ‭As per the‬‭2021 Census, 976,000 Australians reported‬‭Indian ancestry, making Indians‬
‭the second-largest overseas-born community.‬

‭Key Areas of Cooperation‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic and Defence Cooperation‬

‭○‬ ‭Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (2020):‬
‭■‬ ‭Elevated the bilateral relationship during the India-Australia Leaders’ Virtual‬
‭Summit‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭2+2 Ministerial Dialogue:‬
‭■‬ ‭Inaugurated in 2021, focusing on defense and foreign policy coordination.‬
‭○‬ ‭Mutual Logistics Support Agreement (MLSA):‬
‭■‬ ‭Signed in 2020, enhancing military cooperation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint Military Exercises:‬
‭■‬ ‭Malabar (Quad-based), Talisman Sabre, Dharma Guardian, and AUSINDEX.‬
‭○‬ ‭China Factor:‬
‭■‬ ‭Both countries face security challenges from China:‬
‭●‬ ‭India: Border aggression in Galwan Valley.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Australia: Economic coercion and trade barriers.‬
‭■‬ ‭Shared commitment to a rules-based Indo-Pacific order.‬
‭●‬ ‭Multilateral Engagement‬
‭●‬ ‭Active members of‬‭Quad, IORA, ASEAN Regional Forum,‬‭and East Asia Summit.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cooperation in APEC, where Australia supports India’s membership.‬
‭●‬ ‭Shared participation in the‬‭Supply Chain Resilience‬‭Initiative (SCRI) with Japan‬
‭to enhance supply chain security in the Indo-Pacific.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic Cooperation‬
‭○‬ ‭Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA):‬
‭■‬ ‭Entered into force in December 2022, marking India’s first FTA with a‬
‭developed nation in over a decade.‬
‭■‬ ‭Tariff Reductions:‬
‭●‬ ‭Zero duty on 96% of Indian exports to Australia.‬
‭●‬ ‭Zero duty on 85% of Australian exports to India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Bilateral Trade:‬
‭■‬ ‭Stood at $27.5 billion in 2021, with potential to reach $50 billion by 2026.‬
‭○‬ ‭Critical Minerals Partnership:‬
‭■‬ ‭Joint investment of $5.8 million for sustainable mining and renewable‬
‭energy development.‬
‭●‬ ‭Education‬
‭○‬ ‭Mutual Recognition of Educational Qualifications (MREQ):‬
‭■‬ ‭Signed in March 2023 to facilitate student mobility.‬
‭○‬ ‭Australian University Campuses:‬
‭■‬ ‭Deakin University and the University of Wollongong plan to open campuses‬
‭in India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian Students:‬
‭■‬ ‭Over 100,000 Indian students pursue higher education in Australia, forming‬
‭the second-largest cohort.‬
‭●‬ ‭Clean Energy and Climate Cooperation‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint commitments to renewable energy, including:‬
‭○‬ ‭ISA Pacific Initiatives: AUD 10 million for Pacific Island countries.‬
‭○‬ ‭Investment in ultra-low-cost solar and clean hydrogen technologies.‬

‭Challenges in India-Australia Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Adani Coal Mine Controversy:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Protests against environmental concerns caused temporary friction.‬
‭●‬ ‭Visa Issues:‬
‭○‬ ‭Restrictions affecting Indian students and professionals seeking work opportunities‬
‭in Australia.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diaspora Violence:‬
‭○‬ ‭Recent attacks on Indian temples and diaspora members by Khalistan supporters‬
‭have strained ties.‬

‭Way Forward‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthen Defence Collaboration‬

‭○‬ ‭Expand joint military exercises and operational coordination under Quad and bilateral‬
‭agreements.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhance Economic Engagement‬
‭○‬ ‭Realize the full potential of the ECTA to achieve the $50 billion bilateral trade‬
‭target.‬
‭○‬ ‭Deepen cooperation in critical minerals and clean energy investments.‬
‭●‬ ‭Address Diaspora Concerns‬
‭○‬ ‭Ensure protection and integration of the Indian community through dialogue and‬
‭stricter enforcement of anti-violence measures.‬
‭●‬ ‭Promote Education and Research‬
‭○‬ ‭Support partnerships between universities and research institutions to foster‬
‭innovation and student mobility‬
‭●‬ ‭Advance the Indo-Pacific Agenda‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthen cooperation under Quad to promote a free, open, and inclusive‬
‭Indo-Pacific.‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaborate in SCRI to enhance supply chain resilience.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭India-Australia relations have transformed into a comprehensive strategic partnership, driven by‬
‭shared values, strategic convergence, and economic complementarities. By addressing challenges‬
‭and building on existing initiatives, both nations can ensure a rules-based Indo-Pacific order and‬
‭deepen their partnership for mutual growth and regional stability.‬

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‭India-New Zealand Relations: A Growing Partnership‬

‭Why in the News?‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭first Round Table Joint Meeting‬‭between India‬‭and New Zealand with industry‬
‭associations of both nations was recently held in New Delhi. The meeting aimed to explore‬
‭opportunities for enhancing bilateral trade, investment, and economic collaboration.‬

‭Key Highlights of the Meeting‬

‭●‬ ‭Synergizing Economic Relations‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Both countries acknowledged the potential for enhancing economic ties beyond a‬
‭Free Trade Agreement (FTA)‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Agreed to focus on‬‭complementary areas‬‭for mutual‬‭benefits.‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint Trade Committee (JTC)‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Discussions emphasized advancing the objectives of the‬‭JTC‬‭, established under the‬
‭Bilateral Trade Agreement (1986)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Priority Areas‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Promoting the‬‭Unified Payment Interface (UPI)‬‭system‬‭for cross-border digital‬
‭payments.‬
‭○‬ ‭Facilitating‬‭carbon credit cooperation‬‭to address‬‭climate change.‬
‭○‬ ‭Addressing‬‭non-tariff measures‬‭to benefit businesses‬‭on both sides.‬
‭●‬ ‭Air Connectivity‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Recognized the need for improving‬‭direct air links‬‭to enhance trade, tourism, and‬
‭cultural exchanges.‬

‭India-New Zealand Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Historical Relations:‬

‭○‬ ‭Early Engagements‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Indian immigrants settled in‬‭Christchurch‬‭in the 1850s, with larger‬
‭migrations from‬‭Punjab‬‭and‬‭Gujarat‬‭in the 1890s.‬
‭■‬ ‭Indian troops fought alongside‬‭Anzacs‬‭in‬‭Gallipoli‬‭(1915)‬‭during World War‬
‭I.‬
‭●‬ ‭Political Relations:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Cordial relations rooted in‬‭Commonwealth membership‬‭,‬‭parliamentary democracy‬‭,‬
‭and the‬‭English language‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diplomatic ties established in‬‭1950‬‭, the same year‬‭New Zealand became‬
‭independent.‬
‭●‬ ‭Shared interests in‬‭disarmament‬‭,‬‭human rights‬‭,‬‭ecological‬‭preservation‬‭, and‬
‭combating terrorism‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic Relations‬
‭●‬ ‭Bilateral Trade‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India is New Zealand’s‬‭11th largest two-way trading‬‭partner‬‭, with trade‬
‭valued at‬‭USD 1.8 billion (2020)‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Imports from New Zealand‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Logs, forestry products, wool, and edible fruit & nuts.‬
‭○‬ ‭Exports to New Zealand‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Pharmaceuticals, gems, textiles, and motor vehicles.‬
‭●‬ ‭Business Alliances‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Prominent organizations include the‬‭India-New Zealand‬‭Business Council‬
‭(INZBC)‬‭and‬‭India-New Zealand Trade Alliance (INZTA)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Education and Tourism‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian students‬‭(~15,000 pre-pandemic) are the second-largest‬‭source of‬
‭international students in New Zealand.‬
‭○‬ ‭Tourism is a growing sector with significant two-way potential.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural Relations‬
‭●‬ ‭Indian festivals like‬‭Diwali, Holi, Onam‬‭, and‬‭Baisakhi‬‭are widely celebrated in New‬
‭Zealand.‬
‭●‬ ‭Approximately‬‭250,000 persons of Indian origin‬‭reside‬‭in New Zealand, contributing‬
‭to strong cultural and people-to-people ties.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cooperation during the Covid-19 Pandemic‬
‭●‬ ‭Ensured the‬‭continuity of supply chains‬‭for essential‬‭commodities and vaccines.‬
‭●‬ ‭Facilitated the‬‭repatriation of stranded nationals‬‭from both countries.‬
‭●‬ ‭Civil Aviation‬
‭●‬ ‭Recognized the potential for‬‭direct air connectivity‬‭to bolster:‬
‭○‬ ‭Tourism.‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade and economic exchanges.‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian diaspora engagement.‬
‭●‬ ‭Vande Bharat Mission flights‬‭strengthened prospects‬‭for direct weekly flights.‬

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‭Key Challenges‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade Barriers‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Addressing‬‭non-tariff measures‬‭and aligning trade‬‭standards remains a challenge.‬
‭●‬ ‭Limited Air Connectivity‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Lack of direct flights affects tourism and people-to-people exchanges.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relatively Low Trade Volume‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bilateral trade remains modest compared to other nations despite significant‬
‭potential.‬

‭Way Forward‬

‭●‬ ‭Enhance Economic Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Explore sectors like‬‭digital payments (UPI), carbon‬‭credit markets‬‭, and‬‭green‬
‭technologies‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Increase collaboration under the‬‭JTC framework‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthen People-to-People Ties‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Promote cultural diplomacy through academic exchanges and tourism initiatives.‬
‭●‬ ‭Improve Connectivity‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Establish‬‭direct air links‬‭to enhance two-way trade,‬‭tourism, and diaspora‬
‭engagement.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diversify Trade Portfolio‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Expand trade in high-potential sectors such as‬‭technology,‬‭pharmaceuticals‬‭, and‬
‭agriculture‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sustain Momentum in Industry Collaboration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Engage industry associations for sustained dialogue and investments in priority‬
‭areas.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭India-New Zealand relations are rooted in‬‭shared democratic values, historical ties‬‭, and growing‬
‭trade and cultural exchanges. By focusing on‬‭trade‬‭diversification, connectivity, and economic‬
‭collaboration‬‭, both countries can unlock the full‬‭potential of their partnership and contribute to‬
‭mutual growth and global stability.‬

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‭Comprehensive Overview of the United Nations (UN)‬

‭●‬ ‭The United Nations (UN), established on‬‭October 24,‬‭1945‬‭, has played a pivotal role in‬
‭maintaining international peace, promoting development, and addressing global challenges.‬
‭Observed annually as‬‭United Nations Day‬‭, the occasion‬‭underscores the relevance of the‬
‭organization in uniting nations and fostering global cooperation. However, to sustain its‬
‭effectiveness in the 21st century, the UN must undergo significant reforms.‬

‭Historical Background of the United Nations‬

‭Formation of the UN (1945)‬

‭●‬ ‭Aftermath of World War II‬‭: The devastation caused‬‭by World War II necessitated a new‬
‭international order prioritizing peace. The‬‭Dumbarton‬‭Oaks Conference (1944)‬‭laid the‬
‭foundation for the UN, culminating in the‬‭signing‬‭of the UN Charter‬‭on‬‭June 26, 1945‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭United Nations Charter‬‭: Officially came into force‬‭on‬‭October 24, 1945‬‭, with its principles‬
‭emphasizing‬‭collective security‬‭,‬‭peaceful resolution‬‭of conflicts‬‭, and‬‭human rights‬
‭protection‬‭.‬

‭Founding Principles‬

‭●‬ ‭Collective Security‬‭: Mechanisms for addressing threats‬‭to peace through diplomatic,‬
‭economic, or military measures.‬
‭●‬ ‭Disarmament‬‭: A commitment to arms control and reduction‬‭to prevent global conflict.‬
‭●‬ ‭Peacekeeping‬‭: Deployment of missions to conflict zones,‬‭upholding ceasefires, and fostering‬
‭negotiations.‬

‭Structure of the UN‬

‭●‬ ‭General Assembly (GA)‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Comprises‬‭193 member states‬‭; acts as the main deliberative body.‬
‭○‬ ‭Addresses global issues and serves as a platform for international diplomacy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Security Council (SC)‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Responsible for maintaining global peace and security.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Includes‬‭15 members‬‭, with‬‭5 permanent members (P5)‬‭wielding veto power.‬
‭●‬ ‭Specialized Agencies‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Agencies like‬‭UNICEF‬‭,‬‭WHO‬‭, and‬‭UNESCO‬‭focus on areas‬‭such as health, education,‬
‭and humanitarian aid.‬

‭Importance of the United Nations‬

‭●‬ ‭Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Deployed missions to mitigate violence and foster stability.‬
‭●‬ ‭Humanitarian Assistance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Provides relief during crises, such as natural disasters or conflicts.‬
‭●‬ ‭Global Development‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Advocates for the‬‭Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)‬‭under the‬‭2030‬
‭Agenda‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Climate Change and Environmental Efforts‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Played a central role in the‬‭Paris Agreement‬‭, fostering‬‭international cooperation on‬
‭climate challenges.‬

‭Need for Reforms in the UN‬

‭●‬ ‭Outdated Structure and Representation‬

‭○‬ ‭P5 Power Imbalance‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭The dominance of the‬‭P5 (China, France, Russia, UK,‬‭USA)‬‭reflects a‬
‭post-WWII world, not current geopolitical realities.‬
‭■‬ ‭Limited representation for‬‭Global South‬‭nations from‬‭Africa, Latin America,‬
‭and Asia.‬
‭●‬ ‭Ineffectiveness in Decision-Making‬
‭●‬ ‭Bureaucratic Inefficiencies‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Complex processes hinder rapid responses to crises.‬
‭●‬ ‭Duplication in Agencies‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Overlapping mandates across UN bodies result in resource wastage.‬
‭●‬ ‭Financial Instability:‬
‭●‬ ‭Budget Constraints‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Arrears and inconsistent contributions from member states undermine the‬
‭UN's financial stability.‬

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‭Proposals for Reform‬

‭●‬ ‭Reforming the UNSC‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Expanding Membership‬‭: Including nations like‬‭India,‬‭Brazil, Germany, and Japan‬
‭for balanced representation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Veto Reform‬‭: Limiting or abolishing the veto to enhance‬‭decision-making.‬
‭○‬ ‭Global South Representation‬‭: Increasing non-permanent‬‭seats for underrepresented‬
‭regions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhancing Efficiency‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Streamlining Administration‬‭: Reducing bureaucratic‬‭delays.‬
‭○‬ ‭Transparency Mechanisms‬‭: Introducing robust oversight‬‭and accountability‬
‭frameworks.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthening Financial Stability‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Equitable Contributions‬‭: Revising the funding formula‬‭to ensure fairness.‬
‭○‬ ‭Penalties for Arrears‬‭: Sanctions for countries delaying‬‭payments.‬

‭India's Role in UN Reform‬

‭●‬ ‭Advocacy for UNSC Permanent Seat‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India emphasizes its‬‭democratic credentials‬‭,‬‭economic‬‭strength‬‭, and‬
‭peacekeeping contributions‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Inclusivity Agenda‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Advocates for a‬‭democratized world order‬‭, ensuring‬‭representation for developing‬
‭nations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Historical Commitment‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Active participant in‬‭peacekeeping missions‬‭and‬‭UN‬‭development programs‬‭.‬

‭Relevance of the UN in the 21st Century‬

‭●‬ ‭Global Crisis Management‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Effective in addressing crises like the‬‭COVID-19 pandemic‬‭and‬‭humanitarian‬
‭emergencies‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sustainability Leadership‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Driving initiatives like the‬‭SDGs‬‭and‬‭climate action frameworks‬‭.‬

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‭Conclusion‬

‭●‬ ‭The UN remains central to global governance, promoting peace, and addressing‬
‭humanitarian and developmental challenges. However,‬‭reforms‬‭are essential to adapt to‬
‭21st-century realities‬‭, ensuring inclusivity, efficiency,‬‭and financial stability.‬
‭●‬ ‭By embracing these changes, the UN can reinforce its legitimacy as a multilateral‬
‭institution capable of addressing complex global challenges while upholding its foundational‬
‭principles.‬

‭India and UNSC Permanent Membership: Pros and Cons‬

‭●‬ ‭India's aspiration for a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is‬
‭driven by its growing global stature and the need for a more representative and inclusive‬
‭global governance system. However, this ambition has both advantages and challenges.‬

‭Pros of India’s Permanent Membership in UNSC‬

‭1. Representative of Contemporary Power Dynamics‬

‭●‬ ‭India is the‬‭world's largest democracy‬‭and the fifth-largest‬‭economy.‬

‭●‬ ‭Its‬‭geostrategic importance‬‭and active role in regional‬‭and global security demand greater‬
‭representation in the UNSC.‬

‭2. Commitment to Multilateralism‬

‭●‬ ‭India has consistently advocated for a‬‭rules-based‬‭international order‬‭and‬‭multilateral‬

‭diplomacy‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭As a founding member of the UN and a major contributor to‬‭UN peacekeeping missions‬‭,‬
‭India has demonstrated its commitment to global peace.‬

‭3. Regional Stability‬

‭●‬ ‭India’s inclusion could amplify the voice of the‬‭Global‬‭South‬‭, particularly Asia, Africa, and‬
‭Latin America, addressing concerns of underrepresentation.‬
‭●‬ ‭It would enhance the‬‭regional balance‬‭within the UNSC,‬‭particularly in South Asia.‬

‭4. Advancing Global Issues‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭India has been a proactive player in addressing key global challenges like‬‭climate change‬‭,‬
‭sustainable development‬‭, and‬‭counterterrorism‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭With a permanent seat, India could influence‬‭policy-making on these critical issues‬‭more‬
‭effectively.‬

‭5. Strengthened Global Legitimacy‬

‭●‬ ‭Including India would‬‭enhance the legitimacy‬‭and credibility‬‭of the UNSC, aligning its‬
‭structure with contemporary global realities.‬
‭●‬ ‭India’s participation would bridge the gap between developed and developing nations,‬
‭fostering trust and collaboration.‬

‭Cons of India’s Permanent Membership in UNSC‬

‭1. Resistance from Existing P5‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭P5 members‬‭(China, France, Russia, the UK, and‬‭the USA) are reluctant to dilute‬
‭their power, particularly the‬‭veto privilege‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭China‬‭has opposed India's bid, citing geopolitical‬‭tensions, including border disputes and‬
‭regional rivalries.‬

‭2. Geopolitical Sensitivities‬

‭●‬ ‭India's inclusion might heighten regional tensions, particularly with‬‭Pakistan‬‭, which opposes‬
‭India's candidature.‬
‭●‬ ‭Rivalry with other contenders like‬‭Brazil, Germany,‬‭and Japan‬‭for permanent seats under‬
‭the‬‭G4 framework‬‭complicates India's bid.‬

‭3. Risk of Diluting Consensus‬

‭●‬ ‭Increasing permanent members could lead to‬‭gridlock‬‭in decision-making‬‭if additional veto‬
‭powers are granted.‬
‭●‬ ‭This could weaken the UNSC's ability to act decisively on global crises.‬

‭4. Global South Dissent‬

‭●‬ ‭Some countries in the‬‭Global South‬‭argue that India’s‬‭inclusion might not necessarily‬
‭represent the broader interests of smaller developing nations.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭African nations, in particular, demand greater inclusion for their region, complicating the‬
‭reform process.‬

‭5. Challenges to Veto Reform‬

‭●‬ ‭India supports either‬‭abolishing or limiting the veto‬‭.‬‭However, achieving consensus on veto‬
‭reform among the P5 is exceedingly challenging.‬
‭●‬ ‭Without veto reform, a permanent seat may not provide India with proportional influence in‬
‭UNSC decisions.‬

‭6. Domestic Criticism‬

‭●‬ ‭Critics within India argue that the country might bear significant‬‭financial and diplomatic‬
‭costs‬‭for UNSC membership without guaranteed benefits.‬
‭●‬ ‭India's domestic challenges, including economic inequality and social issues, could draw‬
‭criticism about prioritizing global ambitions over internal needs.‬

‭Balanced Perspective‬

‭●‬ ‭While India's inclusion in the UNSC as a permanent member is both logical and justified,‬
‭the path to achieving this goal is fraught with‬‭diplomatic,‬‭political, and structural‬
‭challenges‬‭. The debate underscores the need for broader‬‭UN reforms‬‭, focusing on‬
‭inclusivity, efficiency, and equity.‬

‭Way Forward‬

‭●‬ ‭Diplomatic Alliances‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Strengthen partnerships with like-minded nations, particularly‬‭G4 countries‬‭and‬
‭African nations‬‭, to push for comprehensive UNSC reforms.‬
‭●‬ ‭Promoting Inclusivity‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Advocate for reforms that ensure fair representation for‬‭Global South nations‬‭,‬
‭addressing concerns of smaller developing countries.‬
‭●‬ ‭Balanced Approach to Veto Reform‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Propose‬‭gradual limitations on veto use‬‭, ensuring‬‭the UNSC remains effective‬
‭while reducing power imbalances.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhanced Contribution to Global Governance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Continue active participation in‬‭peacekeeping‬‭,‬‭climate‬‭action‬‭, and‬‭global health‬
‭initiatives‬‭, reinforcing India's commitment to the‬‭UN's objectives.‬

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‭Conclusion‬

‭●‬ ‭India's bid for permanent membership in the UNSC aligns with its growing stature as a‬
‭global power and its commitment to multilateralism. While the journey is fraught with‬
‭challenges, India’s inclusion would make the UNSC more representative, equitable, and‬
‭effective in addressing 21st-century challenges.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬

‭Lecture 21: India-Canada, India-Italy,‬

‭India-Brazil, India-South America, Quad,‬
‭Japan, Australia‬
‭India-Canada Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Historical Context‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India and Canada share democratic and multicultural values.‬
‭○‬ ‭Early ties during India's freedom struggle, with many Indian migrants settling in‬
‭Canada.‬
‭○‬ ‭Diplomatic relations established in 1947.‬
‭○‬ ‭Influence of Canadian federalism on India's Constitution.‬
‭●‬ ‭Key Developments‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Early cooperation in development assistance and education.‬
‭○‬ ‭Strain during Cold War due to nuclear tests and Air India Flight 182 bombing‬
‭(1985).‬
‭○‬ ‭Revival post-1990s economic liberalization, focusing on trade and investment.‬
‭○‬ ‭2015: Strategic partnership strengthened during Indian PM’s visit to Canada.‬
‭●‬ ‭Current Dimensions‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Political: Ministerial dialogues and agreements like Air Services, Nuclear Cooperation,‬
‭and Social Security.‬
‭○‬ ‭Economic: Bilateral trade of $12 billion (2023), with negotiations ongoing for a‬
‭Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA).‬
‭○‬ ‭Cultural: A significant Indian diaspora in Canada, contributing to mutual soft power.‬
‭○‬ ‭Technological: Collaborations in R&D, space, and nuclear energy.‬

‭Challenges in India-Canada Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade Barriers‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Tariffs and non-tariff barriers limit trade potential.‬
‭○‬ ‭Concerns over agricultural import restrictions (e.g., pulses).‬
‭●‬ ‭Human Rights‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Canada’s criticism of religious minority treatment in India.‬
‭○‬ ‭India's concerns over attacks on Hindu minorities in Canada.‬
‭●‬ ‭Khalistan Issue‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Vocal Khalistani diaspora in Canada advocating separatism.‬
‭○‬ ‭September 2023: Allegations by Canadian PM of India’s involvement in the killing‬
‭of Hardeep Singh Nijjar.‬
‭○‬ ‭Diplomatic expulsions, visa suspensions, and stalled trade talks followed.‬
‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Divergences‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Differing perspectives on Afghanistan, China, and Pakistan.‬
‭○‬ ‭Canada’s perceived lack of focus on Indo-Pacific and India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Visa and Immigration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India suspended visa services for Canadians amid escalating tensions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Role of External Actors‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Five Eyes intelligence-sharing network supporting Canadian claims.‬

‭Khalistan Issue in Focus‬

‭●‬ ‭Historical Tensions‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Long-standing presence of Khalistani sympathizers in Canada.‬
‭○‬ ‭India criticizes Canada’s lack of action against separatist activities.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent Developments‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭September 2023: Diplomatic crisis over accusations linked to Nijjar's assassination.‬
‭○‬ ‭Resulted in strained ties, trade negotiation pauses, and visa suspensions.‬
‭●‬ ‭India’s Stance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Allegations divert attention from Canada’s leniency toward Khalistani elements.‬
‭○‬ ‭Emphasis on sovereignty and territorial integrity.‬

‭Measures to Strengthen Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Diplomatic Engagement‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Regular high-level dialogues and Track II diplomacy.‬
‭○‬ ‭Focus on rebuilding trust through constructive discussions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Addressing Khalistan Issue‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Open dialogue to address separatist advocacy in Canada.‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint frameworks to counter extremism and terrorism.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic Collaboration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Resume stalled CEPA negotiations.‬
‭○‬ ‭Reduce trade barriers and increase investment flows, especially in infrastructure and‬
‭renewable energy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Counter China in Indo-Pacific, promote freedom of navigation, and uphold a‬
‭rules-based order.‬
‭○‬ ‭Frameworks for counter-terrorism cooperation.‬
‭●‬ ‭People-to-People Ties‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthen cultural exchanges and educational programs.‬
‭○‬ ‭Leverage the Indian diaspora as a bridge for better relations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Environmental Collaboration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Partner on renewable energy and climate change commitments.‬

‭Way Forward‬

‭Despite current tensions, India and Canada share significant historical, economic, and cultural ties.‬
‭Both countries need to:‬

‭●‬ ‭Prioritize dialogue over confrontation.‬

‭●‬ ‭Recognize mutual benefits in trade, technology, and strategic cooperation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Build on their shared values of democracy and multiculturalism.‬

‭Five Eyes Alliance:‬‭Overview and Features‬

‭What is the Five Eyes Alliance?‬

‭●‬ ‭The Five Eyes (FVEY)‬‭is an intelligence-sharing alliance‬‭comprising‬‭Australia, Canada,‬

‭New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭The alliance originated during‬‭World War II‬‭with intelligence‬‭collaboration between the UK‬
‭and the US.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is formalized under the‬‭UK-USA Agreement‬‭, a treaty focused on‬‭signals intelligence‬
‭(SIGINT)‬‭.‬

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‭Key Features of the Five Eyes Alliance‬

‭●‬ ‭Intelligence Sharing‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Member nations share a wide spectrum of intelligence, including signals, electronic‬
‭surveillance, and cybersecurity data.‬
‭○‬ ‭It is considered one of the most tightly-knit and trusted intelligence-sharing‬
‭alliances globally.‬
‭●‬ ‭Focus Areas‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Counterterrorism, cybersecurity, counter-espionage, and tracking emerging threats.‬
‭○‬ ‭Monitoring communications and data for national security purposes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Expansion into Multilateral Agreements‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Nine Eyes‬‭: Extends the group to include‬‭Netherlands,‬‭Denmark, France, and‬
‭Norway‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭14 Eyes‬‭: Adds‬‭Belgium, Italy, Germany, Spain, and‬‭Sweden‬‭to the intelligence‬
‭network.‬
‭○‬ ‭These extended alliances focus on broader intelligence-sharing partnerships but‬
‭maintain lesser integration than the core Five Eyes group.‬
‭●‬ ‭Operational Structure‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The alliance operates through joint collection, analysis, and dissemination of‬
‭intelligence.‬
‭○‬ ‭Members share facilities, technical expertise, and classified intelligence without‬
‭restriction.‬
‭●‬ ‭Global Influence‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The alliance has played a key role in post-9/11 counterterrorism efforts.‬
‭○‬ ‭Its surveillance programs, such as‬‭PRISM‬‭, have raised‬‭concerns about privacy and‬
‭oversight.‬

‭Relevance in Contemporary Context‬

‭●‬ ‭The Five Eyes Alliance plays a critical role in addressing:‬

‭○‬ ‭Cybersecurity threats‬‭: Protecting against cyberattacks‬‭from state and non-state‬
‭actors.‬
‭○‬ ‭Geopolitical challenges‬‭: Monitoring the activities‬‭of adversaries like China and‬
‭Russia.‬
‭○‬ ‭Counterterrorism‬‭: Sharing intelligence to disrupt‬‭terrorist networks globally.‬

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‭India-Italy Relations and Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029‬

‭Why in News?‬

‭India and Italy issued the Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-29 to deepen bilateral cooperation in‬
‭key sectors like defence, trade, energy, and space. This development followed a meeting between‬
‭PM Narendra Modi and Italian PM Giorgia Meloni on the sidelines of the‬‭G20 Summit in Brazil‬‭.‬

‭India-Italy Bilateral Relations: Overview‬

‭1. Political Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Established in‬‭1947‬‭, India and Italy have progressively‬‭built strong political ties.‬
‭●‬ ‭Notable milestones include:‬
‭○‬ ‭2020-2025 Action Plan‬‭, launched during a virtual summit‬‭in November 2020.‬
‭○‬ ‭Elevation of ties to a‬‭Strategic Partnership‬‭during‬‭Italian PM Giorgia Meloni's‬
‭state visit to India in March 2023.‬
‭○‬ ‭Regular participation in global fora like G20, underscoring shared multilateral‬
‭commitments.‬

‭2. Economic Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭In 2023, bilateral trade reached €14.34 billion, with a‬‭trade surplus‬‭of €3.98‬
‭billion in India's favor.‬
‭○‬ ‭Italy is India’s 4th largest trading partner in the EU and a key investor.‬
‭●‬ ‭Investments‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Italy has invested USD 3.53 billion in India, with a focus on green technologies,‬
‭manufacturing, and infrastructure.‬

‭3. Defence and Security Cooperation‬

‭●‬ ‭Historical connection: Indian soldiers made significant sacrifices during WWII on Italian soil.‬
‭●‬ ‭Contemporary initiatives include:‬
‭○‬ ‭Deployment of Italian officials at the‬‭Information‬‭Fusion Center-Indian Ocean‬
‭Region (IFC-IOR)‬‭to enhance maritime security.‬
‭○‬ ‭Ongoing exploration of‬‭joint defence production‬‭and‬‭technology transfers.‬

‭4. Energy and Science Cooperation‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Strategic Partnership on Energy Transition‬‭(2021) focuses on green hydrogen,‬
‭biofuels, and renewable energy.‬
‭●‬ ‭The annual‬‭India-Italy Innovation Day‬‭promotes collaborations‬‭in science and technology.‬

‭5. Cultural and Diaspora Ties‬

‭●‬ ‭The Indian diaspora in Italy (~180,000) plays a vital role in fostering cultural exchanges.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bilateral programs like exhibitions, heritage preservation, and film co-productions further‬
‭deepen ties.‬

‭Key Features of the Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029‬

‭1. Political Dialogue‬

‭●‬ ‭Annual consultations at ministerial levels to intensify cooperation across key sectors.‬
‭●‬ ‭Collaboration through regular bilateral visits and meetings of Heads of Government and‬
‭Foreign Ministers.‬

‭2. Economic Cooperation‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthen trade and investment in‬‭high-potential‬‭sectors‬‭like green technologies,‬

‭sustainable mobility, and semiconductors.‬
‭●‬ ‭Promote‬‭joint ventures‬‭in food processing, automotive,‬‭and advanced manufacturing.‬

‭3. Connectivity‬

‭●‬ ‭Develop sustainable transport and maritime infrastructure under initiatives like the‬
‭India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)‬‭.‬

‭4. Science and Technology‬

‭●‬ ‭Expand partnerships in emerging technologies like AI, telecom, and Industry 4.0.‬
‭●‬ ‭Launch the‬‭Indo-Italian Innovation and Incubation‬‭Exchange Programme‬‭to facilitate‬
‭start-up collaborations.‬

‭5. Space Cooperation‬

‭●‬ ‭Collaboration between ISRO and ASI (Italian Space Agency) on‬‭lunar exploration‬‭and‬
‭Earth observation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthen peaceful and commercial use of space technologies.‬

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‭6. Energy Transition‬

‭●‬ ‭Collaborate on green hydrogen, biofuels, and renewables through‬‭Tech Summits‬‭.‬

‭●‬ ‭Support global platforms like the‬‭International Solar‬‭Alliance‬‭.‬

‭7. Defence and Security‬

‭●‬ ‭Develop a‬‭Defence Industrial Roadmap‬‭to enhance joint‬‭production and R&D.‬

‭●‬ ‭Increase maritime and cyber cooperation in the‬‭Indo-Pacific‬‭region.‬

‭8. Migration and Mobility‬

‭●‬ ‭Pilot projects to facilitate skilled migration, focusing on sectors like healthcare.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhance mobility for students, researchers, and professionals.‬

‭9. Cultural and Tourism Cooperation‬

‭●‬ ‭Promote tourism, cultural exchanges, and film co-productions.‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthen collaboration in heritage restoration and academic partnerships.‬

‭Strategic Significance for India‬

‭1. Geo-Economic Relevance‬

‭●‬ ‭Italy is a key partner in the‬‭EU‬‭and a significant‬‭contributor to trade, investment, and‬

‭technology collaborations.‬
‭●‬ ‭The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor provides a strategic connectivity‬
‭framework linking Europe with India.‬

‭2. Strengthening Defence Capabilities‬

‭●‬ ‭Defence production and maritime cooperation with Italy contribute to India’s‬‭self-reliance‬
‭in defence and‬‭security in the Indo-Pacific‬‭.‬

‭3. Energy Security and Sustainability‬

‭●‬ ‭Collaboration in green hydrogen and biofuels aligns with India’s‬‭energy transition goals‬
‭and global climate commitments.‬

‭4. People-to-People Engagement‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Enhanced mobility agreements and diaspora contributions boost cultural ties and mutual‬
‭goodwill.‬

‭Challenges in India-Italy Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Regulatory hurdles in trade and investments.‬

‭●‬ ‭Need for clarity on Italy’s role in broader EU-India dynamics.‬
‭●‬ ‭Balancing collaboration with global competition in critical technologies.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭The‬‭Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-2029‬‭is a roadmap‬‭for transforming India-Italy relations‬

‭into a robust partnership spanning diverse sectors. By leveraging opportunities in trade, technology,‬
‭energy, and defence, the plan aligns with India’s broader goals of enhancing global partnerships‬
‭and fostering regional stability. Strategic cooperation with Italy also strengthens India’s presence in‬
‭Europe, complementing its engagement with the EU.‬

‭Why Italy Matters to‬‭India: A Strategic Partnership for the‬

‭Future‬

‭Strategic Gateway to Europe:‬

‭●‬ ‭As a‬‭G7 member‬‭and a significant player in the European‬‭Union (EU), Italy acts as India’s‬
‭gateway to European markets‬‭and decision-making circles.‬‭Its geopolitical position in the‬
‭Mediterranean‬‭, combined with its influence within‬‭the EU, positions Italy as a vital partner‬
‭for India in advancing trade, diplomacy, and geopolitical strategies.‬

‭Defence and Security Cooperation‬

‭The evolving India-Italy defense partnership reflects a growing trust and alignment on global‬
‭security concerns. Key areas include:‬

‭●‬ ‭Maritime Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Strengthening naval exercises and information sharing.‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhancing interoperability in the‬‭Indo-Pacific region‬‭to ensure freedom of‬
‭navigation and counter-piracy initiatives.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Counter-Terrorism‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaborative efforts to share intelligence and improve counter-terrorism strategies.‬
‭○‬ ‭Focus on combating global threats, including cybercrime and transnational terrorism.‬
‭●‬ ‭Defence Technology‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Co-development of military hardware.‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint research in‬‭cybersecurity solutions‬‭and defence‬‭innovation.‬

‭Economic Ties‬

‭●‬ ‭Italy is India's‬‭4th largest trading partner‬‭in the‬‭EU, contributing significantly to trade‬
‭and investment:‬
‭●‬ ‭Bilateral Trade:‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade volume crossed‬‭$14.25 billion‬‭in 2022-23, with‬‭India enjoying a trade surplus‬
‭of‬‭$3.5 billion‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Italy ranks 17th in FDI inflows to India, investing‬‭$3.5 billion‬‭(April 2000–March‬
‭2023).‬
‭○‬ ‭Key sectors:‬‭Automobile (29.8%)‬‭, Trading (17.1%),‬‭and Industrial Machinery‬
‭(5.6%).‬
‭●‬ ‭India’s‬‭IT firms‬‭are increasingly finding opportunities‬‭in Italy, aligning with its‬
‭digitalisation drive‬‭.‬

‭Technological Synergies‬

‭Italy’s expertise in‬‭aerospace‬‭, robotics, and advanced‬‭manufacturing aligns with India’s focus on‬
‭innovation-led growth‬‭. Key collaborations include:‬

‭●‬ ‭Green Technologies‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Partnerships in‬‭renewable energy‬‭, biofuels, and sustainable‬‭urban development.‬
‭●‬ ‭Space Initiatives‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Italian Space Agency (ASI) and ISRO collaborations focus on‬‭earth observation‬‭,‬
‭heliophysics, and space exploration.‬
‭○‬ ‭Italy’s acknowledgment of‬‭Chandrayaan-3‬‭has fostered‬‭deeper scientific‬
‭engagement.‬

‭Cooperation in Multilateral Bodies‬

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‭Italy actively collaborates with India in global initiatives:‬

‭●‬ ‭International Solar Alliance (ISA)‬‭: Promoting renewable‬‭energy.‬

‭●‬ ‭Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)‬‭: Advancing infrastructure‬
‭resilience.‬
‭●‬ ‭India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)‬‭:‬‭Enhancing connectivity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA)‬‭: Driving green energy‬‭transitions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)‬‭: Supporting‬‭a rules-based maritime order.‬

‭Cultural Diplomacy‬

‭The shared cultural heritage of both nations strengthens people-to-people ties:‬

‭●‬ ‭Exchanges and Programs‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Executive Programme on Cultural Cooperation (2023–27) enhances cultural,‬
‭academic, and tourism collaboration.‬
‭○‬ ‭Promotion of Indian yoga and Italian cuisine as symbols of soft power.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diaspora‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭180,000-strong Indian community in Italy‬‭serves‬‭as a bridge for bilateral ties,‬
‭contributing to cultural and economic growth.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭●‬ ‭Italy's strategic significance to India lies in its role as a gateway to Europe, a partner in‬
‭defence and security, and a collaborator in advancing green technologies and innovation. By‬
‭fostering ties through multilateral platforms, economic partnerships, and cultural exchanges,‬
‭India and Italy are poised to elevate their bilateral relationship into a robust strategic‬
‭partnership that addresses regional and global challenges effectively.‬

‭16th BRICS Summit:‬‭Highlights and Analysis‬

‭Why in the News?‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭16th BRICS Summit‬‭was held in Kazan, Russia, bringing‬‭together member nations to‬
‭discuss pressing global and regional issues. On the sidelines of the summit, the Indian‬
‭Prime Minister welcomed a recent agreement with China for‬‭complete disengagement and‬
‭resolution‬‭of the 2020 border issues, marking the first bilateral meeting between the two‬
‭leaders since 2020.‬

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‭What is BRICS?‬

‭Formation and Evolution‬

‭●‬ ‭BRICS was initially formed in 2006 during a meeting of Brazil, Russia, India, and China‬
‭(BRIC) on the sidelines of the G8 Outreach Summit.‬
‭●‬ ‭South Africa joined in 2010, expanding the grouping to BRICS.‬
‭●‬ ‭Currently, BRICS includes‬‭9 member countries‬‭: Brazil,‬‭China, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Iran,‬
‭Russia, South Africa, and UAE.‬
‭●‬ ‭The inaugural summit was held in‬‭Yekaterinburg, Russia‬‭(2009)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭New Development Bank (NDB)‬‭was established during‬‭the‬‭6th BRICS Summit‬
‭(2014)‬‭in Fortaleza, Brazil.‬

‭Significance‬

‭●‬ ‭BRICS countries represent‬‭40% of the world’s population‬‭and contribute‬‭26% of global‬

‭GDP‬‭(as of August 2023).‬
‭●‬ ‭The bloc addresses economic, political, and social inequalities in global institutions such as‬
‭the‬‭UNSC, IMF, and World Bank‬‭, where members feel‬‭underrepresented.‬

‭Why BRICS Matters‬

‭●‬ ‭Engagement of Non-Western Countries‬

‭○‬ ‭The Kazan Summit underscored the bloc’s ability to engage‬‭non-Western nations‬‭,‬
‭emphasizing Russia’s strategic importance as a supplier of‬‭weapons and‬
‭energy‬‭.‭I‬nstitutional Strength‬
‭●‬ ‭Despite diverse membership, BRICS has remained cohesive through:‬
‭○‬ ‭Annual summits.‬
‭○‬ ‭Effective management of institutions like the‬‭New‬‭Development Bank‬‭, which has‬
‭funded‬‭$30 billion worth of projects since 2015‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Influence on Global Politics‬
‭○‬ ‭BRICS has emerged as a‬‭powerful bloc‬‭, challenging Western-led institutions like‬
‭the‬‭G7‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭It emphasizes:‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭multipolar world order‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Reforms in global governance‬‭for fairer representation‬‭of developing‬
‭nations.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Kazan Declaration‬‭reaffirmed the bloc's ambition to reform international frameworks.‬

‭Challenges Related to BRICS‬

‭●‬ ‭Countering the Dollar‬

‭○‬ ‭Efforts to establish a‬‭multipolar financial system‬‭face hurdles:‬
‭■‬ ‭Limited progress in the NDB compared to the World Bank.‬
‭■‬ ‭Slow adoption of non-dollar currencies in international trade.‬
‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Contradictions‬
‭○‬ ‭The inclusion of countries like the‬‭UAE, Egypt, and‬‭Iran‬‭introduces complexity:‬
‭■‬ ‭UAE and Egypt maintain strong ties with the‬‭US‬‭, while‬‭Iran is a US‬
‭adversary‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭These contradictions may hinder a unified agenda.‬
‭●‬ ‭Decision-Making Challenges‬
‭○‬ ‭Expansion to 9 members increases complexity due to the‬‭consensus-based‬
‭decision-making model‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Risk of becoming like the‬‭Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)‬‭or‬‭Group of 77‬
‭(G77)‬‭—existing but with limited global influence.‬
‭●‬ ‭Internal Rivalries‬
‭○‬ ‭Geopolitical tensions, such as those in‬‭West Asia‬‭,‬‭could undermine BRICS’‬
‭functionality.‬
‭○‬ ‭Concerns over‬‭China’s dominance‬‭within the group may‬‭also deter unity.‬

‭Evolution of India-South America Relations‬

‭Historical Context and Divergence‬

‭●‬ ‭Historical Background‬

‭○‬ ‭Post-1947, India emerged as a newly independent nation, while Latin American‬
‭countries had achieved independence over a century earlier‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural Contrast‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Latin America: Influenced by European colonization, with African and minor‬
‭indigenous impacts.‬
‭○‬ ‭India: A South Asian society shaped by British colonial education and cultural‬
‭integration.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Divergence‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Latin America aligned with Europe and the U.S.‬
‭○‬ ‭India followed‬‭non-alignment‬‭, creating limited interaction‬‭despite mutual cultural‬
‭admiration.‬
‭●‬ ‭Post-Colonial Solidarity‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Early diplomatic engagements were driven by shared colonial experiences.‬
‭○‬ ‭However, geographic distance and lack of direct disputes led to limited impact.‬

‭Current Status:‬

‭●‬ ‭Diplomatic Framework‬

‭○‬ ‭India has‬‭20 embassies in Latin America and the Caribbean‬‭and maintains‬‭14‬
‭embassies in the region‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Engagement through‬‭multilateral platforms‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭BRICS, IBSA, G20, and CELAC.‬
‭■‬ ‭Participation in sub-regional forums like MERCOSUR and the Pacific‬
‭Alliance.‬
‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Focus‬
‭○‬ ‭Latin America remains peripheral in India’s foreign policy, despite India’s global‬
‭influence.‬
‭○‬ ‭Geographic distance has not hindered‬‭China’s robust‬‭trade ties‬‭with the region,‬
‭which significantly surpass India’s.‬
‭●‬ ‭Travel and Exchange‬
‭○‬ ‭Both regions view each other with interest, but travel and exchanges remain‬
‭underdeveloped.‬

‭Key Drivers of India-South America Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade and Economic Relations‬

‭○‬ ‭Export-Import Dynamics‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭India imports‬‭crude oil‬‭(Venezuela, Brazil) and exports‬‭pharmaceuticals,‬
‭textiles, and vehicles‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭Examples:‬‭Brazilian company Surya Brasil sources henna‬‭from India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Investment Opportunities‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Tata Motors operates in‬‭Argentina‬‭, while Mahindra invests in‬‭Brazil’s‬
‭agriculture sector‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Agriculture and Food Security‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Collaborations‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Transfer of‬‭high-yield seed technology‬‭and cultivation‬‭practices (India to‬
‭Argentina, Brazil).‬
‭■‬ ‭Joint food security projects in‬‭Colombia‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Technology and Innovation‬
‭○‬ ‭IT and Digital Services‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) and Infosys have operations in‬‭Brazil and‬
‭Argentina‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭Establishment of‬‭innovation hubs‬‭in collaboration‬‭with Latin American‬
‭governments.‬
‭●‬ ‭Energy and Natural Resources‬
‭○‬ ‭Energy Partnerships‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭ONGC Videsh Limited invests in‬‭Venezuelan oil projects‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭Vedanta operates in‬‭Peruvian mining‬‭, extracting copper‬‭and zinc.‬
‭○‬ ‭Biofuels‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Collaboration on ethanol blending; Brazil achieved‬‭27% blending‬‭, supporting‬
‭India’s goal of‬‭20% by 2025‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare‬
‭■‬ ‭Generic Medicines‬‭:‬
‭●‬ ‭Indian companies like‬‭Cipla‬‭and‬‭Sun Pharma‬‭reduce‬‭healthcare‬
‭costs in‬‭Brazil‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint Ventures‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories partners with Mexican firms for manufacturing.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural Exchange and Education‬
‭○‬ ‭Bollywood influences Latin America; Mexican actress Bárbara Mori starred in‬
‭"Kites."‬
‭○‬ ‭Scholarships for Latin American students under the‬‭Indian Council for Cultural‬
‭Relations (ICCR)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Infrastructure and Development‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian companies like‬‭L&T Construction‬‭contribute‬‭to‬‭infrastructure projects‬‭in‬
‭Brazil.‬
‭○‬ ‭Development assistance includes concessional loans for‬‭renewable energy‬‭projects‬
‭in Guyana.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Cooperation‬
‭○‬ ‭Global Advocacy‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭India and Brazil collaborate on UN reforms and multipolarity.‬

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 ‭■‬ ‭Both are active in‬‭BRICS‬‭and‬‭IBSA‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Tourism and Travel‬
‭○‬ ‭Promotional Efforts‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭India Tourism Office in‬‭Buenos Aires‬‭promotes cultural‬‭exchange.‬
‭○‬ ‭Visa Agreements‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Travel agreements with‬‭Chile‬‭and‬‭Brazil‬‭ease business‬‭and tourism.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sustainable Development‬
‭○‬ ‭Climate Action‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Collaborative renewable energy projects (solar and wind).‬
‭○‬ ‭Agriculture‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Exchange of techniques like‬‭No-Till farming‬‭for soil conservation.‬

‭Challenges in India-South America Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Complex Political Landscape‬

‭○‬ ‭Lack of regional cohesion in Latin America complicates bilateral engagements.‬
‭●‬ ‭Political Instability‬
‭○‬ ‭Shifts in leadership and ideology disrupt long-term cooperation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic Disparities‬
‭○‬ ‭Sluggish growth in Latin America hinders trade dynamics.‬
‭●‬ ‭High Tariffs‬
‭○‬ ‭India imposes‬‭65% tariffs on Latin American agricultural‬‭goods‬‭, higher than‬
‭China’s 12.5%‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Connectivity Barriers‬
‭○‬ ‭High shipping costs and lack of direct shipping routes limit trade potential.‬
‭●‬ ‭Institutional Weakness‬
‭○‬ ‭Minimal Indian banking presence and lack of participation in regional financial‬
‭institutions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Uneven Investment‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian investments in hydrocarbons and pharma contrast with Latin America’s‬
‭minimal presence in India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural and Linguistic Barriers‬
‭○‬ ‭Limited fluency in Spanish and Portuguese hampers engagement.‬
‭●‬ ‭Competitive Pressures‬
‭○‬ ‭India faces competition from‬‭China‬‭, which dominates trade and investment in the‬
‭region.‬

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‭The Way Forward‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthening Diplomatic Frameworks‬

‭○‬ ‭Institutionalize regular high-level dialogues and revisit the‬‭India-CELAC joint‬
‭statement‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhancing Trade and Investment‬
‭○‬ ‭Expand the‬‭FOCUS LAC program‬‭and negotiate new trade‬‭agreements.‬
‭○‬ ‭Address tariff disparities to promote smoother trade flows.‬
‭●‬ ‭Leveraging Synergies‬
‭○‬ ‭Match India’s strengths in IT, biotech, and space with Latin America’s expertise in‬
‭agriculture and energy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Addressing Connectivity Issues‬
‭○‬ ‭Invest in infrastructure, including‬‭direct shipping‬‭routes‬‭and‬‭warehousing‬
‭facilities‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Promoting People-to-People Ties‬
‭○‬ ‭Increase‬‭academic exchanges‬‭and scholarships.‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthen cultural diplomacy to build mutual appreciation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Learning from China‬
‭○‬ ‭Focus on incremental improvements in engagement, adopting pragmatic and‬
‭predictable policies.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Sector Collaboration‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhance cooperation in‬‭defence, space, and renewable energy‬‭sectors.‬

‭Way Forward‬

‭●‬ ‭Clear Objectives‬

‭○‬ ‭Define shared goals focusing on:‬
‭■‬ ‭Trade‬‭facilitation.‬
‭■‬ ‭Advancements in‬‭technology‬‭and‬‭security‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthened Collaboration‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhance cooperation in:‬
‭■‬ ‭Supply chains‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭Energy and food security‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭Financial resilience‬‭through institutions like the‬‭NDB.‬
‭●‬ ‭Universal Security‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Promote dialogue over confrontation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Respect the‬‭security concerns‬‭of all member nations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Incremental Reforms‬
‭○‬ ‭Advocate for phased reforms in global institutions to enhance the representation of‬
‭developing nations.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭The 16th BRICS Summit reinforced the bloc’s potential to shape a‬‭multipolar world order‬‭while‬
‭addressing challenges like internal contradictions and geopolitical tensions. By fostering‬‭economic‬
‭resilience, institutional cohesion, and universal security‬‭, BRICS can enhance its global standing‬
‭and promote equitable global governance.‬

‭QUAD‬

‭Why in the News?‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭6th Quad Summit‬‭was held in Delaware, United States,‬‭marking the‬‭4th in-person‬
‭Quad Leaders' Summit‬‭. The meeting showcased the Quad’s‬‭commitment to addressing‬
‭critical challenges in the‬‭Indo-Pacific region‬‭across‬‭health, climate, cybersecurity, and‬
‭more.‬

‭What is Quad?‬

‭About‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)‬‭is a partnership among‬‭Australia, India,‬

‭Japan, and the United States‬‭, aimed at promoting peace,‬‭stability, and prosperity in the‬
‭Indo-Pacific region‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Focus Areas‬‭: Health security, climate change, infrastructure,‬‭technology, cybersecurity,‬
‭maritime security, countering disinformation, and counter-terrorism.‬

‭Origins‬

‭●‬ ‭Formed in response to the‬‭2004 Indian Ocean tsunami‬‭to provide humanitarian assistance.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Officially established in‬‭2007‬‭under Japanese Prime Minister‬‭Shinzo Abe‬‭but went dormant‬
‭in‬‭2008‬‭due to Australia’s withdrawal over concerns‬‭about China’s response.‬
‭●‬ ‭Revived in‬‭2017‬‭, with its first formal summit held‬‭in‬‭2021‬‭.‬

‭Membership‬

‭●‬ ‭Quad's‬‭"Quad-plus" meetings‬‭have included nations‬‭like‬‭South Korea, New Zealand, and‬

‭Vietnam‬‭, suggesting potential for future expansion.‬

‭Key Highlights of the 6th Quad Summit‬

‭Health‬

‭●‬ ‭Quad Health Security Partnership (QHSP)‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Launched in‬‭2023‬‭to enhance health security in the‬‭Indo-Pacific.‬
‭●‬ ‭Quad Cancer Moonshot‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭New initiative focused on treating‬‭cervical cancer‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Pandemic Preparedness‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The US pledged‬‭$84.5 million‬‭to strengthen infectious‬‭disease prevention in 14‬
‭Indo-Pacific nations.‬

‭Maritime Security‬

‭●‬ ‭MAITRI‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭Maritime Initiative for Training in the Indo-Pacific‬‭aims to enhance regional‬
‭maritime security capabilities.‬
‭●‬ ‭Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA)‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Launched in‬‭2022‬‭, focusing on monitoring illegal activities.‬
‭●‬ ‭Indo-Pacific Logistics Network‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhances disaster response capabilities through improved logistics.‬
‭●‬ ‭Coast Guard Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭A‬‭Quad-at-Sea Ship Observer Mission‬‭is planned for‬‭2025‬‭to strengthen‬
‭interoperability.‬

‭Infrastructure Development‬

‭●‬ ‭Digital Infrastructure Principles‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Focus on secure and inclusive digital public infrastructure.‬
‭●‬ ‭Quad Ports of the Future Partnership‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Supports resilient port development and regional connectivity.‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭inaugural Regional Ports and Transportation Conference‬‭will be held in‬
‭Mumbai (2025)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Undersea Cables‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Quad partners committed‬‭$140 million‬‭to connect Pacific‬‭island nations by‬‭2025‬‭.‬

‭Critical and Emerging Technologies‬

‭●‬ ‭Open Radio Access Network (RAN)‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Deployment in‬‭Palau‬‭with a‬‭$20 million investment‬‭to build secure‬
‭telecommunications ecosystems.‬
‭●‬ ‭AI-ENGAGE Initiative‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Promotes AI and robotics in agriculture.‬
‭●‬ ‭BioExplore Initiative‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Utilizes AI for disease diagnosis and clean energy solutions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Semiconductors‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭A Memorandum of Cooperation to address semiconductor supply chain risks.‬
‭●‬ ‭Quantum Technology‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaboration through the‬‭Quad Investors Network (QUIN)‬‭.‬

‭Climate and Clean Energy‬

‭●‬ ‭Early Warning Systems‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The US will provide 3D-printed weather stations for Pacific Island nations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Quad Clean Energy Supply Chain Diversification Program‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India committed‬‭$2 million‬‭for solar projects in‬‭Fiji,‬‭Comoros, Madagascar, and‬
‭Seychelles‬‭.‬

‭Cybersecurity‬

‭●‬ ‭Quad Action Plan‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Focuses on protecting undersea telecommunication cables and countering‬
‭disinformation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Countering Disinformation Working Group‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Addresses media freedom and foreign information manipulation.‬

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‭Space‬

‭●‬ ‭Shared expertise in‬‭space situational awareness (SSA)‬‭to ensure the sustainability of the‬
‭space environment.‬

‭Counter-Terrorism‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Quad Counter-Terrorism Working Group (CTWG)‬‭focuses‬‭on:‬

‭○‬ ‭Countering‬‭unmanned aerial systems (C-UAS)‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Addressing chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear threats (CBRN).‬

‭People-to-People Initiatives‬

‭●‬ ‭India announced‬‭50 Quad scholarships‬‭worth‬‭$500,000‬‭for Indo-Pacific students pursuing‬

‭undergraduate engineering in India.‬

‭Principles for Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)‬

‭About DPI‬

‭●‬ ‭Shared digital systems that are‬‭secure, reliable,‬‭and interoperable‬‭to improve public‬
‭service delivery.‬
‭●‬ ‭Developed through public and private sector collaboration.‬

‭Quad Principles for DPI‬

‭●‬ ‭Inclusivity‬‭: Ensure equitable access, avoiding algorithmic‬‭bias.‬

‭●‬ ‭Interoperability‬‭: Use open standards while considering‬‭constraints.‬
‭●‬ ‭Scalability‬‭: Design systems for unexpected demand‬‭increases.‬
‭●‬ ‭Security and Privacy‬‭: Protect individual data through‬‭privacy-enhancing technologies.‬
‭●‬ ‭Governance for Public Benefit‬‭: Promote transparency, competition, and inclusion.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sustainability‬‭: Ensure continuous operations with‬‭adequate support.‬
‭●‬ ‭Intellectual Property Protection‬‭: Respect intellectual property rights.‬
‭●‬ ‭Alignment with SDGs‬‭: Develop systems aligned with the‬‭2030 Agenda for Sustainable‬
‭Development‬‭.‬

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‭Significance of the Quad‬

‭Strategic Importance‬

‭●‬ ‭The Quad promotes a‬‭free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific‬‭,‬‭countering challenges posed‬
‭by China’s growing assertiveness.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthens regional partnerships in critical areas like‬‭health, technology, and climate‬
‭resilience‬‭.‬

‭Collaborative Framework‬

‭●‬ ‭The Quad operates as a platform for:‬

‭○‬ ‭Technology transfer‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Infrastructure development‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Maritime security‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Its focus extends beyond security to include‬‭socioeconomic‬‭and technological initiatives‬‭.‬

‭Challenges‬

‭●‬ ‭China’s Perception‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Beijing views the Quad as a containment strategy, leading to diplomatic tensions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diverging Priorities‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Member nations face varying domestic and international challenges, complicating‬
‭consensus.‬
‭●‬ ‭Implementation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Translating initiatives into tangible outcomes requires sustained political will and‬
‭financial commitment.‬

‭Way Forward‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthen Collaboration‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Enhance coordination in supply chains, clean energy, and technology.‬
‭●‬ ‭Expand Partnerships‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Include more countries under "Quad-plus" initiatives to amplify regional impact.‬
‭●‬ ‭Promote Inclusivity‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Ensure that Quad’s initiatives address diverse regional needs and promote equitable‬
‭development.‬

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‭Conclusion:‬

‭The 6th Quad Summit underscores the bloc's evolving role as a‬‭comprehensive strategic‬
‭partnership‬‭. By addressing challenges in health, technology,‬‭and security, the Quad reinforces its‬
‭commitment to a stable and resilient Indo-Pacific, fostering regional growth and global stability.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬

‭Lecture 20: Nordic Nations and Russia‬

‭India-Nordic Relations‬

‭Introduction and Context‬

‭●‬ ‭India and the Nordic countries—Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden—have‬
‭developed a strong partnership based on shared values of democracy, innovation, and‬
‭sustainability. The relationship gained momentum with the first‬‭India-Nordic Summit in‬
‭Stockholm in 2018‬‭, which formalized collaboration‬‭across diverse fields. The‬‭2nd‬
‭India-Nordic Summit in Copenhagen (2022)‬‭further strengthened‬‭this bond by focusing‬
‭on post-pandemic recovery, climate change, and digitalization.‬

‭Key Issues/Concepts‬

‭●‬ ‭Green Transition and Sustainability‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬‭Green Strategic Partnership (2020)‬‭between India‬‭and Denmark set a‬
‭precedent for collaboration on renewable energy, circular economy, and sustainable‬
‭growth.‬
‭○‬ ‭Norway’s‬‭Climate Investment Fund‬‭has invested over‬‭₹1,500 crore in India’s‬
‭renewable energy projects.‬
‭○‬ ‭Sweden and India launched‬‭Leadership for Industry‬‭Transition (LeadIT)‬‭in 2019‬
‭to focus on low-carbon transitions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Digitalization and Innovation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Nordic expertise in‬‭AI‬‭,‬‭quantum computing‬‭, and‬‭smart grids‬‭complements India’s‬
‭digital initiatives.‬
‭○‬ ‭Nordic countries provide models for‬‭e-governance‬‭and‬‭tech-based public services‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Trade and Investment‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Trade between India and the Nordic region has grown steadily, with‬‭over 700‬
‭Nordic companies‬‭operating in India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Norway's‬‭Sovereign Wealth Fund‬‭is set to become one‬‭of India’s largest investors.‬
‭○‬ ‭Finland is part of‬‭EU-India FTA negotiations‬‭, while‬‭Norway negotiates through the‬
‭EFTA‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Maritime Cooperation and Blue Economy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaborative efforts focus on sustainable ocean management, port modernization,‬
‭and fisheries development.‬
‭○‬ ‭These align with India's‬‭Sagarmala Project‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Arctic Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India’s‬‭Arctic Policy‬‭offers a framework for Nordic‬‭collaboration in polar research,‬
‭climate studies, and sustainable Arctic development.‬

‭Case Studies/Examples‬

‭●‬ ‭Denmark‬‭: The Green Strategic Partnership focuses on‬‭renewable energy and water‬
‭management solutions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Norway‬‭: Investments in solar and wind projects have‬‭strengthened India’s green energy‬
‭sector.‬
‭●‬ ‭Finland‬‭: Finnish companies like Nokia and Fortum have‬‭identified India as their largest‬
‭growth market.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sweden‬‭: Initiatives like LeadIT and technological‬‭collaborations in healthcare and‬
‭innovation drive the bilateral agenda.‬

‭Critical Analysis‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengths‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Complementary Strengths‬‭: India’s market size and Nordic technological expertise‬
‭create a synergy for innovation and growth.‬
‭○‬ ‭Shared Values‬‭: Both partners advocate for democracy,‬‭sustainability, and‬
‭multilateralism.‬
‭●‬ ‭Challenges‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭FTA Negotiations‬‭: The slow pace of EU-India and EFTA-India‬‭trade discussions‬
‭limits potential growth.‬
‭○‬ ‭Regulatory Barriers‬‭: Differences in trade standards‬‭and compliance requirements‬
‭may hinder investments.‬
‭●‬ ‭Opportunities‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Accelerating technology transfer in‬‭green hydrogen‬‭and‬‭smart cities‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭We are expanding partnerships in‬‭healthcare‬‭,‬‭education‬‭,‬‭and‬‭food processing‬‭.‬

‭Current Relevance‬

‭India’s rapid strides in‬‭green energy‬‭,‬‭digital transformation‬‭,‬‭and‬‭sustainable development‬‭align‬

‭with Nordic priorities. The partnership’s focus on climate action, innovation, and trade highlights‬
‭its global significance in addressing 21st-century challenges. Nordic countries also support India’s‬
‭Arctic ambitions and multilateral initiatives.‬

‭India and the Arctic Ocean‬

‭Introduction and Context‬

‭●‬ ‭The Arctic Ocean, a region of strategic and environmental significance, has become a focal‬
‭point of global geopolitics due to its vast natural resources, potential shipping routes, and‬
‭critical role in climate regulation. India's engagement with the Arctic is guided by its‬
‭interests in‬‭scientific research, environmental preservation,‬‭and global governance‬‭. The‬
‭adoption of‬‭India's Arctic Policy (2022)‬‭underlines‬‭its commitment to contributing to‬
‭sustainable development in the region.‬

‭Key Issues/Concepts‬

‭●‬ ‭India’s Arctic Policy‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Titled‬‭“India and the Arctic: Building a Partnership‬‭for Sustainable‬
‭Development,”‬‭the policy focuses on:‬
‭■‬ ‭Science and Research‬‭: Strengthening research on climate‬‭change,‬
‭biodiversity, and Arctic ecosystems.‬

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 ‭■‬ ‭Environmental Protection‬‭: Addressing the impact of‬‭Arctic changes on‬
‭India’s monsoon and agriculture.‬
‭■‬ ‭Economic and Strategic Interests‬‭: Exploring potential‬‭trade routes and‬
‭natural resources in collaboration with Arctic states.‬
‭●‬ ‭Scientific Research‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India has been conducting research in the Arctic since 2007 through its research‬
‭station,‬‭Himadri‬‭, located in Svalbard, Norway.‬
‭○‬ ‭Key areas of study include‬‭glaciology‬‭,‬‭climate change‬‭,‬‭marine biology‬‭, and‬
‭geosciences‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Significance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The Arctic is estimated to hold‬‭13% of the world’s‬‭undiscovered oil‬‭and‬‭30% of‬
‭natural gas‬‭reserves, making it an energy hub.‬
‭○‬ ‭Melting ice caps have opened up potential‬‭shipping‬‭routes‬‭, such as the Northern‬
‭Sea Route, reducing travel times between Asia and Europe.‬
‭●‬ ‭Climate Linkages‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Changes in the Arctic have a‬‭direct impact on global‬‭sea levels‬‭and‬‭India’s‬
‭monsoon patterns‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭The Arctic acts as a climate stabilizer, and its degradation exacerbates extreme‬
‭weather events worldwide.‬
‭●‬ ‭International Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India has been an‬‭Observer State‬‭in the‬‭Arctic Council‬‭since 2013 and actively‬
‭participates in its meetings and working groups.‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaboration with countries like‬‭Norway‬‭,‬‭Russia‬‭,‬‭and‬‭Canada‬‭strengthens India’s‬
‭Arctic engagement.‬

‭Case Studies/Examples‬

‭●‬ ‭Himadri Research Station‬‭: India’s base for Arctic research, focusing on the effects of‬
‭climate change and glacial dynamics.‬
‭●‬ ‭Observer Status in Arctic Council‬‭: India’s involvement‬‭in key discussions on sustainable‬
‭development and governance of the Arctic.‬

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‭Critical Analysis‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengths‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Scientific Expertise‬‭: India’s strong research capabilities‬‭in polar studies enhance its‬
‭contributions to the Arctic dialogue.‬
‭○‬ ‭Geopolitical Neutrality‬‭: India’s non-aligned stance‬‭allows it to collaborate with all‬
‭Arctic states without aligning with specific blocs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Challenges‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Geopolitical Tensions‬‭: Rivalries among Arctic states‬‭like the US, Russia, and China‬
‭create a complex environment for India’s involvement.‬
‭○‬ ‭Resource Accessibility‬‭: Harsh climatic conditions‬‭and high exploration costs limit‬
‭India’s ability to tap Arctic resources.‬
‭●‬ ‭Opportunities‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Shipping Routes‬‭: Leveraging Arctic shipping routes‬‭could reduce India’s trade costs‬
‭and transit times to Europe.‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaborative Research‬‭: Strengthening ties with Arctic‬‭nations for joint research on‬
‭climate and renewable energy.‬

‭Current Relevance‬

‭India’s Arctic engagement is critical in the context of‬‭global climate action‬‭,‬‭energy security‬‭, and‬
‭the strategic need to diversify trade routes. The Arctic’s changing dynamics impact India’s‬
‭monsoon system, agriculture, and water security, making its involvement essential for national‬
‭interests.‬

‭India-Russia:‬

‭●‬ ‭India-Russia relations have been time-tested in the evolving geo-political landscape.‬

‭●‬ ‭Despite of Cold War, this integration of the Soviet, and the unipolar world of the 1990s,‬

‭India has always maintained diplomatic relations with Russia‬‭.‬

‭Phases of Relationship:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Cold War Phase:‬

‭○‬ ‭During this time,‬‭India’s NAM policy helped India‬‭to save through bipolar world.‬

‭●‬ ‭1971 Friendship Treaty:‬

‭○‬ ‭Indo-Soviet friendship treaty was signed to ensure support of Russia in India’s‬

‭development as well as updating India’s military power.‬

‭●‬ ‭Post 1990s Phase:‬

‭○‬ ‭India-Russia relations got updated to a strategic partnership.‬

‭●‬ ‭After 2010:‬

‭○‬ ‭India and Russia established a special and privileged strategic partnership.‬

‭○‬ ‭Special and privileged strategic partnership:‬‭Under‬‭this, the nations have elevated‬

‭the relations for ensuring mutual development via enhanced trade and cooperation‬

‭and taking care of each other in international politics.‬

‭Area of Convergence:‬

‭●‬ ‭Energy Security:‬

‭○‬ ‭Russia has vast reserves of oil and gas which is very important for India’s‬

‭development.‬

‭○‬ ‭India is actively engaged in importing Hydrocarbons from Russia.‬

‭○‬ ‭Nuclear Energy:‬‭The‬‭Kudankulam Nuclear Power‬‭(Tamil‬‭Nadu) plant which is set‬

‭up with the help of Russia is helping India with peaceful energy generation from‬

‭nuclear sources.‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense Ties:‬

‭○‬ ‭47% of India’s defense imports‬‭are from Russia.‬

‭○‬ ‭During the time of crisis, Russia supplied the‬‭T72‬‭Tank, MiG-21, Joint production‬

‭of Brahmos, and S400 missile system.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭More than half of India’s conventional submarines are imported from Russia.‬

‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Relations:‬

‭○‬ ‭Counterbalancing China with the help of Russia will neutralize Pakistan.‬

‭○‬ ‭Both nations have supported the concept of a‬‭Multipolar‬‭World.‬

‭○‬ ‭Both nations are in support of reforms in the‬‭United‬‭Nations Security Council‬

‭(UNSC)‬‭.‬‭Russia always supported India to be a part‬‭of international forums like‬

‭the Nuclear Suppier Group (NSG).‬

‭Issues in Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Growing Russia-China Friendship:‬

‭○‬ ‭Recently, Russia and China have increased their military and economic participation.‬

‭For example:‬‭Conducting Joint Military exercises,‬‭and resolving border disputes.‬

‭●‬ ‭Russia-Pakistan Relations:‬

‭○‬ ‭In 2022,‬‭Imran Khan visited Russia to support Russia‬‭against Ukraine.‬‭It shows‬

‭that Russia knows how to handle India’s tilt towards the USA. India’s increased‬

‭partnerships with the USA are creating issues for Russia.‬

‭●‬ ‭Ukraine Crisis:‬

‭○‬ ‭Ukraine's evasion created a dilemma to support or not to support Russia.‬‭India’s‬

‭abstaining from voting and not criticizing Russia is creating problems for India from‬

‭various Western countries.‬

‭●‬ ‭Declining Economic Engagement:‬

‭○‬ ‭There is a gradual decline in trade and commerce amongst these nations.‬

‭○‬ ‭India is not happy with Russia’s post-sale services of military equipment.‬

‭○‬ ‭The economic trade is always tilted in favor of Russia‬

‭Way Forward:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Enhancing defense trade through joint ventures.‬

‭●‬ ‭Reducing trade imbalance by opening up new opportunities‬

‭●‬ ‭Working Rupee-Rouble mechanism‬

‭○‬ ‭This mechanism helps in internationalizing the Indian Rupee. This settlement was‬

‭first done in 1953.‬‭Vostro account is an example of‬‭such a mechanism.‬

‭●‬ ‭Multilateral Engagement‬

‭●‬ ‭Enhancing diaspora and cultural relations:‬

‭○‬ ‭Yoga and Culture Diplomacy.‬

‭○‬ ‭Celebrating each other's year celebration.‬

‭○‬ ‭Enhancing citizen-to-citizen relations through social media platforms.‬

‭As India-Russian relations have been one of the strongest ties in the 21st century, S. Jaishankar‬

‭has rightly highlighted that‬‭‘geopolitics and Strategic‬‭relations are the most important‬

‭nuances of India-Russian relations’.‬

‭Cold War: USA and Russia‬

‭Introduction and Context‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Cold War‬‭(1947–1991) was a prolonged period of‬‭political, military, and ideological‬

‭rivalry between the‬‭United States‬‭and the‬‭Soviet Union‬‭(USSR)‬‭. This confrontation‬

‭shaped global geopolitics, creating a bipolar world order divided between the capitalist bloc‬

‭led by the USA and the communist bloc led by the USSR. Despite the absence of direct‬

‭military confrontation, the Cold War saw intense competition across political ideologies,‬

‭economic models, and technological advancements.‬

‭Key Issues/Concepts‬

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‭●‬ ‭Origins of the Cold War‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Post-World War II power vacuum and ideological differences between‬‭capitalism‬

‭(USA) and‬‭communism‬‭(USSR).‬

‭○‬ ‭Divergences in visions for post-war Europe, particularly over the reconstruction of‬

‭Germany and Eastern Europe.‬

‭○‬ ‭Key events like the‬‭Truman Doctrine (1947)‬‭and‬‭Marshall‬‭Plan (1948)‬‭to counter‬

‭Soviet influence in Europe.‬

‭●‬ ‭Major Features of the Cold War‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Proxy Wars‬‭: Indirect conflicts in‬‭Korea‬‭,‬‭Vietnam‬‭,‬‭Afghanistan‬‭, and‬‭Cuba‬‭where‬

‭the superpowers supported opposing sides.‬

‭○‬ ‭Arms Race‬‭: Rapid development and stockpiling of nuclear‬‭weapons by both powers,‬

‭leading to the concept of‬‭Mutually Assured Destruction‬‭(MAD)‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Space Race‬‭: Competition for dominance in space exploration,‬‭highlighted by the‬

‭USSR’s‬‭Sputnik launch (1957)‬‭and the USA’s‬‭moon landing‬‭(1969)‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Espionage‬‭: Intelligence agencies like the‬‭CIA‬‭(USA)‬‭and‬‭KGB‬‭(USSR) played‬

‭critical roles in global spying and covert operations.‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Cold War Events‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–1949)‬‭: The USSR's‬‭attempt to cut off access to‬

‭West Berlin, was countered by a US-led airlift.‬

‭○‬ ‭Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)‬‭: A near-nuclear confrontation after the USSR placed‬

‭missiles in Cuba.‬

‭○‬ ‭Detente (1970s)‬‭: Period of reduced tensions marked‬‭by treaties like‬‭SALT I (1972)‬

‭and the‬‭Helsinki Accords (1975)‬‭.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Afghan War (1979–1989)‬‭: USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan, countered by US support‬

‭for the Mujahideen, which drained Soviet resources.‬

‭●‬ ‭End of the Cold War‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Gorbachev’s Reforms‬‭: Policies of‬‭Perestroika (restructuring)‬‭and‬‭Glasnost‬

‭(openness)‬‭aimed at reforming the Soviet system but‬‭led to political instability.‬

‭○‬ ‭Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)‬‭: Symbolized the collapse‬‭of Soviet influence in‬

‭Eastern Europe.‬

‭○‬ ‭Dissolution of the USSR (1991)‬‭: Marked the definitive‬‭end of the Cold War and the‬

‭emergence of the USA as the sole superpower.‬

‭Case Studies/Examples‬

‭●‬ ‭Marshall Plan‬‭: US initiative to rebuild Western Europe,‬‭countering Soviet influence in‬

‭post-war Europe.‬

‭●‬ ‭Vietnam War‬‭: Proxy conflict where the US supported‬‭South Vietnam against the communist‬

‭North, backed by the USSR and China.‬

‭Critical Analysis‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengths of US and USSR Strategies‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭USA‬‭: Used economic power and alliances (NATO) to consolidate‬‭influence in‬

‭Western Europe and beyond.‬

‭○‬ ‭USSR‬‭: Leveraged ideology to inspire communist movements globally and maintained‬

‭control over Eastern Europe through the‬‭Warsaw Pact‬‭.‬

‭●‬ ‭Challenges‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Economic Pressures‬‭: The arms race and space race strained both economies,‬

‭particularly the USSR's.‬

‭○‬ ‭Third-World Conflicts‬‭: Proxy wars in Asia, Africa,‬‭and Latin America destabilized‬

‭regions and often failed to achieve clear victories for either side.‬

‭●‬ ‭Global Impact‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Division of the world into‬‭First World (USA-led),‬‭Second World (USSR-led), and‬

‭Third World (non-aligned nations)‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭The proliferation of nuclear weapons increases the risk of global annihilation.‬

‭Current Relevance‬

‭The Cold War shaped modern geopolitics, including the establishment of military alliances like‬

‭NATO‬‭and the‬‭Warsaw Pact‬‭, the United Nations' role‬‭in peacekeeping, and the ideological struggles‬

‭that continue to influence global conflicts. The resurgence of tensions between the USA and Russia‬

‭in recent years is often referred to as a "new Cold War," reflecting unresolved rivalries.‬

‭India-USA Relations‬

‭Introduction and Context‬

‭●‬ ‭India-USA relations have evolved significantly, transforming from limited engagement during‬

‭the Cold War to a comprehensive global strategic partnership. Shared values of democracy,‬

‭pluralism, and rule of law, combined with mutual economic and security interests, underpin‬

‭this relationship. The partnership now spans diverse areas, including defence, trade, energy,‬

‭technology, and global governance.‬

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‭Key Issues/Concepts‬

‭●‬ ‭Historical Background‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭During the‬‭Cold War‬‭, Indo-US relations were limited‬‭due to India’s non-aligned‬

‭stance and US ties with Pakistan.‬

‭○‬ ‭The relationship improved after the‬‭end of the Cold‬‭War‬‭, particularly following‬

‭India’s economic liberalization in 1991.‬

‭○‬ ‭The signing of the‬‭Indo-US Nuclear Deal (2008)‬‭marked‬‭a watershed moment,‬

‭bringing the two nations closer.‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense and Security Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India and the US have elevated their defence ties through agreements like:‬

‭■‬ ‭Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA)‬‭.‬

‭■‬ ‭Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA)‬‭.‬

‭■‬ ‭Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA)‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Regular bilateral and multilateral military exercises such as‬‭Malabar‬‭strengthen‬

‭operational cooperation.‬

‭○‬ ‭The US is one of India's top defence suppliers, providing platforms like the‬‭Apache‬

‭helicopters‬‭and‬‭C-17 Globemaster transport aircraft‬‭.‬

‭●‬ ‭Economic and Trade Relations‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Bilateral Trade‬‭: Reached $191 billion in FY 2023–24,‬‭making the US India's largest‬

‭trading partner.‬

‭○‬ ‭Key sectors include IT, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and renewable energy.‬

‭○‬ ‭India is a major destination for US foreign direct investment (FDI), while Indian‬

‭companies contribute significantly to the US economy.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Challenges include disputes over tariffs, market access, and intellectual property‬

‭rights.‬

‭●‬ ‭Energy Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬‭US-India Strategic Energy Partnership (SEP)‬‭focuses‬‭on renewable energy,‬

‭clean technology, and energy security.‬

‭○‬ ‭India imports significant quantities of US crude oil and LNG, diversifying its energy‬

‭sources.‬

‭●‬ ‭Science, Technology, and Space‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Collaboration in cutting-edge technologies, including‬‭artificial intelligence‬‭,‬‭quantum‬

‭computing‬‭, and‬‭5G‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Space cooperation is exemplified by partnerships between‬‭ISRO‬‭and‬‭NASA‬‭, including‬

‭joint missions like‬‭NISAR‬‭.‬

‭●‬ ‭People-to-People Ties‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Over‬‭4 million Indian-Americans‬‭form a vital link‬‭between the two nations,‬

‭contributing to culture, technology, and politics in the US.‬

‭○‬ ‭India is the largest source of international students in the US, boosting educational‬

‭ties.‬

‭●‬ ‭Global and Regional Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Indo-Pacific Strategy‬‭: The US supports India’s leadership‬‭in the Indo-Pacific,‬

‭countering China’s assertiveness.‬

‭○‬ ‭QUAD Partnership‬‭: India, the US, Japan, and Australia‬‭collaborate on security,‬

‭economic, and technological issues in the region.‬

‭○‬ ‭Multilateral forums like‬‭G20‬‭,‬‭UN‬‭, and‬‭WTO‬‭strengthen their global cooperation.‬

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‭Case Studies/Examples‬

‭●‬ ‭Indo-US Nuclear Deal (2008)‬‭: Enabled civil nuclear‬‭cooperation, marking a new era in‬

‭bilateral relations.‬

‭●‬ ‭Malabar Naval Exercise‬‭: Demonstrates growing defence‬‭interoperability among India, the‬

‭US, and QUAD partners.‬

‭●‬ ‭H-1B Visa Program‬‭: Highlights the role of Indian professionals‬‭in driving US innovation and‬

‭technology sectors.‬

‭Critical Analysis‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengths‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Convergence of Interests‬‭: Shared goals in combating‬‭terrorism, maintaining‬

‭regional stability, and fostering economic growth.‬

‭○‬ ‭Democratic Values‬‭: Common commitment to democracy‬‭and human rights‬

‭strengthens the foundation of the partnership.‬

‭○‬ ‭Strategic Importance‬‭: Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific‬‭enhances both nations'‬

‭security and geopolitical influence.‬

‭●‬ ‭Challenges‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Trade Disputes‬‭: Tariff disagreements and market access‬‭restrictions remain‬

‭contentious.‬

‭○‬ ‭Immigration Policies‬‭: US visa restrictions impact‬‭Indian professionals and students.‬

‭○‬ ‭Divergences in Foreign Policy‬‭: Differences in approach‬‭toward Russia, Iran, and‬

‭Afghanistan occasionally strain relations.‬

‭●‬ ‭Opportunities‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Expanding‬‭renewable energy cooperation‬‭, particularly‬‭in green hydrogen and solar‬

‭power.‬

‭○‬ ‭Strengthening‬‭technology collaboration‬‭in AI, semiconductors,‬‭and cybersecurity.‬

‭○‬ ‭Enhancing cooperation in‬‭supply chain resilience‬‭to‬‭reduce dependence on China.‬

‭Current Relevance‬

‭●‬ ‭India-USA relations are critical for addressing global challenges, from climate change to‬

‭counterterrorism. The partnership is pivotal in shaping the future of the‬‭Indo-Pacific‬‭,‬

‭ensuring free and open trade routes, and fostering sustainable development.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭●‬ ‭India-USA relations have matured into a‬‭comprehensive‬‭strategic partnership‬‭,‬

‭underpinned by shared values and mutual interests. While challenges persist, the potential‬

‭for collaboration across diverse sectors remains immense. Strengthening this partnership‬

‭will not only benefit both nations but also contribute significantly to global peace, stability,‬

‭and prosperity.‬

‭India-USA Relations under Trump 2.0‬

‭Introduction and Context‬

‭●‬ ‭With Donald Trump securing a second term as President of the United States,‬‭India-USA‬

‭relations‬‭face both opportunities and challenges.‬‭Trump's‬‭‘America First’‬‭policies are‬

‭expected to influence bilateral trade, defense, immigration, and energy relations. For India,‬

‭navigating these dynamics requires a careful blend of diplomacy and economic adaptability.‬

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‭Key Issues/Concepts‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Interests‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India aims to become the‬‭world’s third-largest economy‬‭,‬‭while the US seeks to‬

‭counterbalance‬‭China’s growing influence‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Shared goals include‬‭Indo-Pacific stability‬‭,‬‭counterterrorism‬‭,‬‭and strengthening‬

‭democratic values.‬

‭○‬ ‭Trump’s focus on reducing US involvement in foreign conflicts could position India‬

‭as a key regional security partner, encouraging greater defence collaborations and‬

‭arms deals.‬

‭●‬ ‭Economic Interests‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Pro-Business Alignment‬‭: Trump's‬‭‘America First’‬‭policy‬‭aligns with Modi’s‬‭‘Make‬

‭in India’‬‭initiative, fostering potential synergies‬‭in manufacturing and trade.‬

‭○‬ ‭Free Trade Agreement (FTA)‬‭: Renewed negotiations for‬‭an FTA could reshape‬

‭trade dynamics, though tariff and market access issues remain contentious.‬

‭○‬ ‭Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme‬‭: India’s‬‭export-friendly policies like PLI‬

‭and the semiconductor program can mitigate trade challenges.‬

‭○‬ ‭Trade Challenges‬‭:‬

‭■‬ ‭Protectionist tariffs on Indian goods may re-emerge.‬

‭■‬ ‭Potential trade skirmishes in sectors like‬‭IT‬‭,‬‭pharmaceuticals‬‭,‬‭and‬‭textiles‬‭,‬

‭which heavily depend on the US market.‬

‭●‬ ‭Immigration Overhaul‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Visa Restrictions‬‭: Stricter policies on H-1B visas and legal migration could impact‬

‭Indian professionals in the US tech sector.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Deportations‬‭: Tighter immigration laws might disrupt‬‭the flow of skilled Indian‬

‭workers to the US, affecting bilateral knowledge exchange.‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense and Security‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Increased US military hardware sales to India, enhancing India's capabilities.‬

‭○‬ ‭Collaboration on advanced technologies and joint exercises like‬‭Malabar‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Potential for India to play a more prominent role in regional security,‬

‭complementing US interests in the Indo-Pacific.‬

‭●‬ ‭Energy Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Lower global oil prices due to Trump's pro-fossil fuel policies could reduce India's‬

‭import bill.‬

‭○‬ ‭However, a fossil fuel-centric approach may hinder global climate change efforts, an‬

‭area where India has shown leadership.‬

‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Dynamics‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Trump’s transactional foreign policy may demand closer alignment from India while‬

‭managing its ties with‬‭Russia‬‭and‬‭China‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Opportunities for India to attract US firms looking to diversify supply chains away‬

‭from China.‬

‭○‬ ‭India's balancing act in multilateral forums like the‬‭QUAD‬‭,‬‭G20‬‭, and‬‭UN‬‭will be‬

‭crucial.‬

‭Case Studies/Examples‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade Tariffs (First Term)‬‭: India faced tariffs on steel and aluminium under Trump's first‬

‭term, setting a precedent for potential future trade tensions.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭H-1B Visa Policies‬‭: Previous restrictions under Trump limited Indian professionals’ entry‬

‭into the US, highlighting potential future challenges.‬

‭●‬ ‭Indo-Pacific Strategy‬‭: Strengthened defence ties through‬‭initiatives like the‬‭COMCASA‬

‭and‬‭LEMOA‬‭agreements.‬

‭Critical Analysis‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengths‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Strategic Alignment‬‭: Shared interests in security‬‭and economic growth enhance‬

‭the partnership.‬

‭○‬ ‭Supply Chain Diversification‬‭: India’s potential as‬‭an alternative to China offers‬

‭opportunities for US investments.‬

‭○‬ ‭Energy Savings‬‭: Lower oil prices could strengthen‬‭India’s fiscal health.‬

‭●‬ ‭Challenges‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Trade Tensions‬‭: Protectionist measures and high tariffs‬‭may disrupt exports.‬

‭○‬ ‭Immigration Policies‬‭: Stricter visa rules could limit‬‭talent mobility, impacting‬

‭India’s IT sector.‬

‭○‬ ‭Climate Leadership‬‭: Divergence in climate change priorities‬‭may create policy‬

‭mismatches.‬

‭●‬ ‭Opportunities‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Leveraging US-China tensions to attract American firms to India.‬

‭○‬ ‭Expanding collaborations in‬‭technology‬‭,‬‭green energy‬‭,‬‭and‬‭defense‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Strengthening people-to-people ties through the‬‭Indian-American‬‭diaspora‬‭.‬

‭Current Relevance‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Trump’s second term highlights the interplay between protectionism and pro-business‬

‭policies. India must adapt to these shifts, leveraging its strategic importance while‬

‭addressing trade and climate challenges.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭●‬ ‭India-USA relations under Trump 2.0 present a‬‭mixed‬‭landscape‬‭. While opportunities for‬

‭enhanced defense collaboration, supply chain diversification, and economic growth exist,‬

‭challenges like trade tensions, immigration restrictions, and differing climate goals require‬

‭strategic diplomacy. By fostering bilateral dialogue and pursuing adaptable policies, India‬

‭can navigate this phase, maximizing benefits while mitigating risks. The India-US‬

‭partnership, rooted in shared democratic values, remains a cornerstone of 21st-century‬

‭global relations.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬

‭Lecture 19: India EU and India Central Asia‬

‭The European Union (EU):‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭European Union (EU)‬‭is a‬‭political and economic union‬‭of‬‭27 member states‬
‭primarily located in Europe. It aims to foster cooperation and integration among its‬
‭members to ensure economic and political stability.‬

‭Key features include:‬

‭●‬ ‭Established‬‭: Maastricht Treaty, effective from‬‭November 1, 1993‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Currency‬‭: The Euro (used by 19 of the member states in the Eurozone).‬
‭●‬ ‭Single Market‬‭: Ensures free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor across member‬
‭states.‬

‭Genesis and Evolution of the EU:‬

‭Milestone‬ ‭Details‬

‭Post-WWII Vision‬ ‭European leaders sought peace, stability, and prosperity to‬
‭prevent future conflicts.‬

‭1957 - European Economic‬ ‭Established via the Treaty of Rome to promote a common‬
‭Community (EEC)‬ ‭market and economic cooperation.‬

‭1960 - European Free Trade‬ ‭Formed to promote free trade among countries not in the‬
‭Association (EFTA)‬ ‭EEC.‬

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‭1979 - European Parliament‬ ‭First direct elections to the European Parliament,‬
‭Elections‬ ‭strengthening its democratic legitimacy.‬

‭1987 - Erasmus Programme‬ ‭Launched to fund students studying in other European‬

‭countries, fostering cultural exchange.‬

‭1993 - Maastricht Treaty‬ ‭Transformed the EC into the EU, expanding focus to‬
‭political, social, and security integration.‬

‭1999 - Introduction of the Euro‬ ‭Euro adopted for commercial and financial transactions in‬
‭11 countries.‬

‭2007 - Treaty of Lisbon‬ ‭Enhanced EU’s democratic, transparent, and efficient‬

‭functioning to tackle global challenges.‬

‭2013 - Croatia Joins‬ ‭Croatia became the 27th member of the EU.‬

‭2020 - UK Exits EU‬ ‭Following a 2016 referendum, the United Kingdom‬

‭officially left the EU.‬

‭Governance Structure of the EU:‬

‭●‬ ‭European Council‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Comprises heads of state or government from member states.‬
‭○‬ ‭Sets the EU's overarching political direction.‬
‭●‬ ‭European Commission‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Executive branch responsible for implementing EU policies and managing the‬
‭budget.‬
‭○‬ ‭Proposes legislation.‬
‭●‬ ‭European Parliament‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Directly elected legislative body.‬
‭○‬ ‭Shares legislative powers with the Council of the EU.‬
‭●‬ ‭Council of the EU‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Represents member states and is the main decision-making body.‬
‭○‬ ‭Coordinates policies and adopts legislation.‬

‭Supporting Institutions:‬
‭●‬ ‭Court of Justice of the European Union‬‭: Ensures uniform interpretation and application of‬
‭EU law.‬
‭●‬ ‭European Central Bank (ECB)‬‭: Maintains price stability‬‭in the Eurozone and oversees‬
‭monetary policy.‬
‭●‬ ‭European Court of Auditors‬‭: Audits EU finances and ensures financial accountability.‬

‭India-EU Relations:‬
‭Historical Evolution:‬
‭●‬ ‭1990s‬‭: Relations deepened post-economic liberalization in India and the EU's expansion.‬
‭●‬ ‭1994‬‭: A‬‭Cooperation Agreement‬‭laid the groundwork‬‭for a strategic partnership.‬
‭●‬ ‭2000‬‭: First India-EU Summit marked a watershed moment‬‭in bilateral ties.‬
‭●‬ ‭2005‬‭: Joint Action Plan enhanced cooperation in trade, investment, education, and research.‬
‭●‬ ‭2017‬‭: Renewed dialogues on foreign policy, defense, and security further solidified the‬
‭relationship.‬

‭Key Areas of Cooperation:‬

‭Economic Cooperation:‬
‭●‬ ‭Trade‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The EU is‬‭India’s largest trading partner‬‭, with bilateral trade reaching‬‭€88‬
‭billion in 2021‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭India is the‬‭EU’s 10th-largest trading partner‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Investment‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭EU investment stock in India grew to‬‭€87.3 billion‬‭by 2020‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian companies like Tata Group have a significant presence in the EU.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Infrastructure Development‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭EU supports India's energy and transport infrastructure modernization.‬

‭Political and Security Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Partnership‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Includes dialogues on counterterrorism, non-proliferation, and regional security.‬
‭●‬ ‭Development Assistance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭EU has supported health, education, and agriculture programs in India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cybersecurity and Counterterrorism‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint workshops and conferences focus on tackling terrorism and enhancing‬
‭cybersecurity frameworks.‬

‭Research and Innovation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Cooperation under the‬‭Horizon 2020 Program‬‭on renewable energy, advanced materials, and‬
‭health innovation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint research projects between Indian and EU institutions.‬

‭Cultural and Educational Exchanges:‬

‭●‬ ‭Erasmus + Program‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Facilitates Indian students studying in the EU and vice versa.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhanced collaboration in arts, culture, and heritage preservation.‬

‭Multilateral Cooperation:‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint efforts on global issues like climate change, sustainable development, and security.‬
‭●‬ ‭EU supports India's aspirations for greater integration into global trade systems like the‬
‭WTO.‬

‭Challenges in India-EU Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade Barriers‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭EU's criticism of India's‬‭high tariffs‬‭on automobiles‬‭and pharmaceuticals.‬
‭○‬ ‭India’s concerns over the EU's stringent standards for goods.‬
‭●‬ ‭Intellectual Property Rights‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭EU's concerns over India’s compulsory licensing policies for life-saving drugs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Human Rights and Governance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭EU criticism of policies like the‬‭Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) 2019‬‭and‬
‭religious freedoms.‬
‭●‬ ‭Climate Change‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Divergent perspectives on emissions reduction and climate policies.‬
‭●‬ ‭Foreign Policy Differences‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Varied approaches to conflicts in Afghanistan, the Middle East, and the‬
‭Israeli-Palestinian issue.‬

‭Way Forward:‬
‭●‬ ‭Deepen Trade Ties‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Finalize the‬‭India-EU Free Trade Agreement‬‭to boost‬‭trade and investment.‬
‭○‬ ‭Address concerns over tariffs and market access.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthen Political Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Expand collaboration on counterterrorism, cybersecurity, and defense.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhance Research Collaboration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Increase joint projects in green energy, health, and advanced technologies.‬
‭●‬ ‭Boost People-to-People Ties‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Expand educational and cultural exchange programs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Multilateral Engagement‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaborate in forums like the‬‭UN, G20, and WTO‬‭to address global challenges.‬

‭India-France Relations:‬
‭India and France have shared a‬‭strategic partnership since 1998‬‭, built on trust, shared values,‬
‭and a commitment to multilateralism. Their collaboration spans various domains such as defense,‬
‭space, climate change, and people-to-people exchanges. Celebrating 25 years of their partnership,‬
‭both nations aim to further deepen ties through a roadmap extending to‬‭2047‬‭.‬

‭Key Areas of Cooperation:‬

‭Security and Sovereignty‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Defense‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Rafale Fighter Jets‬‭: Delivery of‬‭36 Rafale jets‬‭to India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Submarines‬‭: Successful completion of the‬‭P75 Scorpene program‬‭, building six‬
‭submarines.‬
‭○‬ ‭Continued collaboration on advanced defense technologies and platforms.‬
‭●‬ ‭Space‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthened ties between‬‭France’s CNES‬‭and‬‭India’s‬‭ISRO‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Key projects:‬
‭■‬ ‭TRISHNA Earth Observation Satellite‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭A‬‭maritime surveillance satellite constellation‬‭for‬‭the Indian Ocean.‬
‭■‬ ‭Collaboration on reusable launchers and satellite protection from orbital‬
‭collisions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Civil Nuclear Energy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Progress on the‬‭6-EPR power plant project in Jaitapur‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Cooperation on‬‭Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)‬‭and‬‭Advanced Modular Reactors‬
‭(AMRs)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Indo-Pacific Strategy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭A roadmap for joint actions in the‬‭Indo-Pacific‬‭, including‬‭an‬‭Indo-French‬
‭Development Fund‬‭for sustainable development in the‬‭region.‬
‭●‬ ‭Counter-Terrorism‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhanced cooperation between‬‭France’s GIGN‬‭and‬‭India’s National Security Guard‬
‭(NSG)‬‭.‬

‭Planet and Global Issues:‬

‭●‬ ‭Climate Change and Sustainability‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint commitment to an international treaty to end‬‭plastic pollution‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Funding for sustainable urban projects, clean energy initiatives, and microfinance in‬
‭rural India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Blue Economy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Partnership between‬‭France’s IFREMER‬‭and‬‭India’s NIOT‬‭for ocean research.‬
‭●‬ ‭Decarbonized Hydrogen‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaboration between‬‭McPhy‬‭and‬‭L&T‬‭for manufacturing‬‭electrolyzers in India.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Health‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhanced cooperation in medical research, public health, biotechnology, and‬
‭combating antimicrobial resistance.‬

‭People-to-People Ties:‬
‭●‬ ‭Education and Student Mobility‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Target to welcome‬‭30,000 Indian students‬‭to France by‬‭2030‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Visa facilitation and expansion of the‬‭Campus France‬‭network‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Culture‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭France selected as India’s partner for the new‬‭National‬‭Museum in New Delhi‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Agreements on content exchange and co-production between‬‭France Médias Monde‬
‭and‬‭Prasar Bharati‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sports‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Cooperation on sporting events, focusing on major international games.‬
‭●‬ ‭Civil Society Engagement‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Doubling international volunteer exchanges between India and France by‬‭2025‬‭.‬

‭Challenges in India-France Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Geographical Distance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Logistical hurdles in communication and execution of joint projects due to‬
‭geographic separation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural Differences‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Diverse cultural, linguistic, and societal norms can lead to miscommunication.‬
‭●‬ ‭Trade Imbalances‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India faces a trade deficit with France, requiring efforts to balance trade relations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic Reforms‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India’s regulatory environment poses challenges for foreign businesses, including‬
‭French companies.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Misalignments‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Differences in strategic priorities on global and regional issues, such as the Middle‬
‭East and climate policies.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Regional Dynamics‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Balancing respective regional engagements while aligning bilateral interests can be‬
‭complex.‬

‭Way Forward:‬

‭Cultural and Educational Exchanges:‬

‭●‬ ‭Promote‬‭student and academic exchanges‬‭through scholarships and collaborative research.‬
‭●‬ ‭Organize‬‭cultural festivals‬‭, exhibitions, and performances to deepen people-to-people ties.‬
‭Strategic Partnerships:‬
‭●‬ ‭Expand collaboration in key sectors:‬
‭○‬ ‭Defense‬‭: Joint development of advanced defense technologies.‬
‭○‬ ‭Space‬‭: Cooperation on new satellite programs and space‬‭exploration.‬
‭○‬ ‭Renewable Energy‬‭: Scaling up green hydrogen and solar energy projects.‬
‭○‬ ‭Digital Technology‬‭: Focus on AI, quantum computing, and cybersecurity.‬
‭Global Challenges:‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint initiatives to combat‬‭climate change‬‭, counter-terrorism, and promote‬
‭multilateralism‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthen cooperation in forums like the‬‭United Nations‬‭and‬‭G20‬‭to address global‬
‭challenges.‬
‭Public Diplomacy:‬
‭●‬ ‭Increase cultural events such as‬‭film festivals, language programs, and art exhibitions‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthen public support through media collaborations and outreach programs.‬
‭Trade and Investment:‬
‭●‬ ‭Facilitate trade missions and business forums to boost economic ties.‬
‭●‬ ‭Address trade imbalances by promoting Indian exports and enhancing market access.‬
‭Institutional Strengthening:‬
‭●‬ ‭Develop joint committees and task forces for seamless coordination in priority areas.‬
‭●‬ ‭Regular‬‭high-level dialogues‬‭between leaders to address challenges and chart progress.‬

‭Conclusion:‬

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‭The India-France relationship, marked by trust and shared values, has evolved into a comprehensive‬
‭strategic partnership. By addressing challenges and leveraging synergies in critical areas like‬
‭defense, space, and sustainable development, the partnership can serve as a model for global‬
‭collaboration. With a roadmap extending to‬‭2047‬‭, India and France are well-positioned to deepen‬
‭their ties and contribute to peace, stability, and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific and beyond.‬

‭India-Germany Relations:‬

‭Why in News?‬

‭German Chancellor‬‭Olaf Scholz‬‭recently concluded a‬‭three-day visit to India‬‭, where he held‬

‭discussions with PM‬‭Narendra Modi‬‭focusing on strategic‬‭partnerships, visas for skilled workers,‬
‭and global issues. The two leaders also co-chaired the‬‭7th India-Germany Intergovernmental‬
‭Consultations (IGC)‬‭, underscoring the deepening bilateral ties.‬

‭Overview of India-Germany Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Partnership‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Established in‬‭2000‬‭, this partnership has grown to encompass diverse areas,‬
‭including‬‭AI, cybersecurity, sustainable development‬‭,‬‭and‬‭clean energy‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Importance of Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Germany is India’s‬‭largest trading partner in the‬‭EU‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Both nations collaborate on issues like‬‭Indo-Pacific stability‬‭,‬‭global institutional‬
‭reforms‬‭, and‬‭climate change‬‭.‬

‭Key Highlights of the German Chancellor’s Visit:‬

‭Bilateral Talks on Global Issues:‬

‭●‬ ‭Russia-Ukraine Conflict‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India reiterated its stance on‬‭peaceful resolution‬‭and offered to contribute to‬
‭global peace efforts.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Germany lauded India's role as a stable partner in‬‭South Asia‬‭and urged support for‬
‭a‬‭political solution‬‭to the crisis.‬
‭●‬ ‭West Asia‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Both leaders advocated for‬‭ceasefire‬‭and a‬‭two-state‬‭solution‬‭to resolve the‬
‭Israeli-Palestinian conflict.‬
‭●‬ ‭Indo-Pacific Security‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Emphasised the importance of a‬‭rules-based order‬‭and‬‭freedom of navigation‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Agreed to‬‭jointly address regional security challenges‬‭and deepen maritime‬
‭cooperation.‬

‭Key Announcements and Agreements:‬

‭●‬ ‭Visa Expansion‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Germany to increase‬‭annual skilled worker visas‬‭for‬‭Indians from 20,000 to‬
‭90,000‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Focus on India Strategy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Germany unveiled a holistic‬‭‘Focus on India’ document‬‭, showcasing its trust in‬
‭India’s workforce and strategic potential.‬
‭●‬ ‭Reducing Dependency on China‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Germany seeks to diversify supply chains and reduce reliance on China in critical‬
‭areas, positioning India as a key partner.‬
‭●‬ ‭Manufacturing Hub‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭PM Modi promoted India’s vision of‬‭“Make in India,‬‭Make for the World”‬‭,‬
‭encouraging German businesses to invest in India's manufacturing sector.‬

‭Key Areas of Collaboration:‬

‭Defence and Security:‬

‭●‬ ‭Agreements‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Exchange and protection of classified information.‬
‭○‬ ‭Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty (MLAT) in criminal matters to address global‬
‭security challenges.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Indo-Pacific Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhanced maritime security and joint efforts to uphold a free and open‬
‭Indo-Pacific.‬

‭Economic and Trade Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Bilateral Trade‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Reached‬‭$26 billion‬‭in 2022-23.‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian exports to Germany:‬‭$10.1 billion‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭German imports to India:‬‭$14.9 billion‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭FTA Advocacy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Germany strongly supports ongoing‬‭EU-India Free Trade‬‭Agreement‬‭negotiations.‬

‭Clean Energy and Sustainability:‬

‭●‬ ‭Green Hydrogen Roadmap‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Joint initiative to promote renewable energy and achieve climate goals.‬
‭●‬ ‭R&D Collaboration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭A Joint Declaration of Intent on advanced materials research.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sustainable Development‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Focus on‬‭circular economy‬‭, smart farming, and sustainable‬‭infrastructure.‬

‭Skilled Workforce and Technology:‬

‭●‬ ‭Skilled Worker Visas‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭A significant increase in annual visa quotas reflects Germany's recognition of India's‬
‭talent pool.‬
‭●‬ ‭Technological Innovation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaboration in‬‭AI, cybersecurity‬‭, and‬‭digital infrastructure‬‭.‬

‭Reform of Global Institutions:‬

‭●‬ ‭Both leaders advocated for:‬

‭○‬ ‭Reforming‬‭multilateral institutions‬‭like the‬‭UN Security‬‭Council‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Addressing contemporary global challenges more effectively.‬

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‭Significance of Intergovernmental Consultations (IGC):‬

‭●‬ ‭Unique Mechanism‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India is one of the few countries with which Germany holds such consultations,‬
‭highlighting the depth of bilateral ties.‬
‭●‬ ‭7th IGC Outcomes‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Comprehensive review of past achievements.‬
‭○‬ ‭Identification of new avenues for cooperation in defense, economy, and‬
‭sustainability.‬

‭Challenges in India-Germany Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade and Investment Barriers‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Lack of a direct‬‭FTA‬‭limits trade growth potential.‬
‭○‬ ‭Regulatory and bureaucratic hurdles hinder German investments in India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Differences‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Diverging positions on issues like the‬‭Russia-Ukraine‬‭conflict‬‭and‬‭Middle East‬
‭politics‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Dependency on China‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭While both nations agree on reducing dependency, aligning their strategies requires‬
‭sustained dialogue.‬
‭●‬ ‭Defence Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Differences in procurement and co-development strategies need alignment.‬

‭Way Forward:‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthening Economic Ties:‬

‭○‬ ‭Finalize the‬‭EU-India Free Trade Agreement‬‭to unlock‬‭trade potential.‬
‭○‬ ‭Encourage German investment in‬‭India’s green economy, manufacturing, and‬
‭digital sectors‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhancing Strategic Collaboration:‬
‭○‬ ‭Deepen defense cooperation with joint R&D and technology sharing.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Focus on‬‭maritime security‬‭and Indo-Pacific stability.‬
‭●‬ ‭Leveraging Skilled Workforce:‬
‭○‬ ‭Utilize Germany's expanded visa framework to enhance Indian representation in its‬
‭tech and industrial sectors‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Climate and Sustainability Goals:‬
‭○‬ ‭Scale up joint initiatives in‬‭green hydrogen‬‭,‬‭renewable energy‬‭, and‬‭smart farming‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Multilateral Engagement:‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaborate on reforms of‬‭UN, WTO‬‭, and other global‬‭institutions to address‬
‭emerging challenges.‬
‭●‬ ‭People-to-People Ties:‬
‭○‬ ‭Promote cultural exchanges, educational collaborations, and tourism to deepen‬
‭societal connections.‬

‭Conclusion:‬

‭The recent visit by German Chancellor Olaf Scholz underscores the strategic importance of‬
‭India-Germany relations. By focusing on trade, defense, sustainability, and skilled workforce‬
‭collaboration, the two nations are laying the groundwork for a robust partnership. With shared‬
‭goals and expanding cooperation, India and Germany are poised to play pivotal roles in shaping the‬
‭global order.‬

‭India-Ukraine Relations:‬

‭Introduction and Context:‬

‭India-Ukraine relations have garnered renewed attention following Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s‬
‭historic visit to Ukraine. As the first Indian PM to visit the war-torn country since diplomatic ties‬
‭were established in 1992, the visit underscores India's commitment to fostering peace and‬
‭deepening bilateral relations. India has consistently emphasized‬‭dialogue and diplomacy‬‭as the‬
‭means to resolve the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict.‬

‭Key Areas of Cooperation:‬

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‭Geopolitical Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Historical Support‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The Soviet Union under‬‭Ukrainian-born Leonid Brezhnev‬‭supported India during the‬
‭1971 war‬‭against Pakistan.‬
‭○‬ ‭Slogans like‬‭“Hindi-Rusi Bhai-Bhai”‬‭highlighted the‬‭USSR’s close ties with India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Current Diplomacy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Regular interactions between Indian PM Modi and Ukrainian President Zelensky‬
‭during the Russia-Ukraine war reflect ongoing collaboration.‬
‭●‬ ‭Multilateral Engagement‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India and Ukraine actively participate in global platforms like the UN.‬

‭Defense Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Military Technology‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Ukraine supplies‬‭R-27 air-to-air missiles‬‭used by‬‭India’s Su-30MKI fighters.‬
‭●‬ ‭Exports to Ukraine‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India has started exporting defense equipment to Ukraine during its conflict with‬
‭Russia.‬

‭Economic Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Bilateral Trade‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India was Ukraine’s largest export destination in the Asia-Pacific and the‬
‭fifth-largest globally in 2020.‬
‭○‬ ‭Bilateral trade peaked at‬‭$3.386 billion in 2021-22‬‭,‬‭with key exports including:‬
‭■‬ ‭From Ukraine: Agricultural products, metallurgical products, plastics, and‬
‭polymers.‬
‭■‬ ‭From India: Pharmaceuticals, machinery, chemicals, and food products.‬
‭●‬ ‭Corporate Presence‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian companies like the‬‭Indian Pharmaceutical Manufacturers’ Association‬‭have‬
‭offices in Ukraine.‬

‭Humanitarian Assistance:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Aid During Conflict‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India has sent‬‭99.3 tons of humanitarian aid‬‭, including medicines, tents, and‬
‭blankets.‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian pharmaceutical companies have donated over‬‭$8 million‬‭worth of medical aid‬
‭and financial assistance.‬

‭Diaspora Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Indian Community‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭A small Indian diaspora, including business professionals and medical students, plays‬
‭a key role in bilateral ties.‬
‭○‬ ‭Cultural and sports events are organized by the‬‭India Club‬‭in Ukraine.‬

‭Cultural Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Promoting Indian Culture‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Over 30 Ukrainian cultural associations actively promote‬‭Indian art, yoga, Ayurveda‬‭,‬
‭and spirituality.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cinematic Collaboration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The iconic Oscar-winning song‬‭Naatu-Naatu‬‭was filmed‬‭in Ukraine.‬

‭Institutional Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Educational Programs‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭ITEC‬‭: Capacity-building programs in Indian centers‬‭of excellence.‬
‭○‬ ‭ICCR‬‭: Scholarships for Ukrainian students to pursue‬‭higher education in India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Kendriya Hindi Sansthan‬‭: Scholarships for Hindi language courses.‬

‭Challenges in India-Ukraine Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Declining Bilateral Trade‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Trade volumes fell from‬‭$3.39 billion in 2021-22 to‬‭$0.71 billion in 2023-24‬‭,‬
‭largely due to the ongoing conflict.‬
‭●‬ ‭Impact on Imports‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Disruptions in the supply chain for‬‭agricultural products (e.g., sunflower oil)‬‭have‬
‭contributed to inflation in India.‬
‭●‬ ‭India’s Relations with Russia‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India’s neutral stance and continued ties with Russia have strained its engagement‬
‭with Ukraine.‬
‭●‬ ‭Past Criticism‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Ukraine’s opposition to India’s‬‭nuclear tests‬‭and‬‭Kashmir policy‬‭have been‬
‭irritants in bilateral relations.‬

‭Emerging Opportunities:‬

‭Post-War Reconstruction:‬

‭●‬ ‭India could play a pivotal role in rebuilding Ukraine’s infrastructure and economy.‬

‭Enhanced Defense Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Opportunity to swap‬‭obsolete Soviet weapons‬‭for Western equipment as India transitions‬

‭to NATO systems.‬

‭Geostrategic Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Leveraging Ukraine’s expertise in‬‭low-cost waterborne technology‬‭to enhance India’s‬

‭defense in the‬‭Indian Ocean Region‬‭.‬

‭Shifting Production Bases:‬

‭●‬ ‭Collaboration could lead to relocating Ukrainian manufacturing bases, such as‬
‭Zorya-Mashproekt (gas turbines)‬‭, to India.‬

‭Employment Opportunities:‬

‭●‬ ‭Post-war reconstruction could generate significant employment for India’s labor force.‬

‭Digital Cooperation:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Collaboration in‬‭e-governance‬‭and digital infrastructure:‬
‭○‬ ‭Ukraine’s‬‭DIIA app‬‭could inspire Indian digital governance.‬
‭○‬ ‭India’s‬‭electronic voting machines‬‭could benefit Ukraine’s‬‭electoral process.‬

‭Way Forward:‬

‭Diplomatic Balancing Act:‬

‭●‬ ‭India must maintain a neutral stance, balancing ties with Russia, Ukraine, the US, and‬
‭China.‬

‭Peacebuilding Efforts:‬

‭●‬ ‭Take a leadership role in advocating for a‬‭Ukrainian‬‭peace formula‬‭, ensuring food security‬
‭and global stability.‬

‭Modernized Non-Alignment:‬

‭●‬ ‭Redefine‬‭non-alignment‬‭by engaging deeply with Ukraine‬‭without jeopardizing historical‬

‭ties with Russia.‬

‭Expand Economic Engagement:‬

‭●‬ ‭Focus on sectors like defense, pharmaceuticals, and infrastructure to diversify trade and‬
‭investments.‬

‭Strengthen Multilateral Engagement:‬

‭●‬ ‭Use platforms like the UN and G20 to mediate and ensure balanced relations with both‬
‭Russia and Ukraine.‬

‭Conclusion:‬

‭India’s deepening relations with Ukraine highlight its role as a‬‭peaceful yet strategic global‬
‭player‬‭. Balancing ties with Russia and Ukraine amid‬‭the ongoing conflict will be critical for‬
‭maintaining its geopolitical and economic interests. India’s participation in Ukraine’s post-war‬

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‭reconstruction and leveraging emerging opportunities will strengthen its global standing and‬
‭bilateral ties.‬

‭India-UK Relations:‬

‭Historical Context:‬

‭Colonial Era (1858-1947):‬

‭●‬ ‭India was under‬‭direct British rule‬‭following the‬‭1857 rebellion‬‭.‬

‭●‬ ‭The British monarch held the title of‬‭Empress/Emperor‬‭of India‬‭.‬

‭Post-Independence (1947-1950):‬

‭●‬ ‭After independence, India chose to remain in the‬‭Commonwealth of Nations‬‭despite‬

‭becoming a Republic in 1950.‬

‭Cold War Era:‬

‭●‬ ‭Relations were strained as India pursued a‬‭non-aligned‬‭foreign policy‬‭, while the UK was‬
‭aligned with NATO.‬
‭●‬ ‭The UK opposed India’s stance on‬‭wars with Pakistan‬‭and India’s‬‭nuclear tests‬‭.‬

‭Post-Cold War:‬

‭●‬ ‭Economic reforms in the 1990s and the end of the Cold War improved relations, with the‬
‭UK eager to strengthen economic ties.‬

‭Strategic Partnership (2004 Onwards):‬

‭●‬ ‭The relationship was elevated to a‬‭Strategic Partnership‬‭in 2004, focusing on‬‭trade,‬
‭defense, education, and cultural ties‬‭.‬

‭Key Areas of Cooperation:‬

‭Geopolitical Cooperation:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭UK supports India’s bid for‬‭permanent membership of‬‭the UN Security Council (UNSC)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Collaboration in multilateral platforms like the‬‭EU,‬‭G8, G20‬‭, and the‬‭Commonwealth‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Dialogues such as the‬‭India-UK Disarmament and Non-Proliferation‬‭Dialogue‬‭and the‬
‭India-UK Joint Working Group on Counterterrorism‬‭strengthen‬‭political ties.‬

‭Economic Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bilateral trade reached‬‭$20.36 billion‬‭in 2022-23.‬
‭○‬ ‭India was the UK’s‬‭12th largest trading partner‬‭in‬‭2022, accounting for 2% of its‬
‭total trade.‬
‭●‬ ‭Investment‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India is the second-largest source of FDI in the UK, investing in‬‭120 projects‬‭and‬
‭creating over‬‭5,000 jobs‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭UK investments in India focus on‬‭services, engineering,‬‭and renewable energy‬‭.‬

‭Defense and Security:‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Defense and International Security Partnership (DISP)‬‭, signed in 2015, provides‬
‭strategic direction.‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaboration on platforms like the‬‭Jaguar, Mirage,‬‭and Kiran aircraft‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Maritime Security‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Deepened collaboration in the‬‭Indian Ocean Region‬‭(IOR).‬

‭Nuclear Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Civil Nuclear Cooperation Declaration (2010)‬‭promotes‬‭collaboration in the nuclear field.‬

‭●‬ ‭A‬‭Nuclear Collaboration Agreement‬‭was signed in 2015.‬

‭Education:‬

‭●‬ ‭UKEIRI Mobility Programme‬‭(2019): Facilitates student exchanges between Indian and UK‬
‭universities.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭UK remains a favored destination for Indian students, with‬‭50,000 students‬‭currently‬
‭pursuing higher education.‬

‭Healthcare:‬

‭●‬ ‭Partnership on COVID-19 vaccines (Oxford University, AstraZeneca, and Serum Institute of‬
‭India) demonstrated collaborative potential.‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint work on‬‭pandemic preparedness‬‭,‬‭antimicrobial‬‭resistance‬‭, and‬‭digital health‬‭.‬

‭Climate and Environment:‬

‭●‬ ‭Green Growth Equity Fund‬‭mobilizes investments in renewable energy, waste management,‬
‭and electric mobility.‬
‭●‬ ‭Collaboration on the‬‭Global Green Grids-One Sun One‬‭World One Grid Initiative‬
‭(OSOWOG)‬‭under the International Solar Alliance (ISA).‬

‭Cultural Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on‬‭Cultural Cooperation‬‭(2010)‬‭strengthens ties.‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Nehru Centre‬‭in London promotes cultural outreach.‬

‭Diaspora Collaboration:‬

‭●‬ ‭Over‬‭1.5 million people of Indian origin‬‭reside in‬‭the UK.‬

‭●‬ ‭Indian diaspora significantly contributes to British society, with increased representation in‬
‭the‬‭British Parliament‬‭.‬

‭Significance of India-UK Relations:‬

‭Geo-Strategic:‬

‭●‬ ‭Countering China‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Deepened ties help counter China’s growing influence in the‬‭Indian Ocean Region‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭UK companies can invest in India as part of the‬‭“China Plus One” strategy‬‭.‬

‭Geo-Political:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Collaboration on issues like the‬‭Indo-Pacific‬‭,‬‭Afghanistan‬‭,‬‭G20‬‭, and‬‭UNSC‬‭reforms.‬
‭●‬ ‭UK's accession to the‬‭Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)‬‭under the‬‭Maritime Security‬
‭Pillar‬‭strengthens regional security.‬

‭Economic:‬

‭●‬ ‭An‬‭India-UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA)‬‭can:‬

‭○‬ ‭Boost India’s‬‭labor-intensive sectors‬‭and service‬‭exports.‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthen the UK's‬‭beverage and automobile industries‬‭.‬

‭Climate Change:‬

‭●‬ ‭Collaboration in achieving‬‭Paris Agreement goals‬‭and‬‭implementing the‬‭Glasgow Climate‬

‭Pact‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Early operationalization of OSOWOG under ISA.‬

‭Challenges in India-UK Relations:‬

‭Delayed India-UK FTA:‬

‭●‬ ‭Multiple deadlines, including the‬‭“Diwali Deadline,”‬‭have been missed.‬

‭Divergent Stands on Geopolitical Issues:‬

‭●‬ ‭The UK’s criticism of the‬‭Russia-Ukraine conflict‬‭contrasts with India’s neutral stance.‬

‭Relations with Pakistan and China:‬

‭●‬ ‭UK’s defense sales to Pakistan and engagement with China’s‬‭Belt and Road Initiative‬
‭strain India-UK ties.‬

‭Khalistan Issue:‬

‭●‬ ‭Allegations of the UK harboring‬‭Khalistan separatist‬‭movements‬‭remain a sensitive issue.‬

‭Slow Defense Collaboration:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭The UK’s reluctance to adapt to India’s preference for‬‭Government-to-Government (G2G)‬
‭defense agreements.‬

‭Extradition Rigidities:‬

‭●‬ ‭High-profile fugitives like‬‭Vijay Mallya‬‭and‬‭Nirav Modi‬‭remain unextradited despite an‬

‭extradition treaty.‬

‭Illegal Migration:‬

‭●‬ ‭Over‬‭100,000 illegal Indian immigrants‬‭in the UK complicate‬‭bilateral relations.‬

‭Anti-Colonial Sentiments:‬

‭●‬ ‭Legacy issues like‬‭Partition‬‭and‬‭Kashmir‬‭continue‬‭to evoke anti-colonial resentment.‬

‭Way Forward:‬

‭Finalize the FTA:‬

‭●‬ ‭Early conclusion of the FTA can boost bilateral trade, investment, and economic ties.‬

‭Multilateral Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Work jointly to revitalize‬‭multilateral institutions‬‭like the‬‭WTO‬‭and‬‭UNFCCC‬‭.‬

‭Migration and Mobility:‬

‭●‬ ‭Negotiate agreements to facilitate legal migration and address issues of illegal immigration.‬

‭Streamline Extradition:‬

‭●‬ ‭Expedite the extradition of fugitives to uphold legal accountability.‬

‭Strengthen Defense Engagement:‬

‭●‬ ‭Promote transparency and sustainability in infrastructure projects in the‬‭Indian Ocean‬

‭Region‬‭.‬

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‭Balance Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭UK must ensure relations with‬‭Pakistan and China‬‭do‬‭not come at the expense of ties‬
‭with India.‬

‭Conclusion:‬

‭India-UK relations, rooted in shared history and evolving interests, have matured into a‬
‭comprehensive partnership. Addressing challenges like the delayed FTA and differing geopolitical‬
‭stances while leveraging opportunities in defense, climate change, and education can deepen ties‬
‭further. Together, India and the UK can play pivotal roles in shaping a stable and prosperous global‬
‭order.‬

‭India-UK FTA:‬

‭Introduction:‬

‭●‬ ‭The India-UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is being negotiated under India’s‬‭FTA 2.0‬
‭approach‬‭, which focuses on improving outcomes by addressing‬‭challenges faced in earlier‬
‭FTAs with ASEAN and Japan. This approach emphasizes addressing non-tariff barriers,‬
‭boosting labour-intensive and service sectors, and ensuring mutual benefits.‬
‭●‬ ‭The FTA holds strategic importance for both nations as India seeks to diversify its trade‬
‭partners post-RCEP exit, and the UK looks to build new trade relations post-Brexit.‬

‭Advantages of the India-UK FTA:‬

‭For India:‬

‭●‬ ‭Boost to Labour-Intensive Sectors‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Reduction in high UK tariffs (e.g.,‬‭10% tariff on‬‭Indian textiles‬‭) can revive‬
‭sectors like apparel, textiles, and gems and jewellery.‬
‭●‬ ‭Increase in Service Exports‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Indian IT/ITES, nursing, education, healthcare (including AYUSH), and audiovisual‬
‭services are expected to benefit from improved market access.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Reduction in Non-Tariff Barriers‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Removal of non-tariff barriers such as testing and certification issues, which have‬
‭hindered agri-exports like rice (e.g., rejection due to pesticide residue).‬
‭●‬ ‭Trade Diversification‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthens India’s diversification of trade partners post-RCEP exit, complementing‬
‭FTAs with‬‭UAE, Australia‬‭, and ongoing negotiations‬‭with the‬‭EU‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Gains‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthened trade ties with the UK can secure British support for India’s‬‭UNSC‬
‭permanent membership‬‭and address regional issues like‬‭the‬‭standoff with China‬‭.‬

‭For the UK:‬

‭●‬ ‭China-Plus-One Strategy‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The FTA aligns with the UK’s strategy of reducing economic dependency on China‬
‭after the COVID-19 pandemic.‬
‭●‬ ‭Boost to UK Exports‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Reduction of Indian tariffs on‬‭electric vehicles (EVs)‬‭and‬‭alcoholic beverages‬
‭(currently 70%-100% tariffs) benefits UK industries‬
‭●‬ ‭New Trade Partnerships Post-Brexit‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭The FTA provides a vital avenue for the UK to strengthen economic ties with‬
‭non-EU partners.‬
‭●‬ ‭Increased Investment in India‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Alongside the FTA, a‬‭Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)‬‭is being negotiated to‬
‭boost UK investments in India, benefiting both economies.‬

‭Challenges in Finalizing the India-UK FTA:‬

‭Rules of Origin (ROO):‬

‭●‬ ‭India is pushing for stricter ROO to prevent products (e.g.,‬‭European alcoholic beverages‬‭)‬
‭from entering India through the UK.‬

‭Work Permit Policies:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭India seeks relaxation of the UK’s strict‬‭work permit regulations‬‭for its service sector‬
‭professionals post-Brexit.‬

‭Carbon Tax:‬

‭●‬ ‭The UK plans to impose a‬‭carbon border tax‬‭on imports‬‭like cement, iron, and steel, which‬
‭could hurt Indian manufacturing exports.‬

‭Intellectual Property Rights (IPR):‬

‭●‬ ‭The UK demands a stronger IPR regime in sectors like‬‭pharmaceuticals‬‭, conflicting with‬
‭India’s focus on affordable‬‭generic drugs‬‭.‬

‭Digital Trade and Data Flow:‬

‭●‬ ‭India’s unfinished domestic laws on‬‭data protection‬‭and‬‭digital trade‬‭make it cautious‬

‭about committing to cross-border data flow agreements.‬

‭WTO Compliance:‬

‭●‬ ‭Interim or incomplete FTAs may violate the‬‭Most Favoured Nation (MFN)‬‭principles of the‬
‭WTO, requiring careful structuring.‬

‭Global Value Chains (GVC):‬

‭●‬ ‭India aims to secure a favorable position in GVCs to strengthen its role as an‬‭alternative‬
‭to China‬‭in global manufacturing.‬

‭Domestic Political Challenges:‬

‭●‬ ‭Growing political negativity in the UK towards India and concerns about human rights could‬
‭slow progress.‬

‭Protection of Domestic Industries:‬

‭●‬ ‭India is cautious about opening up its market to‬‭UK‬‭beverage companies‬‭, which may‬
‭threaten its‬‭domestic alcohol bottling industry‬‭.‬

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‭Strategic Importance of India-UK FTA:‬

‭Economic Diversification:‬

‭○‬ ‭India seeks to diversify its trade portfolio and reduce over-reliance on traditional‬
‭partners.‬

‭Strengthening Global Influence‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The FTA could enhance India’s influence in global trade, serving as a template for‬
‭the‬‭India-EU FTA‬‭.‬

‭Post-Brexit Opportunity for the UK‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Provides the UK with access to one of the largest emerging markets in the world.‬

‭Strategic Alignment‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Positions India and the UK to collaborate on‬‭Indo-Pacific security‬‭, climate goals,‬
‭and global institutional reforms.‬

‭Way Forward:‬

‭●‬ ‭Addressing Contentious Issues‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Both sides need to find common ground on sensitive issues like ROO, carbon tax,‬
‭and IPR to finalize the FTA.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fast-Tracking Negotiations‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Both nations should commit to a timeline to avoid further delays and missed‬
‭deadlines.‬
‭●‬ ‭Leveraging Strategic Goals‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Focus on shared priorities like‬‭climate action‬‭,‬‭digital‬‭trade‬‭, and‬‭supply chain‬
‭diversification‬‭to align interests.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhanced Stakeholder Engagement‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Regular dialogue with industry leaders and policymakers can help address‬
‭sector-specific concerns.‬

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‭Conclusion:‬

‭The India-UK FTA, being negotiated under the FTA 2.0 framework, represents a significant step in‬
‭redefining bilateral economic ties. While challenges remain, addressing these through a balanced‬
‭and mutually beneficial approach can set the stage for a transformative partnership. The successful‬
‭conclusion of this FTA could serve as a model for future trade agreements and strengthen‬
‭India-UK relations in a rapidly changing global landscape.‬

‭Central Asia:‬

‭India has been strengthening its bilateral relations with all‬‭five Central Asian‬
‭countries‬‭—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,‬‭and Uzbekistan—through high-level‬
‭visits, strategic dialogues, and multilateral engagements. Below are recent highlights of India’s‬
‭bilateral relations with each of these countries:‬

‭Kazakhstan:‬

‭●‬ ‭Economic Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Kazakhstan is India's largest trade and investment partner in Central Asia, with‬
‭trade exceeding‬‭$1.9 billion‬‭in 2022-23.‬
‭○‬ ‭India imports‬‭uranium‬‭from Kazakhstan for its nuclear energy program.‬
‭●‬ ‭Energy Collaboration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Ongoing cooperation in the‬‭Satpayev Oil Block‬‭project‬‭for oil exploration.‬
‭○‬ ‭Kazakhstan is a key partner in India's energy security strategy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent Engagements‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭High-level talks under the‬‭India-Kazakhstan Inter-Governmental Commission‬
‭(IGC)‬‭have focused on enhancing trade, energy, and‬‭defense ties.‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaboration under the‬‭International North-South‬‭Transport Corridor (INSTC)‬‭.‬

‭Kyrgyzstan:‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense Cooperation‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭India has provided military training and equipment to Kyrgyzstan, including joint‬
‭military exercises like‬‭Khanjar‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Development Assistance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India has invested in‬‭hydropower projects‬‭and provided grants for development‬
‭initiatives.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent Engagements‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India-Kyrgyzstan‬‭Joint Business Councils‬‭have focused‬‭on expanding economic ties.‬
‭○‬ ‭Discussion on utilizing the‬‭Chabahar Port‬‭for improved‬‭connectivity.‬

‭Tajikistan:‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic and Security Relations‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Tajikistan is a critical partner for India's‬‭counterterrorism‬‭efforts and stability in‬
‭Afghanistan.‬
‭○‬ ‭India operates the‬‭Farkhor Air Base‬‭in Tajikistan‬‭to enhance regional security.‬
‭●‬ ‭Development Cooperation‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India has provided aid for infrastructure development, including‬‭road and‬
‭hydropower projects‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent Engagements‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Continued dialogues under the‬‭India-Tajikistan Joint Commission‬‭to strengthen‬
‭defense and economic ties.‬
‭○‬ ‭Tajikistan’s support for India's stance on Afghanistan and counter-terrorism.‬

‭Turkmenistan:‬

‭●‬ ‭Energy Partnership‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Turkmenistan is pivotal to the‬‭TAPI (Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India)‬
‭Gas Pipeline‬‭project.‬
‭○‬ ‭India has been actively pushing for the completion of this pipeline for energy‬
‭diversification.‬
‭●‬ ‭Connectivity Initiatives‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Turkmenistan plays a role in the‬‭Ashgabat Agreement‬‭, improving connectivity‬
‭between India and Central Asia.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent Engagements‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India’s engagement during the‬‭India-Central Asia Dialogue‬‭emphasized boosting‬
‭energy and trade cooperation.‬

‭Uzbekistan:‬

‭●‬ ‭Economic Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India is Uzbekistan's key partner in areas like‬‭pharmaceuticals,‬‭IT‬‭, and‬‭textiles‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade between the two countries has steadily increased, supported by Indian‬
‭investments.‬
‭●‬ ‭Defense and Security‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint military exercises like‬‭Dustlik‬‭enhance defense‬‭collaboration.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent Engagements‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Uzbekistan has shown strong interest in utilizing‬‭Chabahar Port‬‭for trade access.‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭India-Uzbekistan Inter-Governmental Commission (IGC)‬‭focused on‬
‭infrastructure, education, and trade.‬

‭India-Central Asia Dialogue:‬

‭●‬ ‭In addition to bilateral relations, India engages with all five Central Asian countries‬
‭collectively through the‬‭India-Central Asia Dialogue‬‭.‬‭Key areas of focus include:‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade and Connectivity‬‭: Leveraging INSTC and Chabahar‬‭Port for regional‬
‭integration.‬
‭○‬ ‭Energy Security‬‭: Expanding cooperation in renewable energy and hydrocarbons.‬
‭○‬ ‭Security Collaboration‬‭: Joint efforts to counter terrorism,‬‭drug trafficking, and‬
‭regional instability.‬

‭Conclusion:‬

‭India has recently enhanced its ties with all five Central Asian countries, focusing on‬‭trade,‬
‭connectivity, defense, and energy security‬‭. While‬‭challenges like connectivity and China's‬

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‭dominance remain, India’s proactive engagement, including through initiatives like the‬
‭India-Central Asia Dialogue‬‭, underscores its commitment to deepening ties with this geopolitically‬
‭significant region.‬

‭India-Mongolia Relations:‬

‭Introduction and Context:‬

‭India and Mongolia share a relationship grounded in historical, cultural, and strategic ties. Often‬
‭referred to as a‬‭“spiritual neighbor”‬‭, Mongolia regards‬‭India as one of its “third neighbors”‬
‭alongside the US, Japan, and Germany. The recent‬‭11th‬‭meeting of the India-Mongolia Joint‬
‭Working Group‬‭has further underscored the growing ties and cooperation between the two‬
‭countries.‬

‭Historical Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Buddhist Connection‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The shared heritage of Buddhism has historically linked India and Mongolia.‬
‭○‬ ‭India is regarded as the cradle of Buddhism, which is integral to Mongolia's spiritual‬
‭and cultural identity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diplomatic Relations‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India was the first country outside the Soviet bloc to establish diplomatic ties with‬
‭Mongolia in‬‭1955‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭The Indian Embassy in Ulaanbaatar was opened in‬‭1971‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Partnership‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Upgraded to a‬‭Strategic Partnership‬‭in 2015 during Indian PM Narendra Modi’s‬
‭visit to Mongolia.‬
‭○‬ ‭This partnership is a critical component of India’s‬‭‘Act East Policy’‬‭.‬

‭Key Areas of Cooperation:‬

‭International Cooperation:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Support for India‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Mongolia supports India’s bid for a‬‭permanent seat in the United Nations‬
‭Security Council (UNSC)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭India’s Support for Mongolia‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭India played a pivotal role in Mongolia's inclusion in key international forums,‬
‭including the‬‭United Nations‬‭and‬‭Non-Aligned Movement‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭UN Collaboration‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Mongolia co-sponsored a‬‭1972 UN resolution‬‭with India‬‭and Bhutan for the‬
‭recognition of Bangladesh.‬

‭Economic Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Oil Refinery Project‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India built an oil refinery near Sainshand at a cost of‬‭$1 billion‬‭, which meets 75%‬
‭of Mongolia’s refining needs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Trade‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bilateral trade stood at‬‭$35.3 million in 2020‬‭, with room for growth in sectors like‬
‭pharmaceuticals and IT.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential for Hi-Tech Development‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Mongolia can act as a green zone for economic development incorporating‬
‭high-tech features‬‭.‬

‭Cultural Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Cultural Exchange Programme (CEP)‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Governed by the‬‭India-Mongolian Agreement on Cultural‬‭Cooperation (1961)‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Includes scholarships, exchange of experts, and cultural collaborations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Buddhism and Soft Power‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Prominent celebrations such as‬‭International Yoga‬‭Day‬‭and events honoring‬
‭Mahatma Gandhi‬‭strengthen cultural ties.‬

‭Defense Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Joint Military Exercises‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Nomadic Elephant‬‭: Bilateral exercise focused on counter-terrorism and‬
‭peacekeeping.‬
‭○‬ ‭Khaan Quest‬‭: Annual multinational exercise hosted‬‭by Mongolia with India’s‬
‭participation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Significance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Defense cooperation is a key element of the strategic partnership, ensuring stability‬
‭in the region.‬

‭Environmental Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Bishkek Declaration‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Both countries are signatories to the declaration focused on‬‭snow leopard‬
‭conservation‬‭.‬

‭Key Facts about Mongolia:‬

‭●‬ ‭Geography‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Landlocked between Russia and China.‬
‭○‬ ‭The world’s‬‭second-largest landlocked country‬‭and‬‭most sparsely populated.‬
‭○‬ ‭Known for the‬‭Gobi Desert‬‭and‬‭Altai Mountains‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Historical Significance‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Once the center of the‬‭Mongol Empire‬‭, the largest‬‭contiguous empire in history.‬
‭●‬ ‭Nomadic Lifestyle‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Traditional herding remains a cornerstone of Mongolian culture.‬

‭Significance of India-Mongolia Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Position‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Mongolia’s location at the crossroads of‬‭Central Asia, Northeast Asia, and Far‬
‭East‬‭makes it geopolitically significant.‬
‭●‬ ‭Third Neighbor Policy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Mongolia sees India as a counterbalance to its dependence on Russia and China.‬
‭●‬ ‭Energy Security‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭The oil refinery project strengthens Mongolia’s energy independence.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural Diplomacy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Shared Buddhist heritage reinforces people-to-people ties and soft power diplomacy.‬

‭Challenges in India-Mongolia Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Constraints‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Mongolia is heavily influenced by its powerful neighbors,‬‭Russia and China‬‭, limiting‬
‭its strategic options.‬
‭●‬ ‭Connectivity Issues‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭As a landlocked country, Mongolia faces significant challenges in establishing direct‬
‭trade routes with India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Low Trade Volume‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bilateral trade remains modest, with limited diversification of traded goods.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic Dependence‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Mongolia’s dependence on mining and lack of industrial diversification hinder deeper‬
‭economic collaboration.‬

‭Way Forward:‬

‭●‬ ‭Enhanced Economic Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Explore opportunities in pharmaceuticals, IT, renewable energy, and high-tech‬
‭sectors.‬
‭○‬ ‭Promote Indian investments in Mongolia’s modernization projects.‬
‭●‬ ‭Improved Connectivity‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Develop new transit routes through multilateral agreements such as the‬
‭International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthening Defense Ties‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Expand the scope of joint exercises like‬‭Nomadic Elephant‬‭to include disaster‬
‭management and cybersecurity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural and Educational Collaboration‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Promote Buddhist tourism and enhance educational exchanges through scholarships‬
‭and partnerships.‬
‭●‬ ‭Sustainable Development‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Partner on renewable energy projects and environmental conservation initiatives.‬
‭●‬ ‭Leveraging Strategic Position‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Utilize Mongolia’s strategic location to enhance India’s influence in‬‭East Asia‬‭and‬
‭counterbalance China’s dominance.‬

‭Conclusion:‬

‭India-Mongolia relations are built on a foundation of shared history and cultural ties, with‬
‭significant potential for deepening economic, strategic, and cultural cooperation. By addressing‬
‭challenges and leveraging opportunities, India can strengthen its partnership with Mongolia,‬
‭contributing to regional stability and mutual growth. This relationship exemplifies India’s‬
‭commitment to engaging with‬‭like-minded partners‬‭under its‬‭Act East Policy‬‭.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭International Relations‬

‭Lecture 18: India-Israel, India-Africa‬

‭India-Israel Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭India‬‭and‬‭Israel‬‭have‬‭developed‬‭a‬‭robust‬‭partnership‬

‭since establishing diplomatic relations in 1992.‬

‭●‬ ‭This‬ ‭partnership,‬ ‭rooted‬ ‭in‬ ‭shared‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭and‬

‭economic‬ ‭interests,‬ ‭spans‬ ‭defense,‬ ‭agriculture,‬

‭science and technology, and cultural exchanges.‬

‭●‬ ‭Despite‬ ‭initial‬ ‭hesitation‬ ‭in‬ ‭engaging‬ ‭with‬ ‭Israel,‬

‭India's‬ ‭pragmatic‬ ‭approach‬ ‭to‬ ‭foreign‬ ‭policy‬ ‭in‬

‭recent‬ ‭decades‬ ‭has‬ ‭resulted‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭flourishing‬

‭relationship.‬

‭Historical Background‬

‭●‬ ‭Early Years:‬

‭○‬ ‭In‬ ‭1947,‬ ‭India‬ ‭voted‬ ‭against‬ ‭the‬ ‭UN‬ ‭Partition‬ ‭Plan‬ ‭for‬ ‭Palestine,‬ ‭opposing‬ ‭the‬

‭creation of Israel on religious grounds.‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭recognized‬ ‭Israel‬ ‭on‬ ‭September‬ ‭17,‬ ‭1950,‬ ‭but‬‭refrained‬‭from‬‭establishing‬‭full‬

‭diplomatic ties.‬

‭●‬ ‭Post-1950 Period:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭foreign‬ ‭policy‬ ‭was‬ ‭influenced‬ ‭by‬ ‭its‬ ‭commitments‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭Non-Aligned‬

‭Movement (NAM) and strong ties with the Arab world.‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭Kashmir‬ ‭issue‬ ‭and‬ ‭reliance‬ ‭on‬ ‭Arab‬ ‭support‬ ‭shaped‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭pro-Palestinian‬

‭stance.‬

‭●‬ ‭Breakthrough in 1992:‬

‭○‬ ‭Full‬ ‭diplomatic‬ ‭relations‬ ‭were‬ ‭established‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭leadership‬ ‭of‬ ‭Prime‬ ‭Minister‬

‭P.V. Narasimha Rao.‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬‭end‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Cold‬‭War‬‭and‬‭evolving‬‭geopolitics‬‭allowed‬‭India‬‭to‬‭balance‬‭ties‬‭with‬

‭the Arab world and Israel.‬

‭Key Milestones in India-Israel‬‭Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭1950: India recognized Israel’s sovereignty‬

‭●‬ ‭1992: Full diplomatic relations were established‬

‭●‬ ‭2017: Indian PM Narendra Modi visited Israel, marking a paradigm shift.‬

‭●‬ ‭2021: India joined the I2U2 group, a strategic partnership with Israel.‬

‭Key Areas of Cooperation‬

‭1. Defense and Security‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense Imports:‬

‭○‬ ‭Israel is among the top arms suppliers to India, providing technologies like:‬

‭■‬ ‭Phalcon AWACS, Heron drones, Barak missile systems.‬

‭○‬ ‭Israeli‬ ‭defense‬ ‭firms‬ ‭such‬‭as‬‭IAI‬‭and‬‭Rafael‬‭collaborate‬‭with‬‭Indian‬‭entities‬‭under‬

‭the Make in India initiative.‬

‭●‬ ‭Counterterrorism:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Both‬ ‭countries‬ ‭share‬ ‭intelligence‬ ‭and‬ ‭expertise‬ ‭in‬ ‭tackling‬ ‭radicalization‬ ‭and‬

‭cyberterrorism.‬

‭●‬ ‭Joint Exercises:‬

‭○‬ ‭Growing military collaboration enhances interoperability.‬

‭2. Agriculture and Water Management‬

‭●‬ ‭Centers of Excellence (CoE):‬

‭○‬ ‭Israel’s‬ ‭expertise‬ ‭in‬ ‭precision‬ ‭farming‬ ‭and‬ ‭water-efficient‬ ‭technologies‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬

‭implemented through CoEs in India.‬

‭●‬ ‭Work Programs:‬

‭○‬ ‭Joint‬ ‭agricultural‬ ‭action‬‭plans,‬‭including‬‭the‬‭Fifth‬‭Three-Year‬‭Work‬‭Program,‬‭focus‬

‭on enhancing productivity.‬

‭●‬ ‭Water Management:‬

‭○‬ ‭A‬ ‭2016‬ ‭MoU‬ ‭on‬ ‭water‬ ‭resource‬ ‭management‬ ‭addresses‬ ‭India's‬ ‭water‬ ‭scarcity‬

‭challenges.‬

‭3. Economic and Trade Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade Growth:‬

‭○‬ ‭Bilateral trade increased from $200 million in 1992 to $10.1 billion in 2022-23.‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭exports‬ ‭textiles,‬ ‭machinery,‬ ‭and‬ ‭agricultural‬ ‭products;‬ ‭Israel‬ ‭exports‬ ‭precious‬

‭stones, chemicals, and defense equipment.‬

‭●‬ ‭I2U2 Partnership:‬

‭○‬ ‭India,‬ ‭Israel,‬ ‭UAE,‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭US‬ ‭collaborate‬ ‭to‬ ‭promote‬ ‭regional‬ ‭stability,‬ ‭scientific‬

‭innovation, and economic development.‬

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‭4. Science and Technology‬

‭●‬ ‭I4F Fund:‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭India-Israel‬ ‭Industrial‬ ‭R&D‬ ‭and‬ ‭Technological‬ ‭Innovation‬ ‭Fund‬ ‭supports‬ ‭joint‬

‭research projects.‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Collaborations:‬

‭○‬ ‭Joint ventures in cybersecurity, AI, and space technology reflect shared priorities.‬

‭5. Energy‬

‭●‬ ‭Natural Gas Exploration:‬

‭○‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭companies‬ ‭like‬ ‭ONGC‬ ‭participate‬ ‭in‬ ‭exploration‬ ‭projects‬‭in‬‭Israeli‬‭gas‬‭fields‬

‭like Tamar and Leviathan.‬

‭●‬ ‭Renewable Energy:‬

‭○‬ ‭Collaboration on solar and green energy supports India's energy transition goals‬‭.‬

‭6. Cultural and Academic Exchange‬

‭●‬ ‭Indian Diaspora:‬

‭○‬ ‭Around‬ ‭85,000‬ ‭Indian-origin‬ ‭Jews‬ ‭reside‬ ‭in‬ ‭Israel,‬ ‭contributing‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭shared‬

‭heritage.‬

‭●‬ ‭Academic Ties:‬

‭○‬ ‭Joint research and university partnerships promote knowledge exchange.‬

‭India's Stand on the Israel-Palestine Conflict:‬

‭●‬ ‭Historical Support for Palestine:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭India‬‭recognized‬‭the‬‭Palestine‬‭Liberation‬‭Organization‬‭(PLO)‬‭in‬‭1974‬‭and‬‭advocated‬

‭for a two-state solution.‬

‭●‬ ‭Dehyphenation Policy:‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭now‬ ‭pursues‬ ‭independent‬ ‭relationships‬‭with‬‭Israel‬‭and‬‭Palestine,‬‭maintaining‬

‭ties with both.‬

‭■‬ ‭2018:‬‭India‬‭voted‬‭against‬‭the‬‭US‬‭decision‬‭to‬‭recognize‬‭Jerusalem‬‭as‬‭Israel’s‬

‭capital.‬

‭■‬ ‭2021:‬ ‭India‬ ‭abstained‬ ‭from‬ ‭a‬ ‭UNHRC‬ ‭resolution‬ ‭against‬ ‭Israel,‬ ‭signaling‬

‭neutrality.‬

‭Challenges in India-Israel‬‭Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Iran Factor:‬

‭○‬ ‭Israel‬ ‭views‬ ‭Iran‬ ‭as‬ ‭an‬ ‭existential‬ ‭threat,‬ ‭while‬ ‭India‬‭values‬‭its‬‭ties‬‭with‬‭Iran‬‭for‬

‭energy and connectivity projects (e.g., Chabahar Port).‬

‭●‬ ‭Arab World Relations:‬

‭○‬ ‭India’s‬‭deep‬‭economic‬‭ties‬‭with‬‭Arab‬‭countries‬‭require‬‭careful‬‭diplomacy‬‭to‬‭balance‬

‭its engagement with Israel.‬

‭●‬ ‭China-Israel Cooperation:‬

‭○‬ ‭Israel’s growing ties with China, especially in technology, raise concerns for India.‬

‭Way Forward‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthening Strategic Ties:‬

‭○‬ ‭Deepen‬‭defense‬‭and‬‭counterterrorism‬‭cooperation‬‭while‬‭leveraging‬‭Israeli‬‭expertise‬‭in‬

‭cybersecurity.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Expanding Economic Collaboration:‬

‭○‬ ‭Expedite‬ ‭the‬ ‭signing‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭Free‬ ‭Trade‬ ‭Agreement‬ ‭(FTA)‬ ‭and‬ ‭diversify‬ ‭the‬ ‭trade‬

‭basket.‬

‭●‬ ‭Boosting People-to-People Ties:‬

‭○‬ ‭Increase‬ ‭tourism,‬ ‭academic‬ ‭exchanges,‬ ‭and‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭diplomacy‬ ‭to‬ ‭enhance‬ ‭mutual‬

‭understanding.‬

‭●‬ ‭Energy Partnership:‬

‭○‬ ‭Collaborate‬ ‭on‬ ‭renewable‬ ‭energy‬ ‭projects,‬ ‭including‬ ‭green‬ ‭hydrogen‬ ‭and‬ ‭solar‬

‭technologies.‬

‭●‬ ‭Maintaining Diplomatic Balance:‬

‭○‬ ‭Continue‬ ‭the‬ ‭dehyphenation‬ ‭policy,‬ ‭balancing‬ ‭relationships‬ ‭with‬ ‭Israel,‬ ‭Palestine,‬

‭and the Arab world.‬

‭India-Africa Relations‬

‭Introduction‬

‭●‬ ‭Africa,‬ ‭often‬ ‭referred‬ ‭to‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭"‭l‬and‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬

‭future‬‭,"‬‭holds‬‭immense‬‭strategic‬‭importance‬‭for‬

‭India.‬

‭●‬ ‭Its‬‭vast‬‭reserves‬‭of‬‭critical‬‭minerals,‬‭burgeoning‬

‭economic‬ ‭potential,‬ ‭and‬ ‭geopolitical‬ ‭weight‬

‭make‬ ‭it‬ ‭a‬ ‭key‬ ‭partner‬ ‭in‬ ‭India's‬ ‭global‬

‭aspirations.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭With‬ ‭$75‬ ‭billion‬ ‭in‬ ‭investments‬ ‭and‬ ‭a‬ ‭three-million-strong‬ ‭diaspora,‬ ‭India's‬ ‭relationship‬

‭with Africa is built on historical, political, and economic ties.‬

‭Significance of Africa for India‬

‭1. Economic Potential:‬

‭●‬ ‭Rapid Economic Growth:‬

‭○‬ ‭Africa’s GDP growth is projected at 4% in 2023 and 4.3% in 2024.‬

‭○‬ ‭India-Africa‬ ‭bilateral‬ ‭trade‬ ‭reached‬ ‭$98‬ ‭billion‬ ‭in‬ ‭2022-23,‬ ‭with‬ ‭mining‬ ‭and‬

‭mineral sectors contributing $43 billion.‬

‭●‬ ‭Large Market:‬

‭○‬ ‭Africa’s‬ ‭population‬ ‭is‬ ‭expected‬ ‭to‬ ‭reach‬ ‭2.5‬ ‭billion‬ ‭by‬ ‭2050,‬ ‭offering‬ ‭a‬ ‭vast‬

‭consumer base for Indian goods and services.‬

‭●‬ ‭AfCFTA Opportunity:‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬‭African‬‭Continental‬‭Free‬‭Trade‬‭Area‬‭(AfCFTA),‬‭operational‬‭since‬‭2021,‬‭creates‬

‭a‬ ‭1.3‬ ‭billion-person‬ ‭market,‬ ‭providing‬ ‭opportunities‬ ‭for‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭exports‬ ‭and‬

‭investments.‬

‭2. Geopolitical Ally:‬

‭●‬ ‭Global Representation:‬

‭○‬ ‭Africa's 54 nations represent a significant bloc in international forums.‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭advocates‬ ‭for‬ ‭African‬ ‭representation‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭UN‬ ‭Security‬ ‭Council‬ ‭and‬ ‭other‬

‭global bodies.‬

‭●‬ ‭Balancing Regional Powers:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Strengthening‬ ‭ties‬ ‭with‬ ‭Africa‬ ‭helps‬ ‭India‬ ‭counter‬ ‭China’s‬ ‭growing‬ ‭influence‬ ‭and‬

‭navigate shifting global power dynamics.‬

‭3. Energy Security:‬

‭●‬ ‭Oil and Gas:‬

‭○‬ ‭Africa‬ ‭supplies‬ ‭15%‬ ‭of‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭oil‬ ‭demand,‬ ‭with‬ ‭key‬ ‭suppliers‬ ‭like‬ ‭Nigeria‬ ‭and‬

‭Angola.‬

‭●‬ ‭Critical Minerals:‬

‭○‬ ‭Africa‬ ‭holds‬ ‭30%‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭world’s‬ ‭critical‬ ‭mineral‬ ‭reserves,‬ ‭essential‬ ‭for‬ ‭India’s‬

‭energy transition and technological growth.‬

‭●‬ ‭Renewable Energy Collaboration:‬

‭○‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭International‬ ‭Solar‬ ‭Alliance‬ ‭has‬ ‭committed‬ ‭$2‬ ‭billion‬ ‭for‬ ‭African‬ ‭solar‬

‭projects, aligning with electrification goals.‬

‭4. Maritime Security:‬

‭●‬ ‭Indian Ocean Region:‬

‭○‬ ‭Africa's eastern coast is vital for India's maritime security.‬

‭●‬ ‭Anti-Piracy Operations:‬

‭○‬ ‭Indian Navy operations off Somalia since 2008 have ensured safe trade routes.‬

‭●‬ ‭Naval Collaboration:‬

‭○‬ ‭Exercises‬ ‭like‬ ‭IMT‬ ‭TRILAT‬ ‭(India-Mozambique-Tanzania)‬ ‭highlight‬ ‭maritime‬

‭security cooperation.‬

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‭5. Diaspora Dynamics:‬

‭●‬ ‭Indian Diaspora:‬

‭○‬ ‭Over‬ ‭3‬ ‭million‬ ‭Indians‬ ‭in‬ ‭Africa‬‭serve‬‭as‬‭a‬‭bridge,‬‭contributing‬‭to‬‭local‬‭economies‬

‭and fostering bilateral ties.‬

‭●‬ ‭Cultural Linkages:‬

‭○‬ ‭Initiatives‬ ‭like‬ ‭Pravasi‬ ‭Bharatiya‬ ‭Divas‬ ‭strengthen‬ ‭economic‬ ‭and‬ ‭cultural‬

‭connections.‬

‭Africa’s Role in India’s Critical Mineral Needs‬

‭●‬ ‭Lithium‬

‭○‬ ‭Countries like Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Ghana hold significant lithium reserves.‬

‭○‬ ‭With‬‭India‬‭aiming‬‭for‬‭30%‬‭EV‬‭penetration‬‭by‬‭2030,‬‭securing‬‭African‬‭lithium‬‭could‬

‭power millions of EVs.‬

‭●‬ ‭Rare Earth Elements (REEs)‬

‭○‬ ‭Africa’s‬‭REE‬‭reserves‬‭in‬‭South‬‭Africa,‬‭Malawi,‬‭and‬‭Kenya‬‭are‬‭crucial‬‭for‬‭high-tech‬

‭industries, including defense and electronics.‬

‭●‬ ‭Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)‬

‭○‬ ‭South‬ ‭Africa‬ ‭holds‬ ‭over‬ ‭90%‬ ‭of‬ ‭global‬ ‭platinum‬ ‭reserves,‬ ‭vital‬ ‭for‬ ‭catalytic‬

‭converters and hydrogen fuel cells.‬

‭●‬ ‭Copper‬

‭○‬ ‭Zambia‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Democratic‬‭Republic‬‭of‬‭Congo‬‭(DRC)‬‭are‬‭major‬‭producers,‬‭essential‬

‭for India’s renewable energy and EV sectors.‬

‭●‬ ‭Graphite‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Madagascar‬ ‭and‬ ‭Mozambique‬ ‭are‬ ‭key‬ ‭producers‬ ‭of‬ ‭flake‬ ‭graphite,‬ ‭critical‬ ‭for‬ ‭EV‬

‭batteries and energy storage systems.‬

‭Challenges in India-Africa Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Investment Gaps‬

‭○‬ ‭Indian investments lag behind those of China and Western countries.‬

‭○‬ ‭Example:‬ ‭Arcelor‬ ‭Mittal’s‬ ‭exit‬ ‭from‬ ‭a‬ ‭$2.2‬ ‭billion‬ ‭iron‬ ‭ore‬ ‭project‬ ‭in‬ ‭Senegal‬ ‭in‬

‭2020 highlights challenges.‬

‭●‬ ‭Perception of Indian Products‬

‭○‬ ‭Concerns‬‭about‬‭quality‬‭in‬‭sectors‬‭like‬‭pharmaceuticals‬‭and‬‭machinery‬‭affect‬‭India’s‬

‭reputation.‬

‭○‬ ‭Incidents like tainted medicine in Gambia (2022) have further tarnished trust.‬

‭●‬ ‭Diplomatic Imbalance:‬

‭○‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭engagement‬ ‭focuses‬ ‭on‬ ‭East‬ ‭and‬ ‭Southern‬ ‭Africa,‬ ‭neglecting‬ ‭regions‬ ‭like‬

‭West Africa.‬

‭●‬ ‭Project Delays:‬

‭○‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭development‬ ‭projects,‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rivatex‬ ‭textile‬ ‭factory‬ ‭revival‬ ‭in‬ ‭Kenya,‬

‭often face delays, impacting trust.‬

‭●‬ ‭Resource Rivalry:‬

‭○‬ ‭Competition‬ ‭with‬ ‭China‬ ‭for‬ ‭African‬ ‭resources‬ ‭inflates‬ ‭costs‬ ‭and‬ ‭complicates‬

‭diplomatic efforts.‬

‭Measures to Enhance India-Africa Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade Agreements‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Negotiate‬‭partnerships‬‭with‬‭African‬‭regional‬‭blocs‬‭like‬‭AfCFTA‬‭to‬‭reduce‬‭tariffs‬‭and‬

‭expand trade.‬

‭○‬ ‭Focus‬‭on‬‭mutual‬‭benefits,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭offering‬‭access‬‭to‬‭African‬‭agricultural‬‭products‬‭in‬

‭exchange for Indian pharmaceuticals and IT services.‬

‭●‬ ‭Capacity Building‬

‭○‬ ‭Expand‬ ‭initiatives‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Technical‬ ‭and‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭Cooperation‬ ‭(ITEC)‬ ‭to‬

‭train African youth in IT, AI, and data science.‬

‭○‬ ‭Establish branches of IITs and IIMs in key African countries‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Resource Partnerships‬

‭○‬ ‭Develop joint ventures with African companies for critical mineral extraction.‬

‭○‬ ‭Establish an India-Africa Mineral Development Fund to finance these ventures.‬

‭●‬ ‭Infrastructure Development‬

‭○‬ ‭Create‬ ‭a‬ ‭dedicated‬ ‭India-Africa‬ ‭Infrastructure‬‭Commission‬‭to‬‭oversee‬‭and‬‭expedite‬

‭projects.‬

‭○‬ ‭Prioritize‬ ‭solar‬ ‭power‬ ‭installations,‬‭water‬‭treatment‬‭plants,‬‭and‬‭digital‬‭connectivity‬

‭projects.‬

‭●‬ ‭Agriculture Modernization‬

‭○‬ ‭Launch‬‭an‬‭India-Africa‬‭Agriculture‬‭Innovation‬‭Corridor‬‭to‬‭transfer‬‭technologies‬‭and‬

‭establish model farms.‬

‭○‬ ‭Develop digital platforms like e-NAM to connect African farmers with markets.‬

‭Conclusion‬

‭●‬ ‭Africa’s‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭significance‬ ‭for‬ ‭India‬ ‭extends‬ ‭across‬ ‭economic,‬ ‭geopolitical,‬ ‭and‬ ‭energy‬

‭dimensions.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭By‬ ‭addressing‬ ‭challenges‬ ‭and‬ ‭focusing‬ ‭on‬ ‭capacity‬ ‭building,‬ ‭infrastructure,‬ ‭and‬ ‭resource‬

‭partnerships,‬ ‭India‬ ‭can‬ ‭secure‬ ‭its‬ ‭critical‬ ‭mineral‬ ‭needs‬ ‭while‬ ‭supporting‬ ‭Africa’s‬

‭development.‬

‭●‬ ‭This‬ ‭mutually‬ ‭beneficial‬ ‭relationship‬ ‭has‬ ‭the‬ ‭potential‬ ‭to‬ ‭shape‬ ‭a‬ ‭more‬ ‭equitable‬ ‭and‬

‭sustainable global order.‬

‭India-Mauritius Relations‬

‭Introduction:‬‭India‬‭and‬‭Mauritius‬‭share‬‭a‬‭unique‬‭and‬‭robust‬‭relationship‬‭rooted‬‭in‬‭history,‬‭culture,‬

‭and‬‭mutual‬‭economic‬‭and‬‭strategic‬‭interests.‬‭Often‬‭described‬‭as‬‭a‬‭"special‬‭relationship,"‬‭Mauritius‬

‭serves‬‭as‬‭a‬‭vital‬‭gateway‬‭for‬‭India's‬‭outreach‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Indian‬‭Ocean‬‭Region‬‭(IOR).‬‭The‬‭two‬‭nations‬

‭have‬‭consistently‬‭worked‬‭towards‬‭enhancing‬‭their‬‭partnership‬‭in‬‭areas‬‭like‬‭trade,‬‭defense,‬‭culture,‬

‭and regional security.‬

‭Historical and Cultural Ties‬

‭●‬ ‭Shared Heritage‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬‭majority‬‭of‬‭Mauritius’‬‭population‬‭has‬‭Indian‬‭ancestry,‬‭primarily‬‭from‬‭Bihar‬‭and‬

‭Uttar Pradesh, who arrived as indentured laborers during the colonial era.‬

‭○‬ ‭Festivals‬ ‭like‬ ‭Diwali‬ ‭and‬ ‭Eid‬ ‭are‬ ‭widely‬ ‭celebrated,‬ ‭reflecting‬ ‭deep‬ ‭cultural‬

‭connections.‬

‭●‬ ‭Indian Diaspora‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭Indian-origin‬ ‭population‬ ‭in‬ ‭Mauritius‬ ‭constitutes‬ ‭about‬ ‭68%‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭total‬

‭population, playing a significant role in politics, business, and society.‬

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‭Key Areas of Cooperation‬

‭1. Political and Strategic Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Historic Ties‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Mauritius‬‭was‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭first‬‭countries‬‭to‬‭join‬‭the‬‭Indian‬‭Ocean‬‭Rim‬‭Association‬

‭(IORA)‬‭, with India playing a pivotal role in its establishment.‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense and Security‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭signed‬ ‭several‬ ‭defense‬ ‭agreements‬ ‭with‬‭Mauritius,‬‭focusing‬‭on‬‭maritime‬

‭security and anti-piracy operations.‬

‭○‬ ‭Key initiatives include:‬

‭■‬ ‭Providing‬ ‭Indian-built‬ ‭naval‬ ‭vessels‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭CGS‬ ‭Barracuda‬‭,‬ ‭a‬

‭multi-purpose offshore patrol vessel.‬

‭■‬ ‭Establishing‬ ‭a‬ ‭Coastal‬ ‭Radar‬ ‭Surveillance‬ ‭System‬ ‭to‬ ‭enhance‬ ‭maritime‬

‭domain awareness.‬

‭■‬ ‭Joint military exercises like‬‭Exercise VARUNA‬‭.‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Presence‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Mauritius‬ ‭provides‬ ‭India‬ ‭with‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭access‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭IOR,‬ ‭crucial‬ ‭for‬ ‭countering‬

‭Chinese influence and securing sea lines of communication.‬

‭2. Economic and Trade Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Bilateral Trade‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Trade between India and Mauritius stood at approximately‬‭$1.16 billion in 2022-23‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭exports‬ ‭petroleum‬ ‭products,‬ ‭pharmaceuticals,‬ ‭machinery,‬ ‭and‬ ‭textiles‬ ‭to‬

‭Mauritius.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Special Economic Partnership‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬‭Comprehensive‬‭Economic‬‭Cooperation‬‭and‬‭Partnership‬‭Agreement‬‭(CECPA)‬‭,‬

‭signed in 2021, is India’s first such agreement with an African country.‬

‭○‬ ‭CECPA‬ ‭facilitates‬ ‭duty-free‬ ‭access‬ ‭for‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭goods‬ ‭like‬ ‭textiles,‬ ‭spices,‬ ‭and‬

‭pharmaceuticals while boosting Mauritius’ exports to India.‬

‭●‬ ‭Investment‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Mauritius‬ ‭is‬ ‭one‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭largest‬ ‭sources‬ ‭of‬ ‭Foreign‬ ‭Direct‬‭Investment‬‭(FDI)‬‭into‬

‭India, often attributed to favorable tax treaties.‬

‭○‬ ‭India has invested in infrastructure, IT, and financial services in Mauritius.‬

‭3. Developmental Assistance‬

‭●‬ ‭Grants and Loans‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭provided‬ ‭significant‬ ‭financial‬ ‭aid‬ ‭to‬ ‭Mauritius,‬ ‭including‬ ‭a‬ ‭$353‬ ‭million‬

‭package for infrastructure development.‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Projects‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Construction of the‬‭Supreme Court Building‬‭(inaugurated‬‭in 2020).‬

‭○‬ ‭Development of the‬‭Metro Express Project‬‭, an urban‬‭transportation system.‬

‭○‬ ‭Renovation of hospitals, educational institutions, and social infrastructure.‬

‭●‬ ‭Skill Development‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Training‬ ‭programs‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Technical‬‭and‬‭Economic‬‭Cooperation‬‭(ITEC)‬

‭initiative focus on capacity building and knowledge transfer.‬

‭4. Cultural and Educational Cooperation‬

‭●‬ ‭Cultural Exchanges‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Organizations‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭Indira‬ ‭Gandhi‬ ‭Centre‬ ‭for‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Culture‬‭(IGCIC)‬‭promote‬

‭Indian arts, dance, and yoga.‬

‭○‬ ‭Regular film festivals and cultural events highlight shared heritage.‬

‭●‬ ‭Education‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Scholarships are offered to Mauritian students under the‬‭Study in India Program‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Collaboration‬ ‭in‬ ‭higher‬ ‭education,‬ ‭with‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭institutions‬ ‭supporting‬ ‭capacity‬

‭building in Mauritius.‬

‭5. Maritime Cooperation‬

‭●‬ ‭Blue Economy‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Both‬ ‭nations‬ ‭collaborate‬ ‭on‬ ‭sustainable‬‭use‬‭of‬‭ocean‬‭resources,‬‭including‬‭fisheries,‬

‭marine biodiversity, and renewable energy.‬

‭●‬ ‭Anti-Piracy Operations‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Navy’s‬ ‭operations‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭region‬ ‭secure‬ ‭trade‬ ‭routes‬ ‭and‬ ‭ensure‬ ‭maritime‬

‭safety.‬

‭●‬ ‭IOR Engagement‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Mauritius‬ ‭plays‬ ‭a‬ ‭crucial‬ ‭role‬ ‭in‬ ‭India's‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Ocean‬ ‭strategy,‬ ‭particularly‬ ‭in‬

‭countering Chinese influence in the region.‬

‭Challenges in India-Mauritius Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Chinese Influence‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭China’s‬ ‭growing‬ ‭presence‬ ‭in‬ ‭Mauritius,‬ ‭through‬ ‭investments‬ ‭in‬ ‭infrastructure‬ ‭and‬

‭economic aid, poses a challenge to India’s influence.‬

‭●‬ ‭FDI Concerns‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Mauritius’‬‭role‬‭as‬‭a‬‭conduit‬‭for‬‭FDI‬‭into‬‭India‬‭has‬‭faced‬‭scrutiny‬‭due‬‭to‬‭allegations‬

‭of tax evasion and money laundering.‬

‭●‬ ‭Dependency‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Mauritius’‬ ‭heavy‬ ‭reliance‬ ‭on‬ ‭India‬ ‭for‬ ‭economic‬ ‭and‬ ‭security‬‭assistance‬‭may‬‭limit‬

‭its diversification of partnerships.‬

‭Recent Developments:‬

‭●‬ ‭Inauguration of Major Projects‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭PM‬ ‭Narendra‬ ‭Modi‬ ‭and‬ ‭his‬ ‭Mauritian‬ ‭counterpart‬ ‭jointly‬ ‭inaugurated‬ ‭key‬ ‭projects‬

‭like the‬‭Metro Express‬‭and the‬‭New Supreme Court Building‬‭.‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Strengthening‬ ‭ties‬‭in‬‭the‬‭blue‬‭economy‬‭and‬‭maritime‬‭security‬‭through‬‭agreements‬

‭and shared initiatives.‬

‭●‬ ‭Digital Collaboration‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Mauritius‬ ‭is‬ ‭leveraging‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭IT‬ ‭expertise‬ ‭for‬ ‭e-governance‬ ‭and‬ ‭digital‬

‭infrastructure projects.‬

‭Way Forward‬

‭●‬ ‭Deepening Economic Ties‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Expand‬ ‭trade‬ ‭under‬ ‭CECPA‬ ‭and‬ ‭encourage‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭private‬ ‭sector‬ ‭investments‬ ‭in‬

‭Mauritius.‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthening Maritime Collaboration‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Enhance‬ ‭joint‬ ‭efforts‬ ‭in‬ ‭maritime‬ ‭security,‬ ‭including‬ ‭capacity‬ ‭building‬ ‭for‬ ‭the‬

‭Mauritian Coast Guard.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Cultural Diplomacy‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Promote‬ ‭people-to-people‬ ‭ties‬ ‭through‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭festivals,‬ ‭academic‬ ‭exchanges,‬ ‭and‬

‭diaspora engagement.‬

‭●‬ ‭Sustainable Development‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Collaborate‬ ‭on‬ ‭renewable‬ ‭energy‬ ‭projects,‬ ‭particularly‬ ‭in‬ ‭solar‬ ‭and‬ ‭wind‬ ‭power,‬ ‭to‬

‭support Mauritius’ transition to a green economy.‬

‭●‬ ‭Countering Chinese Influence‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Increase‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭investments‬ ‭and‬ ‭presence‬ ‭in‬ ‭critical‬ ‭sectors‬ ‭to‬ ‭balance‬ ‭China’s‬

‭growing footprint in Mauritius.‬

‭●‬ ‭India-Mauritius‬ ‭relations‬ ‭exemplify‬ ‭a‬ ‭special‬ ‭partnership‬ ‭driven‬ ‭by‬ ‭shared‬‭history,‬‭cultural‬

‭bonds, and strategic interests.‬

‭●‬ ‭As‬ ‭India‬ ‭strengthens‬ ‭its‬ ‭engagement‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬‭Indian‬‭Ocean‬‭Region,‬‭Mauritius‬‭remains‬‭a‬

‭vital partner in fostering regional stability, economic growth, and cultural exchange.‬

‭●‬ ‭By‬‭addressing‬‭challenges‬‭and‬‭deepening‬‭cooperation,‬‭the‬‭two‬‭nations‬‭can‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭build‬

‭a mutually beneficial relationship that aligns with their long-term aspirations.‬

‭Indian Ocean Rim Association‬‭(IORA)‬

‭Objectives of IORA‬

‭●‬ ‭Promote Regional Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Enhance economic, social, and cultural collaboration among member states.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Facilitate Sustainable Development‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Focus on blue economy, disaster risk management, and environmental conservation.‬

‭●‬ ‭Ensure Maritime Security‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Address challenges like piracy, illegal fishing, and trafficking in the IOR.‬

‭●‬ ‭Promote Trade and Investment‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Facilitate‬ ‭open‬ ‭and‬ ‭free‬ ‭trade‬ ‭among‬ ‭member‬ ‭states,‬ ‭focusing‬ ‭on‬ ‭economic‬

‭integration.‬

‭Priority Areas‬

‭IORA focuses on six priority areas and two cross-cutting issues:‬

‭●‬ ‭Maritime Safety and Security‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Combating piracy, human trafficking, and illicit activities in the Indian Ocean.‬

‭○‬ ‭Enhancing cooperation on disaster response.‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade and Investment Facilitation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Promoting intra-IORA trade and creating a conducive environment for investment.‬

‭●‬ ‭Fisheries Management‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Ensuring sustainable exploitation of marine resources.‬

‭●‬ ‭Disaster Risk Management‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Strengthening regional cooperation on disaster preparedness and mitigation.‬

‭●‬ ‭Academic and Scientific Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Encouraging‬ ‭research‬ ‭and‬ ‭knowledge‬ ‭sharing‬ ‭on‬ ‭issues‬ ‭like‬ ‭climate‬ ‭change‬ ‭and‬

‭oceanography.‬

‭●‬ ‭Tourism and Cultural Exchange‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Leveraging the IOR’s diverse cultural heritage and natural beauty to boost tourism.‬

‭Cross-Cutting Issues‬

‭●‬ ‭Women’s Economic Empowerment‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Enhancing gender equality in economic and development programs.‬

‭●‬ ‭Blue Economy‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Promoting sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth.‬

‭Significance of IORA‬

‭Economic Importance‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade and Shipping‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The IOR handles‬‭50% of global container traffic‬‭and‬‭70% of petroleum trade‬‭.‬

‭○‬ ‭Member states focus on developing maritime infrastructure and trade corridors.‬

‭●‬ ‭Fisheries and Marine Resources‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Ocean‬ ‭is‬ ‭rich‬ ‭in‬ ‭marine‬ ‭biodiversity,‬ ‭offering‬ ‭significant‬ ‭economic‬

‭opportunities.‬

‭●‬ ‭Blue Economy‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭IORA‬ ‭promotes‬ ‭sustainable‬ ‭use‬ ‭of‬ ‭ocean‬ ‭resources,‬ ‭aligning‬ ‭with‬ ‭global‬ ‭goals‬ ‭like‬

‭the SDGs.‬

‭Strategic and Security Importance‬

‭●‬ ‭Maritime Security‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭IOR‬ ‭faces‬ ‭challenges‬ ‭like‬ ‭piracy‬ ‭(e.g.,‬ ‭Gulf‬ ‭of‬ ‭Aden),‬ ‭illegal‬ ‭fishing,‬ ‭and‬

‭trafficking.‬

‭○‬ ‭IORA plays a key role in ensuring free and secure maritime routes.‬

‭●‬ ‭Energy Security‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Major‬‭energy‬‭chokepoints,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭the‬‭Strait‬‭of‬‭Hormuz‬‭and‬‭Malacca‬‭Strait‬‭,‬‭lie‬‭in‬

‭the IOR.‬

‭○‬ ‭Member states collaborate to secure uninterrupted energy supplies.‬

‭Geopolitical Significance‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Location‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭The IOR connects major economic regions, including Asia, Africa, and Europe.‬

‭○‬ ‭It is critical for the global supply chain and trade connectivity.‬

‭●‬ ‭Balancing Global Powers‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭IORA‬ ‭provides‬ ‭a‬ ‭platform‬ ‭for‬ ‭regional‬ ‭powers‬ ‭like‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭Australia‬ ‭to‬

‭counterbalance China’s growing influence in the region.‬

‭India’s Role in IORA‬

‭●‬ ‭Founding Member‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬‭played‬‭a‬‭pivotal‬‭role‬‭in‬‭the‬‭establishment‬‭of‬‭IORA‬‭and‬‭continues‬‭to‬‭champion‬

‭its objectives.‬

‭●‬ ‭Leadership‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭chaired‬ ‭IORA‬ ‭from‬ ‭2011‬ ‭to‬ ‭2013‬ ‭and‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭instrumental‬ ‭in‬ ‭shaping‬ ‭its‬

‭agenda.‬

‭●‬ ‭Maritime Diplomacy‬‭:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭leverages‬ ‭IORA‬ ‭to‬ ‭enhance‬ ‭maritime‬ ‭security,‬ ‭address‬ ‭piracy,‬ ‭and‬‭secure‬‭its‬

‭interests in the Indian Ocean.‬

‭●‬ ‭Economic Engagement‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭supports‬ ‭initiatives‬ ‭for‬ ‭trade‬ ‭facilitation,‬‭investment‬‭promotion,‬‭and‬‭capacity‬

‭building.‬

‭●‬ ‭Blue Economy‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭advocates‬ ‭sustainable‬ ‭practices‬ ‭in‬ ‭fisheries,‬ ‭energy,‬ ‭and‬ ‭marine‬ ‭resource‬

‭management.‬

‭●‬ ‭Disaster Preparedness‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭India‬‭provides‬‭technical‬‭and‬‭humanitarian‬‭assistance‬‭to‬‭IORA‬‭nations‬‭during‬‭natural‬

‭disasters.‬

‭Challenges Facing IORA‬

‭●‬ ‭Limited Institutional Capacity‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭IORA lacks a strong institutional framework to implement its objectives effectively.‬

‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Rivalries‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Competing‬ ‭interests‬ ‭of‬ ‭major‬ ‭powers‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭USA,‬ ‭China,‬ ‭and‬ ‭India‬ ‭affect‬

‭cooperation.‬

‭●‬ ‭Maritime Security Threats‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Piracy, trafficking, and environmental challenges remain persistent concerns.‬

‭●‬ ‭Economic Disparities‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Varied economic capacities among member states hinder collective progress.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Climate Change‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Rising sea levels and extreme weather events disproportionately affect IOR nations.‬

‭Way Forward for IORA‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthen Institutional Mechanisms‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Establish a permanent secretariat with greater resources and autonomy.‬

‭●‬ ‭Enhance Maritime Cooperation‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Develop joint maritime patrols and intelligence-sharing frameworks.‬

‭●‬ ‭Promote Intra-IORA Trade‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Facilitate trade agreements and remove barriers to investment.‬

‭●‬ ‭Leverage Technology and Research‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Collaborate on scientific studies for sustainable ocean resource management.‬

‭●‬ ‭Foster Inclusive Development‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Focus on empowering women and marginalized communities in IORA countries.‬

‭●‬ ‭Climate Action‬‭:‬

‭○‬ ‭Enhance‬ ‭disaster‬ ‭preparedness‬ ‭and‬ ‭collaborate‬ ‭on‬ ‭climate‬ ‭change‬ ‭mitigation‬

‭strategies.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 17: West Asia (Part 02)‬

‭India-West Asia:‬
‭●‬ ‭Due‬ ‭to‬ ‭geographical‬ ‭proximity,‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭warm‬ ‭ties‬ ‭with‬ ‭this‬ ‭region‬‭,‬ ‭and‬ ‭this‬ ‭area‬
‭provides energy security to India.‬

‭●‬ ‭India-Saudi Arabia:‬

‭○‬ ‭Both nations have strategic relations along with cultural ties.‬
‭■‬ ‭Ancient Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭Ancient trade routes, textiles, spices.‬
‭■‬ ‭Diasporic Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭Approximately‬‭2.6‬‭Million‬‭Indians‬‭live‬‭in‬‭Saudi‬‭Arabia‬‭and‬‭work‬‭in‬
‭various sectors.‬
‭■‬ ‭Economic Relations:‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭India‬‭is‬‭the‬‭second‬‭largest‬‭trade‬‭partner‬‭for‬‭Saudi‬‭Arabia‬‭whereas‬
‭Saudi Arabia is India's fourth largest trading partner‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭bilateral‬ ‭trade‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬ ‭two‬ ‭countries‬ ‭stood‬ ‭at‬ ‭USD‬ ‭43‬
‭billion in 2023-24‬‭against‬‭USD 53 billion in 2022-23.‬
‭●‬ ‭India‬ ‭imports‬ ‭oil‬ ‭and‬ ‭exports‬ ‭rice,‬ ‭textiles,‬ ‭etc.‬ ‭The‬ ‭Saudi‬
‭government‬‭has‬‭invested‬‭approximately‬‭100‬‭Billion‬‭dollars‬‭in‬‭Indian‬
‭sectors under FDI.‬
‭■‬ ‭Defense Sector:‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint‬‭military‬‭exercises‬‭and‬‭supply‬‭of‬‭defense‬‭equipment‬‭in‬‭the‬‭form‬
‭of trade to Saudi Arabia‬
‭●‬ ‭Both nations are working for‬‭maritime security in Saudi Arabia‬
‭●‬ ‭Both nations are working on‬‭counter-terrorism efforts‬
‭●‬ ‭Both‬ ‭nations‬ ‭have‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭partnerships‬ ‭and‬ ‭also‬ ‭are‬ ‭members‬
‭of multilateral forums (Cooperation in G20, UN, and OIC)‬
‭●‬ ‭Saudi‬ ‭Vision‬ ‭2030‬ ‭is‬ ‭been‬ ‭supported‬ ‭by‬ ‭India‬ ‭where‬ ‭India‬ ‭is‬
‭enhancing‬‭cooperation‬‭in‬‭the‬‭field‬‭of‬‭smart‬‭cities,‬‭green‬‭energy,‬‭and‬
‭infrastructure development.‬
‭●‬ ‭We‬ ‭have‬ ‭people-to-people‬ ‭ties‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭form‬ ‭of‬ ‭pilgrimage‬ ‭and‬
‭cultural relations.‬
‭○‬ ‭Challenges in Relations:‬
‭■‬ ‭The growing‬‭influence of China and stable trade between them.‬
‭■‬ ‭Human‬ ‭rights‬ ‭violations‬ ‭with‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭workers‬ ‭are‬ ‭a‬ ‭matter‬ ‭of‬ ‭concern‬ ‭for‬
‭India‬
‭■‬ ‭Anonymity and uncertainty of‬‭‘Kafala System’.‬
‭■‬ ‭Regional‬ ‭instability‬ ‭in‬‭West‬‭Asia‬‭has‬‭many‬‭times‬‭disrupted‬‭energy‬‭supplies‬
‭for India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Way Forward:‬
‭■‬ ‭Defense collaboration and maritime security should be enhanced.‬
‭■‬ ‭IT, Pharma, and agricultural sector trade can be enhanced‬
‭■‬ ‭Diasporic engagement can be made better.‬

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‭India‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭a‬ ‭collaborator‬ ‭in‬ ‭Saudi‬ ‭Vision‬ ‭2030‬ ‭and‬ ‭can‬ ‭have‬ ‭growth‬ ‭and‬ ‭stability‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬
‭region.‬

‭●‬ ‭India-Qatar:‬
‭○‬ ‭Qatar‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭leading‬ ‭supplier‬ ‭of‬ ‭LNG‬‭and‬‭India‬‭is‬‭a‬‭major‬‭consumer‬‭of‬‭Hydrocarbon‬
‭Qatar hosts a decent Indian diaspora which is contributing to Qatar’s growth.‬
‭○‬ ‭Economic Relations:‬
‭■‬ ‭India's‬ ‭bilateral‬ ‭trade‬ ‭with‬ ‭Qatar‬ ‭in‬ ‭2022-23‬ ‭was‬ ‭US$‬ ‭18.77‬ ‭billion.‬
‭India’s‬‭export‬‭to‬‭Qatar‬‭during‬‭2022-23‬‭was‬‭US$‬‭1.96‬‭billion‬‭and‬‭India’s‬
‭import from Qatar was US$ 16.8 billion.‬
‭■‬ ‭Qatar’s‬ ‭key‬ ‭exports‬ ‭to‬ ‭India‬ ‭include‬ ‭LNG,‬ ‭LPG,‬ ‭chemicals‬ ‭and‬
‭petrochemicals,‬ ‭plastics,‬ ‭and‬ ‭aluminium‬ ‭articles.‬ ‭Qatar‬ ‭fulfills‬ ‭40%‬ ‭of‬
‭India's LNG needs.‬
‭■‬ ‭India’s‬‭key‬‭exports‬‭to‬‭Qatar‬‭include‬‭cereals,‬‭copper‬‭articles,‬‭iron‬‭and‬‭steel‬
‭articles,‬ ‭vegetables,‬ ‭fruits,‬ ‭spices,‬ ‭and‬ ‭processed‬ ‭food‬ ‭products,‬
‭electrical‬ ‭and‬ ‭other‬ ‭machinery,‬ ‭plastic‬ ‭products,‬ ‭construction‬ ‭material,‬
‭textiles & garments, chemicals, precious stones and rubber.‬
‭■‬ ‭Qatar investment agency has pledged a decent investment in India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Defense Relations:‬
‭■‬ ‭Defense‬ ‭collaborations‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭form‬ ‭of‬ ‭bilateral‬ ‭exercises,‬ ‭Maritime‬
‭security, and counter-terrorism have become very important.‬
‭■‬ ‭Qatar‬ ‭hosts‬ ‭0.75‬ ‭million‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭people‬ ‭who‬ ‭contribute‬ ‭to‬ ‭construction‬
‭and health care.‬
‭■‬ ‭In‬‭2023‬‭Indian‬‭president‬‭signed‬‭a‬‭collaboration‬‭agreement‬‭to‬‭enhance‬‭trade‬
‭relations in the form of the‬‭healthcare sector, energy, and technology.‬
‭○‬ ‭Challenges among India-Qatar:‬
‭■‬ ‭Energy dependency is very high.‬
‭■‬ ‭India should enhance its trade relations.‬
‭■‬ ‭Diaspora concerns‬
‭Both‬ ‭nations‬ ‭should‬ ‭work‬ ‭on‬ ‭better‬ ‭economic‬ ‭ties,‬ ‭energy‬ ‭transition‬ ‭(Green‬ ‭energy),‬ ‭and‬
‭better people-to-people ties (Better conditions for living)‬

‭●‬ ‭India-Kuwait:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Kuwait‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭major‬ ‭oil‬ ‭supplier‬ ‭to‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭shares‬‭cultural‬‭and‬‭diasporic‬‭relations.‬
‭Kuwait‬‭fulfills 10% of India’s energy need‬
‭○‬ ‭Economic Relations:‬
‭■‬ ‭Trade is 12 Billion dollars (mainly import of oil)‬
‭■‬ ‭Kuwait's‬ ‭investment‬ ‭in‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭increased‬ ‭in‬ ‭infrastructure‬ ‭and‬ ‭now‬ ‭has‬
‭moved to startup and make in India‬
‭○‬ ‭Defense Relations:‬
‭■‬ ‭Both nations are working for maritime security and counter-terrorism.‬
‭○‬ ‭Diaspora:‬
‭■‬ ‭Around‬‭1 million population of India live there.‬
‭■‬ ‭Kuwait has signed an agreement to ensure the welfare of Indian workers.‬
‭■‬ ‭Indian schools in Kuwait provide Indian curriculum to locals‬
‭■‬ ‭During covid crisis India provided vaccines and Kuwait provided oxygen‬
‭○‬ ‭Challenges:‬
‭■‬ ‭Energy dependency is very high.‬
‭■‬ ‭India should enhance its trade relations.‬
‭■‬ ‭Diaspora concerns‬
‭○‬ ‭Way Forward:‬
‭■‬ ‭Both‬‭nations‬‭should‬‭work‬‭on‬‭better‬‭economic‬‭ties,‬‭energy‬‭transition‬‭(Green‬
‭energy), and better people-to-people ties (Better conditions for living)‬

‭●‬ ‭India-Oman:‬
‭○‬ ‭Around‬‭5000-year-old relationships in the fields of trade and strategy.‬
‭○‬ ‭Approximately‬‭0.8 million Indians live in Oman.‬
‭○‬ ‭Approximately‬‭10 Billion trade under food products and Pharma.‬
‭○‬ ‭Defense Ties:‬
‭■‬ ‭Annual‬‭military‬‭exercises‬‭in‬‭the‬‭form‬‭of‬‭Naseem‬‭al‬‭Bahr‬‭(Naval‬‭exercise),‬
‭Al Najah (army exercise), Eastern Bridge (Air exercise).‬
‭➢‬ ‭Naseem‬ ‭al‬ ‭Bahr‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭biennial‬ ‭maritime‬ ‭exercise‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬
‭Indian‬‭Navy‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Royal‬‭Navy‬‭of‬‭Oman‬‭that‬‭aims‬‭to‬‭strengthen‬
‭bilateral naval cooperation‬‭and‬‭maritime security‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭Al Duqm port‬‭of Oman is provided to India for logistical movements.‬

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 ‭■‬ ‭Both nations have‬‭collaborated in counter-terrorism.‬
‭○‬ ‭Cultural and Educational Cooperation:‬
‭■‬ ‭Indian social clubs in Oman play an important role.‬
‭■‬ ‭Both nations were partners in COVID times‬
‭○‬ ‭Challenges:‬
‭■‬ ‭Energy dependency is very high.‬
‭■‬ ‭India should enhance its trade relations.‬
‭■‬ ‭Diaspora concerns‬
‭○‬ ‭Way Forward:‬
‭■‬ ‭Both‬‭nations‬‭should‬‭work‬‭on‬‭better‬‭economic‬‭ties,‬‭energy‬‭transition‬‭(Green‬
‭energy), and better people-to-people ties (Better conditions for living)‬

‭●‬ ‭India-UAE:‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade relations:‬
‭■‬ ‭UAE‬ ‭is‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭third‬ ‭largest‬ ‭trade‬ ‭partner‬ ‭amounting‬ ‭to‬ ‭approximately‬ ‭85‬
‭Billion Dollars.‬
‭■‬ ‭Comprehensive‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭Partnership‬ ‭Agreement‬ ‭(CEPA)‬ ‭will‬ ‭increase‬
‭trade by‬‭100 Billion Dollars‬‭by‬‭2030‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭UAE‬ ‭successfully‬ ‭held‬ ‭the‬ ‭second‬ ‭Meeting‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Joint‬
‭Committee‬ ‭(JC)‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭India-UAE‬ ‭Comprehensive‬ ‭Economic‬
‭Partnership Agreement (CEPA)‬‭in UAE.‬
‭○‬ ‭Defense Engagement:‬
‭■‬ ‭Joint‬ ‭military‬ ‭exercise‬‭‘Desert‬‭Eagle’‬‭(Airforce),‬‭Maritime‬‭security‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭Gulf region, and Counterterrorism in the region.‬
‭○‬ ‭Recent Relations:‬
‭■‬ ‭India‬ ‭-‬ ‭UAE‬ ‭food‬ ‭corridor:‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭UAE‬ ‭will‬‭set‬‭up‬‭a‬‭food‬‭corridor‬
‭with‬ ‭an‬ ‭expected‬ ‭investment‬ ‭of‬ ‭$2‬ ‭billion‬ ‭which‬ ‭will‬ ‭cater‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭UAE‬
‭market‬‭and‬‭beyond‬‭and‬‭help‬‭Indian‬‭farmers‬‭earn‬‭higher‬‭income‬‭and‬‭create‬
‭more jobs.‬
‭■‬ ‭Comprehensive‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭Partnership‬ ‭Agreement‬ ‭between‬‭both‬‭nations:‬
‭The‬‭CEPA‬‭is‬‭of‬‭strategic‬‭importance‬‭to‬‭India.‬‭UAE‬‭is‬‭currently‬‭India’s‬‭third‬
‭largest trade partner and second largest export destination after USA.‬

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 ‭➢‬ ‭UAE‬‭is‬‭also‬‭eighth-largest‬‭investor‬‭in‬‭India,‬‭having‬‭invested‬‭USD‬‭11‬
‭billion between 2020 to 2021.‬
‭➢‬ ‭According‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Government‬‭of‬‭India,‬‭CEPA‬‭is‬‭expected‬‭to‬‭increase‬
‭the‬‭bilateral‬‭trade‬‭between‬‭both‬‭the‬‭countries‬‭to‬‭USD‬‭100‬‭billion‬‭in‬
‭the next 5 years.‬
‭■‬ ‭I2U2 agreement (Also known as western QUAD)‬
‭○‬ ‭Challenges:‬
‭■‬ ‭Energy dependency is very high.‬
‭■‬ ‭India should enhance its trade relations.‬
‭■‬ ‭Diaspora concerns‬
‭○‬ ‭Way Forward:‬
‭■‬ ‭Both‬‭nations‬‭should‬‭work‬‭on‬‭better‬‭economic‬‭ties,‬‭energy‬‭transition‬‭(Green‬
‭energy), and better people-to-people ties (Better conditions for living)‬

‭●‬ ‭India-Turkey:‬
‭○‬ ‭Both‬ ‭nations‬ ‭share‬ ‭historical‬ ‭relations‬ ‭and‬ ‭are‬ ‭currently‬ ‭involved‬ ‭in‬ ‭trade,‬
‭investment, culture, and good governance.‬
‭○‬ ‭Economic Relations:‬
‭■‬ ‭10 Billion trade.‬
‭■‬ ‭India exports machines, steel, and chemicals‬
‭■‬ ‭India imports agricultural products.‬
‭■‬ ‭Investment in India’s construction and IT sector‬
‭○‬ ‭Issues:‬
‭■‬ ‭Turkeys‬‭stand‬‭on‬‭Kashmir‬‭(Kashmir‬‭is‬‭in‬‭Pakistan)‬‭and‬‭good‬‭relations‬‭with‬
‭Pakistan‬
‭■‬ ‭Pakistan becoming a‬‭new leader in the Muslim world.‬
‭■‬ ‭India’s increasing relationships with‬‭Greece and Cyprus.‬
‭○‬ ‭Way forward:‬
‭■‬ ‭Both‬ ‭can‬ ‭collaborate‬ ‭in‬ ‭areas‬ ‭like‬ ‭Defense,‬ ‭manufacturing,‬ ‭culture,‬ ‭and‬
‭multilateral forums like G20 and UN.‬

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 ‬

‭India-Iran Relations‬
‭● ‭India and Iran share deep historical, cultural, and strategic ties. Recently, both nations
‭engaged at the 16th BRICS Summit in Russia.
‭● ‭India supports Iran in countering Western sanctions.
‭● ‭Provides financial access and assistance to Iran.
‭● ‭Aids Iran in its global integration efforts.
‭● ‭Contributes to BRICS' strategic alignment in West Asia.
‭● ‭Facilitates BRICS nations' access to crude oil and natural gas

‭Historical Ties‬
‭1950 Friendship Treaty:‬
‭● ‭Laid the foundation for strong bilateral relations.

‭Jiyo Parsi Scheme‬

‭● ‭Launched in‬‭2013 by the Ministry of Minority Affairs‬‭, the Jiyo Parsi Scheme‬‭aims to
‭reverse the declining Parsi population through a scientific approach‬‭.

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 ‭Key Components‬
‭●‬ ‭Advocacy:‬‭Awareness campaigns and workshops promoting early marriage and‬
‭parenthood.‬
‭●‬ ‭Community Health:‬‭Childcare, creche support, and elderly care assistance.‬

‭●‬ ‭Medical Aid:‬‭Financial support for infertility diagnosis, ART, and IVF treatments.‬

‭●‬ ‭The scheme also offers cash incentives to encourage childbirth, regardless of financial‬
‭status. Over 214 births have been facilitated through ART.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is a‬‭100% Central Sector Scheme‬‭funded by the Government of India.‬

‭Parsi Community and Zoroastrianism‬

‭●‬ ‭Parsis follow Zoroastrianism, founded by Zoroaster in ancient Iran.‬
‭●‬ ‭They worship Ahura Mazda in Fire Temples and celebrate Nowruz on March 21.‬

‭Tehran Declaration (2001):‬

‭●‬ ‭Enhanced economic and cultural cooperation, with a focus on energy security for India. This‬
‭declaration remains a cornerstone of India-Iran relations.‬
‭Trade and Transit Agreement (2016):‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthened Chabahar Port development, discussed integrating Afghanistan's road network,‬
‭and proposed a Free Trade Zone near the port.‬

‭Economic Relations‬
‭●‬ ‭Bilateral trade is approximately $2.3 billion, with India exporting rice, tea, and‬
‭pharmaceuticals and importing oil.‬
‭●‬ ‭Iran is a major crude oil supplier to India, accounting for about 10% of India’s crude‬
‭imports.‬

‭Strategic Cooperation‬
‭Energy Security:‬
‭●‬ ‭Iran’s vast energy reserves are critical to India’s energy needs.‬

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‭International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC):‬
‭●‬ ‭Provides India access to Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and other Central Asian trading partners‬
‭through Iran, enhancing regional trade connectivity.‬

‭Challenges in the Relationship‬

‭●‬ ‭U.S. Sanctions:‬‭U.S. sanctions on Iran have adversely impacted Indian investments,‬
‭particularly in sectors like energy and infrastructure.‬
‭●‬ ‭Iran-Saudi Rivalry:‬‭The geopolitical tension between Iran and Saudi Arabia poses‬
‭diplomatic challenges for India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Delays in Chabahar Port Development:‬‭Indian delays in fulfilling commitments at‬
‭Chabahar, primarily due to U.S. sanctions, have strained bilateral ties. In 2024, India‬
‭renewed its diplomatic efforts to secure U.S. approval for its interests in Iran.‬
‭●‬ ‭Energy Security Risks:‬‭Frequent sanctions on Iran‬‭have compromised India's energy‬
‭security, disrupting oil imports and increasing costs.‬

‭Significance of Chabahar Port for India‬

‭Countering China:‬
‭●‬ ‭Chabahar provides a strategic counterbalance to China's investment in Pakistan’s Gwadar‬
‭Port, strengthening India’s influence in the region.‬
‭Regional Connectivity:‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhances India’s access to Afghanistan and Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan and‬
‭promoting India's Neighbourhood First Policy.‬

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‭U.S.-Iran Relations:‬
‭Deterioration Since 1979:‬
‭●‬ ‭Relations worsened post-Iranian Revolution, with the U.S. accusing Iran of supporting‬
‭terrorism and pursuing nuclear weapons.‬
‭Iraq-Iran War (1980-1988):‬
‭●‬ ‭The U.S. supported Iraq, heightening tensions with Iran.‬
‭Nuclear Issue:‬
‭●‬ ‭The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) between Iran and the P5+1 (U.S.,‬
‭UK, France, Russia, China, and Germany) aimed to curb Iran’s nuclear ambitions.‬
‭●‬ ‭In 2018, the U.S. withdrew from the JCPOA under President Trump, reimposing sanctions.‬
‭●‬ ‭By 2024, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) censured Iran for‬
‭non-cooperation, escalating nuclear concerns.‬

‭Way Forward‬
‭●‬ ‭Diplomatic Mediation:‬‭India could play a crucial role in easing U.S.-Iran tensions,‬
‭leveraging its strategic partnerships and regional influence.‬
‭●‬ ‭Trade Expansion:‬‭Expanding trade in agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and technology can‬
‭strengthen economic ties with Iran.‬
‭●‬ ‭Regional Diplomacy:‬‭India can use forums like BRICS to enhance Iran’s global‬
‭integration and foster stability in West Asia.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 15: India and South East Asia‬

‭Way Forward in India-China Relations:‬

‭●‬ ‭Economic and Industrial Dependency:‬
‭○‬ ‭India is significantly dependent on China due to economic and industrial ties.‬
‭○‬ ‭Bilateral trade is valued at approximately $120 billion.‬
‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭imports‬ ‭critical‬ ‭raw‬ ‭materials‬ ‭from‬ ‭China,‬ ‭including‬ ‭APIs,‬ ‭electronics,‬ ‭and‬
‭solar equipment.‬
‭○‬ ‭Chinese‬ ‭smartphones‬ ‭and‬ ‭telecommunication‬ ‭products‬ ‭are‬ ‭integral‬ ‭to‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭tech‬
‭industry.‬
‭○‬ ‭Chinese‬ ‭aggression‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭South‬ ‭China‬ ‭Sea‬ ‭also‬ ‭affects‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭trade‬ ‭routes‬ ‭and‬
‭security interests.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diversification of Trade:‬
‭○‬ ‭Engage‬‭with‬‭Alternative‬‭Partners:‬‭Diversifying‬‭trade‬‭relations‬‭with‬‭countries‬‭such‬
‭as Japan, South Korea, and the European Union can reduce reliance on China.‬
‭○‬ ‭Regional‬‭Leadership:‬‭Strengthening‬‭India's‬‭leadership‬‭in‬‭Southeast‬‭Asia‬‭can‬‭provide‬
‭more trade opportunities and a more balanced foreign policy.‬
‭○‬ ‭Focus‬ ‭on‬ ‭Manufacturing‬ ‭Sector:‬ ‭Boosting‬ ‭domestic‬ ‭manufacturing‬ ‭to‬ ‭reduce‬
‭dependency on imports, particularly in high-tech sectors like semiconductors.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diplomatic Engagements:‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthening‬ ‭Multilateral‬ ‭Ties:‬ ‭Active‬‭participation‬‭in‬‭international‬‭organizations‬
‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭SCO,‬ ‭BRICS,‬ ‭G20,‬ ‭and‬ ‭QUAD‬ ‭enhances‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭position‬ ‭globally‬
‭and provides leverage in dealing with China.‬
‭○‬ ‭Maritime‬ ‭Security‬ ‭Investments:‬ ‭Focusing‬‭on‬‭maritime‬‭security‬‭and‬‭regional‬‭trade‬
‭routes, especially in the Indo-Pacific, is crucial for India’s economic interests.‬
‭○‬ ‭Sagarmala‬ ‭Project:‬ ‭Continue‬ ‭to‬ ‭develop‬ ‭coastal‬ ‭regions‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭Sagarmala‬
‭initiative to boost exports and infrastructure, fostering India’s economic growth.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent Developments:‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Decreasing‬ ‭Import‬ ‭Dependency:‬ ‭India‬ ‭is‬ ‭reducing‬ ‭its‬ ‭dependency‬ ‭on‬ ‭Chinese‬
‭imports‬ ‭by‬ ‭investing‬ ‭in‬ ‭domestic‬ ‭manufacturing,‬ ‭especially‬ ‭in‬ ‭critical‬ ‭areas‬ ‭like‬
‭semiconductors.‬
‭○‬ ‭China’s‬‭Economic‬‭Slowdown:‬‭China's‬‭ongoing‬‭economic‬‭slowdown‬‭has‬‭impacted‬‭its‬
‭global trade relations and reduced its influence in the region.‬
‭○‬ ‭Change‬ ‭in‬ ‭U.S.‬ ‭Government:‬ ‭The‬ ‭shift‬ ‭in‬ ‭U.S.‬ ‭government‬ ‭policy‬ ‭has‬‭altered‬‭the‬
‭global‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭landscape,‬ ‭indirectly‬ ‭influencing‬‭China’s‬‭foreign‬‭relations,‬‭including‬
‭with India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Improved‬‭Ties‬‭with‬‭East‬‭Asian‬‭Countries:‬‭India’s‬‭growing‬‭relationships‬‭with‬‭South‬
‭Korea‬ ‭and‬ ‭other‬ ‭East‬ ‭Asian‬ ‭nations‬ ‭have‬ ‭created‬ ‭a‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭environment‬ ‭where‬
‭China seeks to maintain stable relations with India.‬
‭By‬‭diversifying‬‭trade,‬‭investing‬‭in‬‭domestic‬‭industries,‬‭and‬‭leveraging‬‭strategic‬‭alliances,‬‭India‬‭can‬
‭reduce its dependence on China while ensuring a stable and mutually beneficial relationship.‬

‭Taiwan Issue:‬
‭●‬ ‭Historical Context (1949):‬
‭○‬ ‭In‬ ‭1949,‬ ‭following‬ ‭the‬ ‭Chinese‬ ‭Civil‬ ‭War,‬ ‭the‬ ‭nationalist‬ ‭government‬ ‭led‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬
‭Kuomintang‬ ‭(KMT)‬ ‭fled‬ ‭to‬ ‭Taiwan,‬ ‭while‬ ‭mainland‬ ‭China‬ ‭was‬ ‭occupied‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬
‭Communist Party.‬
‭○‬ ‭Since‬‭then,‬‭Taiwan‬‭has‬‭operated‬‭as‬‭a‬‭separate‬‭entity‬‭with‬‭its‬‭own‬‭government,‬
‭distinct from mainland China.‬
‭●‬ ‭China's Perspective:‬
‭○‬ ‭China‬‭adheres‬‭to‬‭the‬‭"One‬‭China‬‭Policy,"‬‭viewing‬‭Taiwan‬‭as‬‭an‬‭inseparable‬‭part‬‭of‬
‭its territory and seeking eventual reunification.‬
‭●‬ ‭U.S. Policy:‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭United‬ ‭States‬ ‭follows‬ ‭a‬ ‭policy‬ ‭of‬ ‭"strategic‬ ‭ambiguity,"‬ ‭providing‬ ‭defensive‬
‭support to Taiwan without officially recognizing it as a separate state.‬
‭●‬ ‭Taiwan's Position:‬
‭○‬ ‭In‬ ‭Taiwan,‬ ‭there‬ ‭are‬ ‭differing‬ ‭opinions:‬ ‭some‬ ‭advocate‬ ‭for‬‭full‬‭independence‬‭from‬
‭China, while others support maintaining the status quo as an autonomous region.‬
‭●‬ ‭India-Taiwan Relations:‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭India's Stance on Taiwan:‬
‭■‬ ‭Since‬ ‭1949,‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭adhered‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭"One‬ ‭China‬ ‭Policy,"‬ ‭recognizing‬
‭Taiwan as part of China.‬
‭■‬ ‭However,‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭commencement‬ ‭of‬ ‭India's‬ ‭"Look‬ ‭East"‬ ‭and‬ ‭"Act‬ ‭East"‬
‭policies,‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭increasingly‬ ‭sought‬ ‭to‬ ‭strengthen‬ ‭its‬ ‭relations‬ ‭with‬
‭Taiwan,‬‭particularly in areas such as trade and culture.‬
‭○‬ ‭Current Engagement:‬
‭■‬ ‭India‬‭maintains‬‭people-to-people‬‭contact‬‭with‬‭Taiwan,‬‭fostering‬‭economic‬
‭and cultural ties, although it stops short of formal diplomatic recognition.‬

‭ASEAN (Association of South Asian Nations):‬

‭●‬ ‭It‬‭is‬‭a‬‭regional‬‭grouping‬‭that‬‭aims‬‭to‬‭promote‬‭economic‬‭and‬‭security‬‭cooperation‬‭among‬
‭its‬ ‭10‬ ‭members‬‭.‬ ‭(Brunei‬ ‭Darussalam,‬
‭Burma,‬ ‭Cambodia,‬ ‭Indonesia,‬ ‭Laos,‬
‭Malaysia,‬ ‭Philippines,‬ ‭Singapore,‬
‭Thailand, and Vietnam)‬
‭●‬ ‭It‬ ‭was‬ ‭established‬ ‭in‬ ‭1967‬ ‭through‬ ‭the‬
‭‘Bangkok Declaration.’‬
‭●‬ ‭Aim:‬‭To‬‭ensure‬‭one‬‭vision,‬‭one‬‭identity,‬
‭and one community.‬
‭●‬ ‭Objectives:‬
‭○‬ ‭Mutual‬ ‭respect‬ ‭for‬ ‭member‬
‭nations.‬
‭○‬ ‭No external interference.‬
‭○‬ ‭Peaceful dispute resolution.‬
‭○‬ ‭No use of force against each other.‬
‭○‬ ‭Keep security in the region.‬
‭●‬ ‭Foundations of ASEAN:‬
‭○‬ ‭Economic Growth:‬
‭■‬ ‭Combined‬ ‭strength‬ ‭is‬ ‭projected‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭the‬ ‭world's‬ ‭largest‬ ‭exporter‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬
‭world. (Currently 4th largest).‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭■‬ ‭It houses the world's leading manufacturers of goods.‬
‭○‬ ‭Together they‬‭ensure regional stability‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭strategic‬‭location‬‭of‬‭this‬‭area‬‭(the‬‭area‬‭where‬‭ASEAN‬‭nations‬‭are)‬‭ensures‬‭it‬
‭is part of major trade routes.‬
‭○‬ ‭Engagement‬ ‭across‬ ‭the‬ ‭world‬‭.‬ ‭For‬ ‭example:‬ ‭Strong‬ ‭ties‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭USA,‬ ‭China,‬
‭India,‬‭and‬‭Japan.‬‭It‬‭has‬‭an‬‭FTA‬‭(Free‬‭Trade‬‭Agreement)‬‭with‬‭Japan,‬‭New‬‭Zealand,‬
‭India, South Korea, and China.‬

‭India-ASEAN:‬
‭●‬ ‭Both have developed‬‭multidimensional relations in‬‭previous decades.‬
‭●‬ ‭Starting‬ ‭from‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭‘Look‬ ‭East‬ ‭Policy’‬ ‭to‬ ‭‘Act‬ ‭East‬ ‭Policy’‬‭,‬ ‭ASEAN‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭the‬
‭biggest beneficiary of this approach.‬
‭●‬ ‭Evolution of India-ASEAN relations:‬
‭○‬ ‭Pre-1990s:‬ ‭India-Indonesia‬ ‭started‬ ‭a‬ ‭policy‬ ‭of‬ ‭NAM‬‭.‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭very‬ ‭much‬
‭focused on decolonisation of this region of ASEAN countries.‬
‭○‬ ‭Post-1990s:‬‭India‬‭adopted‬‭the‬‭Look‬‭East‬‭Policy‬‭and‬‭became‬‭a‬‭full‬‭member‬‭of‬‭ARF‬
‭(ASEAN Regional Forum)‬
‭○‬ ‭After-2010:‬‭The trade ties converted into‬‭strategic‬‭relationships.‬
‭●‬ ‭Area of Convergence:‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade:‬ ‭ASEAN‬‭is‬‭India’s‬‭fourth‬‭largest‬‭trading‬‭partner‬‭and‬‭FTA‬‭has‬‭given‬‭a‬‭boost‬
‭to trade relations. In fact, currently, the trade is around 100$ Billion.‬
‭○‬ ‭Investment:‬ ‭Cumulatively‬ ‭we‬ ‭have‬ ‭$120‬ ‭billion‬ ‭investment.‬ ‭AIBC‬ ‭(ASEAN‬ ‭India‬
‭Business Council) has promoted trade investment from both sides.‬
‭○‬ ‭Cultural‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭Cultural‬ ‭affinity‬ ‭between‬ ‭ASEAN‬ ‭and‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭fostered‬
‭people-to-people‬ ‭relations‬ ‭through‬ ‭more‬ ‭and‬ ‭more‬ ‭collaborations‬ ‭via‬ ‭religion‬
‭(Hinduism, Buddhism) and student exchange programs.‬
‭○‬ ‭Strategic‬ ‭cooperation:‬ ‭Both‬ ‭areas‬ ‭have‬ ‭invested‬ ‭in‬ ‭security‬‭programs‬‭which‬‭have‬
‭facilitated regional security.‬
‭○‬ ‭Connectivity:‬ ‭Projects‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭‘Trilateral‬ ‭Highway’‬ ‭from‬ ‭Thailand‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬
‭‘Kaladan‬ ‭multimodal‬ ‭project’‬ ‭have‬ ‭ensured‬ ‭better‬ ‭connectivity‬ ‭in‬ ‭North-East‬
‭India.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭Defense‬ ‭and‬ ‭Security:‬ ‭ASEAN‬ ‭is‬ ‭an‬ ‭important‬ ‭partner‬ ‭in‬ ‭defense‬ ‭cooperation‬
‭which‬ ‭has‬ ‭ensured‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭strength‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭region‬ ‭via‬ ‭the‬ ‭purchase‬ ‭of‬ ‭Brahmos‬
‭Missile (Philippines) and joint military exercises (Thailand, Vietnam).‬
‭○‬ ‭Ensuring the Success of SAGAR‬‭for a better Indo-Pacific‬‭region.‬
‭○‬ ‭Recently‬‭Track‬‭1‬‭and‬‭1.5‬‭diplomacy‬‭has‬‭become‬‭famous‬‭in‬‭ensuring‬‭better‬‭relations‬
‭amongst both.‬
‭●‬ ‭Challenges amongst India-ASEAN:‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade Imbalance:‬‭Trade Imbalance in the region as‬‭India is facing a trade deficit.‬
‭○‬ ‭Better bilateral relations‬‭than multilateral relations.‬
‭○‬ ‭Chinese‬ ‭presence‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭region:‬ ‭China‬ ‭is‬ ‭increasing‬ ‭its‬ ‭presence‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭region‬
‭which is problematic for India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Future Aspects:‬
‭○‬ ‭India can bring these nations into‬‭QUAD-ambit to counter‬‭China.‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭South-China‬ ‭dispute‬ ‭has‬ ‭created‬ ‭differences‬ ‭between‬ ‭China‬ ‭and‬ ‭ASEAN‬
‭nations. India can fill this void.‬
‭○‬ ‭South China Sea dispute:‬
‭■‬ ‭The‬ ‭South‬ ‭China‬ ‭Sea‬ ‭is‬ ‭bordered‬ ‭by‬ ‭China,‬ ‭Taiwan,‬ ‭Vietnam,‬ ‭the‬
‭Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei.‬
‭■‬ ‭It‬‭is‬‭a‬‭strategic‬‭area‬‭for‬‭these‬‭nations‬‭because‬‭the‬‭world’s‬‭important‬‭trade‬
‭passes through the region.‬
‭■‬ ‭It is also an important fishing ground.‬
‭○‬ ‭Why does China want this sea area?‬
‭■‬ ‭China‬ ‭claims‬ ‭that‬ ‭important‬ ‭coral‬
‭reefs of Paracel are part of China.‬
‭■‬ ‭In‬ ‭fact,‬ ‭China‬ ‭claims‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬
‭Nine-Dash line is its territory.‬
‭●‬ ‭Nine-Dash‬‭line:‬ ‭A‬‭line‬‭claim‬
‭by‬ ‭China‬ ‭that‬ ‭gives‬ ‭90%‬ ‭of‬
‭the South-China sea to China.‬
‭■‬ ‭China‬ ‭controls‬ ‭this‬ ‭region‬ ‭through‬‭its‬
‭navy fleets.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭Strengthening people-to-people‬‭cultural relations.‬

‭India-Vietnam:‬
‭●‬ ‭Both‬‭nations‬‭have‬‭strong‬‭economic‬‭relations‬‭which‬‭now‬‭have‬‭been‬‭converted‬‭into‬‭strategic‬
‭partnerships.‬
‭●‬ ‭India is‬‭Vietnam's 8th trading partner.‬
‭●‬ ‭India‬‭has‬‭also‬‭enhanced‬‭its‬‭defense‬‭cooperation‬‭with‬‭Vietnam‬‭by‬‭supplying‬‭a‬‭line‬‭of‬‭credit‬
‭of approximately‬‭100$ million to boost its defense‬‭fleet.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭India-Vietnam Defense Partnership 2030‬‭was signed‬‭to strengthen the relations.‬
‭●‬ ‭India has also supported‬‭Vietnam’s claim on the South-China‬‭Sea.‬

‭India-South Korea:‬
‭●‬ ‭Special Strategic Partnership:‬
‭○‬ ‭Both nations have upgraded their relationship to a‬‭special strategic partnership‬‭,‬
‭focusing on‬‭defence cooperation‬‭,‬‭economic ties‬‭, and‬‭cultural exchange‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Defence Relations:‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint production‬‭of defence equipment.‬
‭○‬ ‭Participation in‬‭defence export summits‬‭and‬‭naval‬‭exercises‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Collaboration to maintain stability in the‬‭Indo-Pacific‬‭region‬‭, countering the‬
‭influence of China.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic and Trade Relations:‬
‭○‬ ‭Exports from India‬‭to South Korea: Iron, steel, and‬‭chemicals.‬
‭○‬ ‭Imports by India‬‭from South Korea: Electronics and‬‭electronic parts.‬
‭○‬ ‭India faces a‬‭trade deficit‬‭with South Korea.‬
‭●‬ ‭Technology Collaboration:‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint ventures in‬‭artificial intelligence (AI)‬‭,‬‭electronics‬‭,‬‭and‬‭consumer goods‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural Ties:‬
‭○‬ ‭People-to-people relations‬‭: Historical connections,‬‭such as‬‭Queen Heo of India,‬
‭who married a Korean king.‬
‭○‬ ‭Modern cultural exchange thrives through‬‭cinema‬‭and‬‭the‬‭TV industry‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Issues in Bilateral Relations:‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭Trade deficit‬‭for India in its trade relations with South Korea.‬
‭○‬ ‭Non-tariff barriers‬‭in South Korea restrict Indian‬‭exports.‬
‭○‬ ‭South Korea's‬‭economic dependence on China‬‭: 70% of‬‭Korean semiconductor‬
‭exports are directed to China, creating complexities in trade diversification.‬
‭●‬ ‭Way Forward:‬
‭○‬ ‭Space sector‬‭collaboration could be a new frontier‬‭for both nations.‬
‭○‬ ‭Potential for‬‭green energy partnerships‬‭, particularly‬‭in‬‭hydrogen fuels‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Cultural diplomacy‬‭can be strengthened to enhance‬‭bilateral ties, promoting‬
‭greater understanding and cooperation.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 14: India China Relations (Part 2)‬

‭Outcomes of the India-China War and Border Disputes:‬

‭●‬ ‭Western Sector (Ladakh)‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Territorial‬ ‭Claims‬‭:‬ ‭China‬ ‭began‬ ‭asserting‬ ‭claims‬ ‭over‬ ‭the‬ ‭Macartney-MacDonald‬
‭Line‬‭as the Ladakh border.‬
‭○‬ ‭Aksai‬ ‭Chin‬ ‭Occupation‬‭:‬ ‭China‬ ‭occupied‬ ‭the‬ ‭Aksai‬ ‭Chin‬ ‭region‬ ‭(approximately‬
‭38,000 sq. km) extending up to the Daulat Beg Oldi airbase.‬
‭○‬ ‭Line‬‭of‬‭Actual‬‭Control‬‭(LAC)‬‭:‬‭The‬‭LAC‬‭became‬‭the‬‭de‬‭facto‬‭border‬‭between‬‭India‬
‭and China.‬
‭○‬ ‭Current Status‬‭:‬‭Aksai Chin remains under Chinese control.‬
‭●‬ ‭Eastern Sector (Arunachal Pradesh)‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭McMahon‬ ‭Line‬ ‭Dispute‬‭:‬ ‭China‬ ‭contested‬ ‭the‬ ‭McMahon‬ ‭Line,‬‭claiming‬‭Arunachal‬
‭Pradesh as part of Tibet.‬
‭○‬ ‭Historical‬‭Argument‬‭:‬‭China‬‭rejected‬‭the‬‭1914‬‭Shimla‬‭Agreement‬‭,‬‭asserting‬‭it‬‭was‬
‭never agreed upon by Chinese representatives.‬
‭○‬ ‭Outcome‬‭:‬ ‭Despite‬ ‭initial‬ ‭advances,‬ ‭Chinese‬ ‭troops‬ ‭withdrew,‬ ‭and‬ ‭Arunachal‬
‭Pradesh remains under Indian control.‬
‭●‬ ‭Middle Sector (Barahoti Region)‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Territorial‬ ‭Dispute‬‭:‬ ‭China‬ ‭occasionally‬ ‭claimed‬ ‭Barahoti‬ ‭(a‬ ‭tri-junction‬ ‭of‬
‭Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and China)‬‭as its territory.‬
‭○‬ ‭Resolution‬‭: The dispute was largely‬‭settled‬‭through‬‭diplomatic negotiations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Border Agreements (1993 and 1996)‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Purpose‬‭: Aimed at reducing tensions between India‬‭and China along the‬‭LAC‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Effectiveness‬‭: These agreements‬‭failed‬‭to prevent‬‭subsequent border clashes.‬

‭Major Clashes in Recent Times‬‭:‬

‭●‬ ‭2013 Depsang Standoff‬‭:‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭It occurred in the‬‭Aksai Chin region.‬
‭○‬ ‭The Chinese military asserted claims over the disputed area.‬
‭●‬ ‭2020 Galwan Valley Clash‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Triggered by‬‭Chinese construction activities‬‭near‬‭the LAC.‬
‭○‬ ‭Resulted in violent skirmishes, escalating bilateral tensions.‬
‭●‬ ‭2020 Pangong Tso Dispute‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Focused on the‬‭demarcation of borders‬‭along Pangong‬‭Tso Lake.‬
‭○‬ ‭India claims the lake up to‬‭Finger 8,‬‭while China‬‭claims up to‬‭Finger 2.‬
‭○‬ ‭India‬‭controls‬‭the‬‭area‬‭up‬‭to‬‭Finger‬‭4,‬‭while‬‭China‬‭has‬‭built‬‭infrastructure‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭region.‬
‭○‬ ‭In‬‭May‬‭2020‬‭,‬‭both‬‭countries‬‭clashed‬‭in‬‭the‬‭area‬‭around‬‭Finger‬‭4‬‭over‬‭control‬‭of‬
‭the region.‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭situation‬ ‭de-escalated‬ ‭by‬ ‭February‬ ‭2021‬‭,‬ ‭with‬ ‭both‬ ‭sides‬ ‭agreeing‬ ‭to‬
‭disengage and pull back troops.‬
‭○‬ ‭In‬ ‭2024‬‭,‬ ‭satellite‬ ‭imagery‬ ‭revealed‬ ‭significant‬ ‭Chinese‬‭construction‬‭activities‬‭on‬
‭the northern part of the lake, raising security concerns for India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Strategic Importance of Lake:‬
‭■‬ ‭The lake is a critical‬‭freshwater resource‬‭for the‬‭surrounding regions.‬
‭■‬ ‭China's‬ ‭control‬ ‭over‬ ‭the‬ ‭lake‬ ‭would‬ ‭grant‬ ‭it‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭access‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬
‭Chushul‬ ‭Valley‬‭,‬ ‭which‬ ‭connects‬ ‭Ladakh‬ ‭and‬ ‭Leh‬‭,‬ ‭enhancing‬ ‭China's‬
‭connectivity to the region.‬

‭Water Dispute Related to Brahmaputra River:‬

‭●‬ ‭The Brahmaputra River, shared by both nations, has been a source of contention.‬
‭●‬ ‭As‬ ‭the‬ ‭upper‬ ‭riparian‬ ‭state,‬ ‭China‬ ‭has‬ ‭often‬ ‭been‬ ‭accused‬ ‭of‬ ‭exploiting‬ ‭the‬ ‭river's‬
‭waters‬‭to India's detriment, including‬‭dam construction‬‭and water diversion.‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭treaty‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Indus‬‭Water‬‭Treaty‬‭is‬‭essential‬‭to‬‭ensure‬‭equitable‬‭and‬‭sustainable‬
‭water-sharing‬‭practices‬‭between‬‭India‬‭and‬‭China,‬‭such‬‭an‬‭agreement‬‭would‬‭protect‬‭India's‬
‭water security and promote mutual trust.‬

‭Chinese Influence in Asia:‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
‭●‬ ‭On Pakistan:‬
‭○‬ ‭China‬ ‭has‬ ‭invested‬ ‭in‬ ‭CPEC‬ ‭(China-Pakistan‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭Corridor),‬ ‭Gwadar‬ ‭Port,‬
‭and has supported Pakistan in‬‭FATF (Financial Action‬‭Task Force).‬
‭○‬ ‭About‬‭CPEC‬‭Project:‬‭It‬‭is‬‭a‬‭3,000‬‭km‬‭Chinese‬‭infrastructure‬‭network‬‭project‬‭in‬
‭construction‬‭in Pakistan.‬‭It is part of the ‘‬‭Belt and Road Initiative.’‬
‭○‬ ‭Concerns Raised by India:‬
‭■‬ ‭The‬ ‭CPEC‬‭highway‬‭passes‬‭through‬‭Line‬‭of‬‭Control‬‭which‬‭causes‬‭a‬‭threat‬
‭to India’s security.‬
‭■‬ ‭CPEC‬ ‭highway‬ ‭passes‬ ‭through‬ ‭PoK‬ ‭which‬ ‭is‬ ‭against‬ ‭the‬ ‭sovereignty‬ ‭of‬
‭India.‬
‭■‬ ‭The‬ ‭Gwadar‬ ‭port‬ ‭given‬ ‭for‬ ‭lease‬ ‭to‬ ‭China‬ ‭has‬ ‭created‬ ‭a‬ ‭security‬‭threat‬
‭for India in the Arabian Sea.‬
‭●‬ ‭On Bangladesh:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bangladesh imports‬‭defense equipment‬‭from China.‬
‭○‬ ‭It is the‬‭largest trading partner‬‭of China.‬
‭○‬ ‭China is financing‬‭nuclear energy‬‭in Bangladesh.‬
‭○‬ ‭China supports Bangladesh’s‬‭textile industry.‬
‭●‬ ‭On Srilanka:‬
‭○‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lanka‬ ‭is‬ ‭part‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Belt‬ ‭and‬ ‭Road‬ ‭Initiative‬ ‭but‬ ‭has‬ ‭fallen‬ ‭into‬ ‭China’s‬
‭debt-trap diplomacy.‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭Hambantota Port‬‭, leased to China, serves as a‬‭strategic defense hub.‬
‭○‬ ‭China supplies‬‭defense equipment‬‭to Sri Lanka.‬
‭○‬ ‭China‬‭backs‬‭Sri‬‭Lanka‬‭in‬‭the‬‭UN‬‭Human‬‭Rights‬‭Commission‬‭on‬‭issues‬‭stemming‬
‭from the civil war with LTTE.‬
‭●‬ ‭On Nepal:‬
‭○‬ ‭China‬ ‭provides‬ ‭significant‬ ‭land‬ ‭access,‬ ‭infrastructure‬ ‭development,‬ ‭and‬
‭connectivity projects‬‭for Nepal.‬
‭○‬ ‭Investments include‬‭airports and railway networks‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭China is the‬‭largest source of‬‭Foreign Direct Investment‬‭(FDI)‬‭in Nepal.‬
‭○‬ ‭Nepal has increasingly adopted a pro-China stance.‬
‭●‬ ‭On Maldives:‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭China‬ ‭has‬ ‭leased‬ ‭the‬ ‭Feydhoo‬ ‭Island‬ ‭and‬ ‭invested‬ ‭heavily‬ ‭in‬ ‭Maldives'‬
‭infrastructure projects,‬‭increasing its regional influence.‬

‭OBOR (One Belt One Road):‬

‭●‬ ‭It‬‭is‬‭the‬‭modern‬‭version‬‭of‬‭the‬‭ancient‬‭Silk‬‭Rout‬‭e‬‭to‬‭enhance‬‭Chinese‬‭connectivity‬‭in‬
‭the world.‬
‭●‬ ‭One‬ ‭Belt‬ ‭One‬ ‭Road‬ ‭(OBOR),‬ ‭the‬ ‭brainchild‬ ‭of‬ ‭Chinese‬ ‭President‬ ‭Xi‬ ‭Jinping‬‭,‬ ‭is‬ ‭an‬
‭ambitious‬ ‭economic‬ ‭development‬ ‭and‬ ‭commercial‬ ‭project‬ ‭that‬ ‭focuses‬ ‭on‬ ‭improving‬
‭connectivity‬‭and‬‭cooperation‬‭among‬‭multiple‬‭countries‬‭spread‬‭across‬‭the‬‭continents‬
‭of Asia, Africa, and Europe.‬
‭●‬ ‭China calls it the‬‭‘Road to Prosperity’.‬

‭Strategy Used by China for International Diplomacy:‬

‭●‬ ‭Salami Slicing:‬
‭○‬ ‭It‬‭means‬‭a‬‭strategy‬‭to‬‭dominate‬‭opposition‬‭territory‬‭piece‬‭by‬‭piece.‬‭Under‬‭this‬
‭concept,‬ ‭China‬ ‭tries‬ ‭to‬ ‭counter‬ ‭India‬ ‭by‬
‭taking‬ ‭hold‬ ‭of‬ ‭smaller‬ ‭nations‬ ‭like‬ ‭Sri‬
‭Lanka, Bangladesh, etc.‬
‭○‬ ‭How this strategy is used:‬
‭■‬ ‭Coercive:‬ ‭In‬ ‭this‬ ‭strategy‬ ‭China‬
‭uses‬ ‭force‬ ‭over‬ ‭a‬ ‭nation.‬ ‭For‬
‭Example‬‭: Bhutan‬
‭■‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭Build‬ ‭and‬ ‭enhance‬
‭economic‬ ‭ties‬ ‭and‬ ‭cultural‬‭relations.‬
‭For‬ ‭Example:‬ ‭Supporting‬ ‭Nepal‬
‭economically.‬
‭■‬ ‭Debt‬ ‭Trap‬ ‭Policy:‬ ‭Huge‬ ‭debts‬ ‭are‬
‭given‬ ‭to‬ ‭nations‬ ‭for‬ ‭infrastructure‬‭development‬‭and‬‭at‬‭a‬‭later‬‭stage‬‭China‬
‭takes‬ ‭the‬ ‭territory‬ ‭from‬ ‭that‬ ‭nation‬ ‭when‬ ‭a‬ ‭nation‬‭fails‬‭to‬‭pay‬‭back.‬‭For‬
‭Example:‬‭Hambantota Port (Sri Lanka).‬

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 ‭■‬ ‭Cartographic‬ ‭Aggression:‬ ‭China‬ ‭maps‬ ‭and‬ ‭graphs‬ ‭to‬ ‭claim‬ ‭the‬ ‭disputed‬
‭territories‬ ‭saying‬ ‭the‬ ‭disputed‬ ‭place‬ ‭belongs‬ ‭to‬ ‭us‬ ‭according‬ ‭to‬ ‭maps.‬‭For‬
‭Example:‬‭India’s Arunachal area.‬
‭■‬ ‭Sabre‬ ‭Ratling:‬ ‭Conducting‬ ‭military‬ ‭exercises‬ ‭near‬ ‭countries'‬ ‭borders.‬ ‭For‬
‭example:‬‭Exercises near Indian Borders.‬
‭●‬ ‭Gun Boat Diplomacy:‬‭Under this,‬‭China uses naval forces‬‭to threaten the nations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Wolf‬ ‭Warrior‬ ‭Diplomacy:‬ ‭Under‬ ‭this‬ ‭China‬ ‭uses‬ ‭its‬ ‭ideology‬ ‭of‬ ‭communism‬ ‭across‬ ‭the‬
‭world‬ ‭to‬ ‭counter‬ ‭the‬ ‭West.‬ ‭Under‬ ‭this‬ ‭system,‬ ‭the‬ ‭Chinese‬ ‭diplomats‬ ‭acted‬ ‭in‬ ‭an‬
‭aggressive manner to tackle Western diplomats.‬
‭●‬ ‭Panda Diplomacy:‬‭Here, China‬‭gives lucrative loans‬‭to countries to act in their favor.‬
‭●‬ ‭String of Pearls Diplomacy:‬
‭○‬ ‭It's‬‭a‬‭Chinese‬‭strategy‬‭of‬‭encircling‬‭India‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭Indian‬ ‭Ocean‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭Arabian‬ ‭Sea‬ ‭to‬ ‭tackle‬
‭the‬‭Malacca dilemma‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭being‬ ‭done‬ ‭to‬ ‭show‬ ‭the‬ ‭credible‬
‭precedence‬ ‭of‬ ‭China‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Ocean‬
‭Region.‬
‭○‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭Response:‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭created‬ ‭the‬
‭‘Necklace‬ ‭of‬ ‭Diamond‬ ‭policy’‬‭.‬‭Under‬‭this‬‭India‬
‭will‬ ‭enhance‬ ‭its‬ ‭coastal‬ ‭regions‬ ‭by‬ ‭building‬
‭more‬ ‭ports‬ ‭and‬ ‭gearing‬ ‭up‬ ‭relations‬ ‭with‬ ‭Malaysia,‬ ‭Bangladesh,‬ ‭Maldives,‬
‭Seychelles, Mauritius, etc.‬
‭■‬ ‭Problem‬ ‭With‬ ‭This‬ ‭Policy:‬ ‭Five‬ ‭Eyes‬ ‭is‬ ‭reluctant‬ ‭to‬ ‭help‬ ‭India‬ ‭against‬
‭China. (‬‭Five eyes‬‭are: USA, Canada, UK, New Zealand,‬‭and Australia).‬

‭About Five Eye:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Five‬‭Eyes‬‭is‬‭an‬‭intelligence‬‭alliance‬‭comprising‬‭nations‬‭including‬‭Australia,‬
‭Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the US.‬
‭●‬ ‭These‬‭countries‬‭are‬‭parties‬‭to‬‭the‬‭multilateral‬‭UK-USA‬‭Agreement‬‭,‬‭a‬‭treaty‬‭for‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭cooperation in signals intelligence.‬

‭South China Sea Dispute:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭South‬‭China‬‭Sea‬‭is‬‭bordered‬‭by‬‭China,‬‭Taiwan,‬‭Vietnam,‬‭the‬‭Philippines,‬‭Indonesia,‬
‭Malaysia, and Brunei.‬
‭●‬ ‭It‬‭is‬‭a‬‭strategic‬‭area‬‭for‬‭these‬‭nations‬‭because‬‭this‬‭area‬‭is‬‭rich‬‭in‬‭natural‬‭resources‬‭and‬
‭the‬ ‭world’s‬ ‭important‬ ‭trade‬ ‭passes‬ ‭through‬ ‭the‬
‭region.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is also an‬‭important fishing ground.‬
‭●‬ ‭Why does China want this sea area?‬
‭○‬ ‭China‬ ‭claims‬ ‭that‬ ‭important‬ ‭coral‬ ‭reefs‬ ‭of‬
‭Paracel are part of China.‬
‭○‬ ‭In‬ ‭fact,‬ ‭China‬‭claims‬‭that‬‭the‬‭Nine-Dash‬‭line‬
‭is its territory.‬
‭■‬ ‭Nine-Dash‬‭line:‬ ‭A‬‭line‬‭claim‬‭by‬‭China‬
‭that‬ ‭gives‬ ‭90%‬‭of‬‭the‬‭South-China‬‭sea‬
‭to China.‬
‭○‬ ‭China‬ ‭controls‬ ‭this‬ ‭region‬ ‭through‬ ‭its‬ ‭navy‬
‭fleets.‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬‭a‬‭landmark‬‭ruling,‬‭the‬‭Permanent‬‭Court‬‭of‬‭Arbitration‬‭(PCA)‬‭declared‬‭in‬‭favor‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭Philippines, rejecting China's claims over the disputed area.‬
‭●‬ ‭Significance of the South China Sea for India:‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade‬‭and‬‭Economy‬‭:‬‭The‬‭South‬‭China‬‭Sea‬‭is‬‭an‬‭important‬‭shipping‬‭lane,‬‭with‬‭55%‬
‭of India’s trade‬‭passing through this region.‬
‭○‬ ‭Strategic‬ ‭Interests‬‭:‬ ‭India‬ ‭aims‬ ‭to‬ ‭uphold‬ ‭the‬ ‭principles‬ ‭of‬ ‭international‬ ‭law‬ ‭to‬
‭ensure peace, stability, and free navigation‬‭in the‬‭region.‬
‭○‬ ‭Energy‬ ‭Agreements‬‭:‬‭India's‬‭oil‬‭exploration‬‭agreements‬‭with‬‭Vietnam‬‭are‬‭located‬
‭in this region, highlighting its energy security interests.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Support‬‭for‬‭ASEAN‬‭:‬‭India‬‭actively‬‭supports‬‭ASEAN‬‭nations‬‭in‬‭maintaining‬‭regional‬
‭stability.‬ ‭It‬ ‭also‬ ‭seeks‬ ‭to‬ ‭strengthen‬ ‭people-to-people‬ ‭and‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭ties‬ ‭with‬
‭these nations.‬

‭SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation):‬

‭●‬ ‭The first multilateral forum for South Asian nations‬
‭●‬ ‭SAARC‬‭comprises 3.8% of the global economy and almost‬‭20% of the population.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭member‬ ‭countries‬ ‭wanted‬ ‭to‬ ‭build‬ ‭a‬ ‭forum‬ ‭for‬ ‭geo-economic‬ ‭collaboration‬ ‭through‬
‭SAARC.‬
‭●‬ ‭Facts:‬
‭○‬ ‭Established in Dhaka (Bangladesh).‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭Headquarters and Secretariat‬‭of the Association‬‭are at‬‭Kathmandu, Nepal‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭SAARC comprises of‬‭eight Member States‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Afghanistan‬
‭■‬ ‭Bangladesh‬
‭■‬ ‭Bhutan‬
‭■‬ ‭India‬
‭■‬ ‭Maldives‬
‭■‬ ‭Nepal‬
‭■‬ ‭Pakistan‬
‭■‬ ‭Sri Lanka‬
‭●‬ ‭Objectives of SAARC:‬
‭○‬ ‭Promote‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭and‬ ‭Regional‬ ‭Integration‬‭:‬ ‭Foster‬ ‭geo-economic‬
‭collaboration‬‭among member states.‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhance‬ ‭Trade‬ ‭and‬ ‭Development‬‭:‬ ‭Create‬ ‭opportunities‬ ‭for‬‭free‬‭trade‬‭and‬‭mutual‬
‭growth in the region.‬
‭○‬ ‭Strengthen‬ ‭Regional‬ ‭Cooperation‬‭:‬ ‭Collaborate‬ ‭on‬ ‭common‬ ‭issues‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬‭poverty‬
‭alleviation, education, and health.‬
‭○‬ ‭Maintain‬ ‭Peace‬ ‭and‬ ‭Stability‬‭:‬ ‭Encourage‬ ‭conflict‬ ‭resolution‬ ‭and‬ ‭reduce‬ ‭bilateral‬
‭tensions through dialogue.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Address‬ ‭External‬ ‭Threats‬‭:‬ ‭Counter‬ ‭external‬ ‭influences,‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭debt-trap‬
‭diplomacy of China‬‭, by strengthening regional ties.‬
‭○‬ ‭Global‬‭Collaboration‬‭:‬‭Build‬‭stronger‬‭relationships‬‭with‬‭the‬‭Global‬‭South‬‭for‬‭mutual‬
‭benefit.‬
‭●‬ ‭Significance:‬
‭○‬ ‭Encounter the debt trap policy of China.‬
‭○‬ ‭Helpful in trade and sidelining China.‬
‭○‬ ‭Offers good relationship with southern world.‬
‭●‬ ‭Achievements:‬
‭○‬ ‭South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAAFTA)‬
‭○‬ ‭SAARC University in Delhi‬
‭●‬ ‭Challenges in SAARC:‬
‭○‬ ‭It has become a‬‭space of bilateral conflicts between‬‭India and Pakistan.‬
‭○‬ ‭Since 20214 India and Pakistan tensions have‬‭postponed‬‭SAARC meetings.‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭noncooperation‬ ‭of‬‭Pakistan‬‭in‬‭important‬‭projects‬‭like‬‭the‬‭SAARC‬‭satellite‬‭and‬
‭SAARC highway was abandoned due to Pakistan’s reluctance.‬
‭○‬ ‭Issues with SAFTA:‬
‭■‬ ‭The‬ ‭zero-tariff‬ ‭trade‬ ‭could‬ ‭not‬ ‭become‬ ‭successful‬ ‭because‬ ‭of‬ ‭Pakistan's‬
‭reluctance to give market access to Indian products.‬
‭■‬ ‭This‬ ‭failure‬ ‭of‬ ‭SAFTA‬ ‭resulted‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭formation‬ ‭of‬ ‭CEPA‬ ‭among‬ ‭various‬
‭nations.‬
‭○‬ ‭During‬ ‭COVID-19,‬ ‭the‬ ‭nations‬ ‭established‬ ‭an‬ ‭emergency‬ ‭fund‬ ‭but‬ ‭that‬ ‭was‬‭never‬
‭used.‬
‭○‬ ‭There‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭trust‬ ‭deficit‬ ‭amongst‬ ‭region‬‭s‬ ‭with‬ ‭regard‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭growing‬ ‭economic‬
‭might of India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Revival of SAARC:‬
‭○‬ ‭Holding multilateral talks.‬
‭○‬ ‭Free trade agreements should be made functional.‬
‭○‬ ‭Alternatively,‬ ‭BIMSTEC‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭explored‬ ‭as‬ ‭an‬ ‭option‬ ‭but‬ ‭not‬ ‭at‬ ‭the‬ ‭cost‬ ‭of‬
‭SAARC.‬
‭○‬ ‭India and Pakistan can learn from France and Germany.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭‘SAARC‬ ‭-‬ ‭(minus)‬ ‭X’‬ ‭formula‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭used‬ ‭amongst‬ ‭the‬ ‭willing‬ ‭nations‬ ‭to‬
‭make SAARC successful.‬

‭BIMSTEC‬ ‭(Bay‬ ‭of‬ ‭Bengal‬ ‭Initiative‬ ‭for‬ ‭Multi-Sectoral‬ ‭Technical‬ ‭and‬

‭Economic Cooperation):‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭alternative‬ ‭to‬ ‭SAARC‬ ‭was‬ ‭originally‬ ‭made‬ ‭up‬ ‭of‬ ‭countries‬ ‭like‬ ‭Bangladesh,‬ ‭India,‬
‭Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.‬‭Later on,‬‭Nepal‬‭and Bhutan‬‭became its members.‬
‭●‬ ‭These members focus on:‬
‭○‬ ‭Trade‬
‭○‬ ‭Technology‬
‭○‬ ‭Energy‬
‭○‬ ‭Transport‬
‭○‬ ‭Public Health‬
‭●‬ ‭Significance of BIMSTEC:‬
‭○‬ ‭Securing the‬‭Strait of Malacca.‬
‭○‬ ‭Help in the‬‭Sagarmala Project.‬
‭○‬ ‭Help in the development of‬‭North-East India.‬
‭○‬ ‭Can counter China’s‬‭OBOR.‬
‭○‬ ‭Can protect countries from China’s debt trap policy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Opportunities in BIMSTEC:‬
‭○‬ ‭It has become an alternative regional collaboration.‬
‭○‬ ‭Economic and trade partnerships have increased.‬
‭○‬ ‭All the members are the world’s fastest-growing economies.‬
‭○‬ ‭The highway connectivity project has boosted the region.‬
‭●‬ ‭Challenges:‬
‭○‬ ‭Inconsistency in the meetings (no regular meetings).‬
‭○‬ ‭Since 2016, the nation has not kept BIMSTEC as a first priority.‬
‭○‬ ‭It‬ ‭has‬ ‭14‬ ‭objectives‬ ‭of‬ ‭various‬ ‭areas‬ ‭of‬ ‭BIMSTEC‬ ‭that‬ ‭are‬ ‭difficult‬ ‭to‬ ‭meet‬ ‭in‬
‭reality.‬
‭○‬ ‭Destabilization‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭growing‬ ‭interference‬ ‭of‬ ‭China‬ ‭have‬ ‭dented‬
‭the future of BIMSTEC.‬

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‭●‬ ‭Way Forward:‬
‭○‬ ‭BIMSTEC can focus on trade and connectivity‬
‭○‬ ‭Free trade can be implemented.‬
‭○‬ ‭BIMSTEC‬‭cannot‬‭be‬‭a‬‭true‬‭alternative‬‭to‬‭SAARC,‬‭rather‬‭both‬‭can‬‭complement‬‭each‬
‭other. BIMSTEC can help SAARC to connect ASEAN nations.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬

‭Lecture 13: India China Relations‬

‭India-China Relations:‬
‭NOTE:‬
‭●‬ ‭India ruled China‬‭culturally for more than 2000 years‬‭without sending any force there. It is‬
‭called‬‭‘Cultural Hegemony’.‬
‭●‬ ‭India and China have long been‬
‭crucial neighbors and major‬
‭trade partners.‬
‭●‬ ‭Both nations are emerging as the‬
‭new Asian tigers‬‭in modern‬
‭international politics.‬
‭●‬ ‭PM Modi‬‭has held that‬
‭‘‘India-China relations are ‘INCH‬
‭towards miles’.‬
‭○‬ ‭Inch:‬‭India-China.‬
‭○‬ ‭Miles:‬‭Millennium of exceptional synergy.‬

‭Historical Relations Between India‬

‭and China:‬
‭●‬ ‭Silk Route:‬
‭○‬ ‭Cultural ties and Buddhism‬
‭spread through the Silk Route.‬
‭○‬ ‭The Silk Route is a‬‭trade route‬
‭that is about‬‭2000 km long and‬
‭links East and North East‬

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 ‭India with‬‭the Yunnan Province of‬‭China via Myanmar.‬
‭●‬ ‭Dynastic Relations:‬
‭○‬ ‭Dynasties like‬‭Chola and Chalukya‬‭maintained good‬‭relations with China.‬
‭●‬ ‭During British Period:‬
‭○‬ ‭Treaty of Nanking:‬‭During the British era, the‬‭struggle‬‭against opium‬‭changed‬
‭the dynamics. The British took control of some of the Chine’s area and conquered‬
‭Hongkong‬‭(Treaty of Nanking).‬
‭■‬ ‭Treaty of Nanking, (August 29, 1842)‬‭ended the first Opium War‬‭. It was‬
‭the first of the unequal treaties between China and foreign imperialist‬
‭powers, mainly Britain.‬
‭○‬ ‭Tibet Crisis:‬‭Both China and Britain had never clarified‬‭in their treaties that Tibet‬
‭was an independent nation. The‬‭Sikkim-Tibet Convention‬‭of 1890 gave control of‬
‭Tibet to China.‬‭In 1910 China took total control of‬‭Tibet.‬
‭○‬ ‭Mcmahon Line Issue:‬‭The British and China finalized‬‭the‬‭Mcmahon line on March‬
‭24, 1914.‬‭Under the finalization,‬‭Tawang was decided‬‭as part of India and the‬
‭northern point of Tawang will be‬
‭the border.‬‭Hence, this border was‬
‭demarcated as‬‭the‬‭‘McMahon Line’.‬
‭This is the‬‭eastern sector of the‬
‭Indo-China border‬‭(the Shimla‬
‭agreement of 1914 gave birth to it).‬
‭But over time,‬‭China claimed‬‭it as‬
‭an illegal border and claimed the‬
‭South of Tawang happens to be the border between India and China.‬

‭Post-Independence Relations:‬
‭Panchsheel Agreement (1954)‬‭: Five guiding principles‬‭that outline the policy of peaceful‬
‭coexistence between India and China:‬
‭●‬ ‭Mutual Respect‬‭: Respect for each other's territorial‬‭integrity and sovereignty.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mutual Non-Aggression‬‭: No aggressive action against‬‭each other.‬
‭●‬ ‭Non-Interference‬‭: No interference in each other's‬‭internal affairs.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Equality and Mutual Benefit‬‭: Adherence to the policy of equality and mutual benefit.‬
‭●‬ ‭Peaceful Coexistence‬‭: Commitment to the policy of‬‭peaceful coexistence.‬

‭Indo-Sino War, 1962:‬

‭●‬ ‭Causes of War:‬
‭○‬ ‭Western sector:‬‭Boundary dispute between India-China‬‭on‬‭Aksai Chin region.‬
‭○‬ ‭Eastern sector:‬‭Boundary dispute in‬‭Arunachal Pradesh.‬‭Here the dispute is‬
‭related to‬‭Mcmahon Line,‬‭in which China claims Arunachal‬‭to be part of Tibet.‬
‭○‬ ‭India granted asylum to‬‭24 Dalai lamas in 1959.‬
‭○‬ ‭India’s forward policy between 1960-1962‬‭created apprehension‬‭that India is‬
‭trying to capture the Tibetan region.‬
‭All these four factors resulted in a‬‭full fledged‬‭war in 1962‬‭where‬‭Chinese forces‬
‭captured part of eastern Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh.‬
‭●‬ ‭After the war:‬
‭○‬ ‭Though after the war,‬‭China retracted from NEFA (North-Eastern‬‭Frontier‬
‭Agency)‬‭region but it is‬‭still occupying the Aksai‬‭Chin area.‬

‭Issue Over Aksai Chin:‬

‭●‬ ‭Aksai Chin is an‬‭inhabitable piece of land‬
‭only used for trade‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭India claims it to be an extension of‬
‭Ladakh, whereas China claims it to be part‬
‭of Xinxiang.‬
‭●‬ ‭India claims the‬‭Johnson Line‬‭drawn by‬
‭Britishers as a borderline, whereas China‬
‭claims the‬‭McCartney McDonald line‬‭as a‬
‭borderline.‬
‭●‬ ‭After the 1962 war, China took control of a‬
‭sizable part of Aksai Chin, and as a result,‬
‭LAC (Line of Actual Control) became the‬

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‭de facto border.‬‭This is now the actual border between India and China in the Ladakh‬
‭region.‬

‭Aksai Chin:‬
‭●‬ ‭Because of its 5,000-meter (16,000 ft) elevation, the desolation of Aksai Chin‬
‭meant that it had no human importance other than as an‬‭ancient trade route,‬
‭which provided a temporary pass during summer for caravans of yaks between‬
‭Xinjiang and Tibet‬
‭●‬ ‭For‬‭military campaigns,‬‭the region held great importance,‬‭as it was on the only‬
‭route from the Tarim Basin to Tibet that was passable all year round. The‬
‭Dzungar Khanate used this route to enter Tibet in 1717.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 12: India, Myanmar, Afghanistan And‬
‭Maldives‬

‭India-Myanmar Relations‬
‭●‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭share‬ ‭a‬ ‭multifaceted‬ ‭relationship‬ ‭that‬ ‭blends‬ ‭business,‬ ‭culture,‬ ‭and‬
‭diplomacy, creating a strong and enduring connection between the two countries.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭"five‬ ‭Bs"—Buddhism,‬ ‭Business,‬ ‭Bollywood,‬ ‭Bharatnatyam,‬ ‭and‬ ‭Burma‬
‭teak—‬‭encapsulate‬ ‭the‬ ‭rich‬ ‭and‬ ‭diverse‬ ‭nature‬ ‭of‬ ‭India-Myanmar‬ ‭relations‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬‭popular‬
‭imagination.‬

‭Why Myanmar Is Important For India‬

‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Importance of Myanmar to India‬
‭○‬ ‭Gateway to Southeast Asia:‬
‭■‬ ‭Connectivity:‬‭Myanmar‬‭serves‬‭as‬‭a‬‭crucial‬‭land‬‭bridge‬‭linking‬‭South‬‭Asia‬‭to‬
‭Southeast‬‭Asia.‬‭Its‬‭proximity‬‭to‬‭India’s‬‭northeastern‬‭states‬‭creates‬‭strategic‬
‭opportunities‬‭for‬‭enhancing‬‭regional‬‭connectivity.‬‭The‬‭countries‬‭have‬‭a‬‭long‬
‭shared‬‭land‬‭border‬‭of‬‭1,624‬‭kilometers‬‭and‬‭a‬‭725-km‬‭maritime‬‭boundary‬‭in‬
‭the Bay of Bengal.‬
‭■‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭and‬ ‭Strategic‬ ‭Link:‬ ‭By‬‭fostering‬‭connections‬‭through‬‭Myanmar,‬
‭India‬ ‭can‬ ‭facilitate‬ ‭economic‬ ‭exchanges‬ ‭and‬‭strengthen‬‭strategic‬‭ties‬‭with‬
‭Southeast Asian countries.‬
‭○‬ ‭Bay of Bengal Connectivity:‬
‭■‬ ‭Maritime‬‭Cooperation:‬‭The‬‭shared‬‭maritime‬‭boundary‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Bay‬‭of‬‭Bengal‬
‭presents‬ ‭significant‬ ‭opportunities‬ ‭for‬ ‭maritime‬ ‭cooperation.‬ ‭This‬ ‭enhances‬
‭economic‬ ‭collaboration‬ ‭and‬ ‭strengthens‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭partnerships‬ ‭between‬‭the‬
‭two nations.‬
‭■‬ ‭Trade‬ ‭Routes:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Bay‬ ‭of‬ ‭Bengal‬ ‭is‬ ‭pivotal‬ ‭for‬ ‭trade‬ ‭routes,‬ ‭and‬
‭collaboration‬ ‭in‬ ‭this‬ ‭region‬ ‭can‬ ‭bolster‬ ‭economic‬ ‭growth‬ ‭and‬ ‭security‬
‭interests for both India and Myanmar.‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭Regional Power Balancing:‬
‭■‬ ‭Counterbalance‬ ‭to‬ ‭China:‬‭Engaging‬‭proactively‬‭with‬‭Myanmar‬‭allows‬‭India‬
‭to‬ ‭counterbalance‬ ‭China's‬ ‭expanding‬ ‭influence‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭region.‬ ‭This‬ ‭helps‬
‭maintain‬ ‭regional‬‭stability‬‭and‬‭ensures‬‭that‬‭no‬‭single‬‭power‬‭dominates‬‭the‬
‭strategic landscape of Southeast Asia.‬
‭■‬ ‭Strategic‬‭Alliances:‬‭Strengthening‬‭ties‬‭with‬‭Myanmar‬‭aids‬‭India‬‭in‬‭forming‬
‭strategic‬ ‭alliances‬ ‭that‬ ‭contribute‬ ‭to‬ ‭regional‬ ‭security‬ ‭and‬ ‭economic‬
‭stability.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Significance of Myanmar to India‬
‭○‬ ‭Strategically Significant Neighbourhood:‬
‭■‬ ‭Multi-ethnic‬ ‭Nation:‬ ‭Myanmar’s‬ ‭diverse‬ ‭ethnic‬ ‭composition‬ ‭and‬ ‭strategic‬
‭location‬‭mean‬‭that‬‭its‬‭internal‬‭developments‬‭have‬‭significant‬‭impacts‬‭on‬‭its‬
‭five neighboring countries: China, Laos, Thailand, Bangladesh, and India.‬
‭■‬ ‭Regional‬‭Stability:‬‭Stability‬‭in‬‭Myanmar‬‭is‬‭essential‬‭for‬‭the‬‭overall‬‭stability‬
‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭region,‬ ‭influencing‬
‭political‬ ‭and‬ ‭economic‬
‭dynamics‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭neighboring‬
‭countries.‬
‭○‬ ‭Neighbourhood First Policy:‬
‭■‬ ‭Robust‬ ‭Relations:‬ ‭Under‬
‭India’s‬ ‭"Neighborhood‬ ‭First"‬
‭policy,‬ ‭fostering‬ ‭a‬ ‭strong‬‭and‬
‭cooperative‬ ‭relationship‬ ‭with‬
‭Myanmar‬ ‭is‬ ‭crucial.‬ ‭This‬
‭approach‬ ‭emphasizes‬ ‭mutual‬
‭benefits‬ ‭and‬ ‭regional‬
‭harmony.‬
‭■‬ ‭Collaborative‬ ‭Initiatives:‬
‭Strengthening‬ ‭ties‬ ‭with‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭aligns‬ ‭with‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭broader‬ ‭regional‬
‭strategy‬ ‭of‬ ‭ensuring‬ ‭peaceful‬ ‭and‬ ‭collaborative‬ ‭relations‬ ‭with‬ ‭all‬ ‭its‬
‭neighbors.‬
‭○‬ ‭Act East Policy:‬

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 ‭■‬ ‭Key‬‭Component:‬‭Myanmar‬‭is‬‭integral‬‭to‬‭India’s‬‭Act‬‭East‬‭Policy,‬‭which‬‭aims‬
‭at‬ ‭enhancing‬ ‭economic,‬ ‭strategic,‬ ‭and‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭relations‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬
‭Asia-Pacific region.‬
‭■‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭and‬ ‭Strategic‬ ‭Integration:‬ ‭Engaging‬ ‭with‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭helps‬ ‭India‬
‭integrate‬ ‭more‬ ‭deeply‬ ‭with‬ ‭Southeast‬ ‭Asian‬ ‭economies‬ ‭and‬ ‭enhances‬ ‭its‬
‭strategic presence in the Asia-Pacific.‬
‭○‬ ‭Multilateral Engagement:‬
‭■‬ ‭Regional‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭Myanmar’s‬ ‭participation‬ ‭in‬ ‭regional‬ ‭organizations‬
‭such‬‭as‬‭SAARC,‬‭ASEAN,‬‭BIMSTEC,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Mekong‬‭Ganga‬‭Cooperation‬‭adds‬
‭a regional dimension to its bilateral relations with India.‬
‭■‬ ‭Enhanced‬ ‭Significance:‬ ‭These‬ ‭multilateral‬ ‭platforms‬ ‭amplify‬ ‭Myanmar’s‬
‭significance‬ ‭in‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭Act‬ ‭East‬ ‭policy,‬ ‭promoting‬ ‭regional‬ ‭cooperation‬ ‭and‬
‭collective development initiatives.‬

‭India’s Stand On The Coup‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭situation‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar,‬ ‭with‬ ‭its‬ ‭ongoing‬ ‭military‬ ‭repression‬ ‭following‬ ‭the‬ ‭coup‬ ‭in‬
‭February 2021, continues to pose both‬‭humanitarian‬‭and geopolitical challenges.‬
‭●‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭foreign‬ ‭policy‬ ‭towards‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭notably‬ ‭pragmatic,‬ ‭prioritizing‬ ‭national‬
‭security‬ ‭and‬ ‭economic‬ ‭interests,‬ ‭even‬ ‭as‬ ‭Myanmar’s‬ ‭military‬ ‭regime‬ ‭has‬ ‭committed‬
‭widespread atrocities, including the displacement and deaths of thousands of its citizens.‬
‭●‬ ‭Despite‬‭these‬‭actions‬‭by‬‭Myanmar's‬‭military,‬‭India‬‭has‬‭maintained‬‭formal‬‭relations‬‭with‬
‭the‬ ‭junta‬‭,‬ ‭largely‬ ‭out‬ ‭of‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭concerns,‬ ‭especially‬ ‭regarding‬ ‭its‬ ‭own‬‭security‬‭and‬‭its‬
‭role in countering insurgencies from groups operating in Myanmar's border regions.‬
‭●‬ ‭However,‬‭this‬‭approach‬‭has‬‭led‬‭to‬‭criticisms,‬‭particularly‬‭given‬‭the‬‭human‬‭rights‬‭violations‬
‭taking place under the junta.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭policy‬ ‭has‬ ‭also‬ ‭seen‬ ‭little‬ ‭engagement‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭pro-democracy‬ ‭forces,‬ ‭including‬ ‭the‬
‭National‬ ‭Unity‬ ‭Government‬ ‭(NUG)‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭People’s‬ ‭Defense‬ ‭Forces‬ ‭(PDF),‬ ‭which‬ ‭now‬
‭have both political and military wings opposing the junta.‬
‭A Progressive, Values-Driven Policy‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬ ‭response‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭ongoing‬ ‭crisis‬ ‭and‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭need‬ ‭to‬ ‭recalibrate‬ ‭its‬‭approach,‬‭there‬‭is‬‭a‬
‭compelling‬ ‭case‬ ‭for‬ ‭India‬ ‭to‬ ‭adopt‬ ‭a‬ ‭policy‬ ‭that‬ ‭balances‬ ‭its‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭interests‬ ‭with‬ ‭a‬
‭stronger commitment to democratic values and human security.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭While‬‭strategic‬‭interests‬‭have‬‭historically‬‭dominated‬‭India’s‬‭Myanmar‬‭policy,‬‭India‬‭now‬‭has‬
‭an‬ ‭opportunity‬ ‭to‬ ‭align‬ ‭its‬ ‭foreign‬ ‭policy‬ ‭with‬ ‭democratic‬ ‭ideals‬ ‭without‬ ‭sacrificing‬ ‭its‬
‭security goals.‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬ ‭can‬‭be‬‭done‬‭by‬‭reframing‬‭"interests"‬‭in‬‭a‬‭broader,‬‭more‬‭values-oriented‬‭context‬‭that‬
‭could serve both India’s long-term regional stability and global reputation.‬
‭Key Steps for India‬
‭●‬ ‭Engage‬ ‭with‬ ‭Myanmar’s‬ ‭Pro-Democracy‬ ‭Resistance:‬ ‭India‬ ‭can‬ ‭begin‬ ‭by‬ ‭actively‬
‭supporting‬‭the‬‭pro-democracy‬‭movements‬‭in‬‭Myanmar,‬‭which‬‭include‬‭the‬‭NUG,‬‭CDM‬‭(Civil‬
‭Disobedience‬ ‭Movement),‬ ‭and‬‭PDF.‬‭These‬‭groups‬‭are‬‭engaged‬‭in‬‭a‬‭struggle‬‭for‬‭democracy‬
‭and‬ ‭human‬ ‭rights‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar,‬ ‭and‬ ‭India's‬ ‭engagement‬ ‭with‬ ‭them‬ ‭could‬ ‭help‬ ‭foster‬
‭goodwill‬‭among‬‭the‬‭Myanmar‬‭population,‬‭potentially‬‭positioning‬‭India‬‭as‬‭a‬‭key‬‭player‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭country's post-coup future.‬
‭●‬ ‭Prioritize‬‭Human‬‭Security:‬‭Beyond‬‭traditional‬‭security‬‭concerns,‬‭India’s‬‭policy‬‭should‬‭focus‬
‭more‬ ‭on‬ ‭human‬ ‭security.‬ ‭This‬ ‭means‬ ‭prioritizing‬ ‭the‬ ‭protection‬ ‭of‬ ‭civilians‬ ‭and‬‭refugees,‬
‭many‬ ‭of‬ ‭whom‬ ‭have‬ ‭fled‬ ‭to‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭northeastern‬ ‭states.‬ ‭India‬ ‭can‬ ‭offer‬ ‭humanitarian‬
‭assistance‬ ‭and‬‭work‬‭with‬‭international‬‭organizations‬‭to‬‭ensure‬‭that‬‭these‬‭refugees‬‭receive‬
‭adequate support, which can also reduce local tensions in India’s border states.‬
‭●‬ ‭Press‬‭for‬‭a‬‭Peaceful,‬‭Inclusive‬‭Federal‬‭Democracy:‬‭India‬‭can‬‭use‬‭its‬‭diplomatic‬‭influence‬
‭to‬ ‭advocate‬ ‭for‬ ‭a‬‭peaceful‬‭resolution‬‭of‬‭Myanmar’s‬‭civil‬‭conflict,‬‭encouraging‬‭the‬‭junta‬‭to‬
‭engage‬ ‭in‬ ‭dialogue‬ ‭with‬ ‭ethnic‬ ‭armed‬ ‭organizations‬ ‭(EAOs)‬ ‭and‬ ‭democratic‬ ‭forces.‬
‭Supporting‬ ‭a‬ ‭democratic‬ ‭transition‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭aligns‬ ‭with‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭long-term‬ ‭goals‬ ‭of‬
‭stability‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭region‬ ‭and‬ ‭could‬ ‭prevent‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭from‬ ‭becoming‬ ‭a‬ ‭pawn‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬
‭Sino-Myanmar relationship.‬
‭●‬ ‭Reframe‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭"Interests"‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar:‬ ‭India‬ ‭needs‬ ‭to‬ ‭broaden‬ ‭its‬ ‭definition‬ ‭of‬
‭"interests"‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar.‬‭The‬‭current‬‭focus‬‭on‬‭counterinsurgency‬‭and‬‭strategic‬‭partnerships‬
‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭military‬ ‭junta‬ ‭overlooks‬ ‭the‬ ‭long-term‬ ‭benefits‬ ‭of‬ ‭promoting‬ ‭peace,‬ ‭democracy,‬
‭and‬ ‭regional‬ ‭stability.‬‭By‬‭supporting‬‭a‬‭democratic‬‭Myanmar,‬‭India‬‭not‬‭only‬‭ensures‬‭better‬
‭relations‬ ‭with‬ ‭its‬ ‭neighbors‬ ‭but‬ ‭also‬ ‭strengthens‬ ‭its‬ ‭credibility‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭regional‬ ‭power‬
‭committed to values of democracy and human rights.‬

‭Areas of Collaborative Cooperation between India and Myanmar‬

‭●‬ ‭Bilateral‬ ‭Trade:‬ ‭India‬ ‭is‬ ‭Myanmar's‬ ‭fifth-largest‬ ‭trading‬ ‭partner,‬ ‭with‬ ‭bilateral‬ ‭trade‬

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 ‭amounting‬‭to‬‭USD‬‭1.03‬‭billion‬‭in‬‭2021-22.‬‭Efforts‬‭are‬‭underway‬‭to‬‭boost‬‭trade,‬‭focusing‬‭on‬
‭sectors‬ ‭like‬ ‭agriculture,‬ ‭pharmaceuticals,‬ ‭information‬ ‭technology,‬ ‭and‬ ‭energy,‬ ‭creating‬
‭economic opportunities for industries in both countries.‬
‭●‬ ‭Energy‬‭Cooperation:‬‭With‬‭an‬‭energy‬‭investment‬‭portfolio‬‭of‬‭over‬‭USD‬‭1.2‬‭billion,‬‭Myanmar‬
‭is‬ ‭the‬‭largest‬‭recipient‬‭of‬‭India's‬‭investments‬‭in‬‭the‬‭oil‬‭and‬‭gas‬‭sector‬‭in‬‭Southeast‬‭Asia.‬
‭This cooperation is critical for India's energy security, ensuring a steady supply of resources.‬
‭●‬ ‭Infrastructure Investment:‬
‭○‬ ‭Kaladan‬ ‭Multimodal‬ ‭Transit‬ ‭Transport‬ ‭Project:‬ ‭This‬ ‭project‬ ‭aims‬ ‭to‬ ‭connect‬
‭Kolkata‬ ‭seaport‬ ‭in‬ ‭eastern‬ ‭India‬ ‭with‬ ‭Sittwe‬ ‭port‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭by‬ ‭sea,‬ ‭enhancing‬
‭regional connectivity.‬
‭○‬ ‭Sittwe‬‭Port:‬‭Part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Kaladan‬‭project,‬‭this‬‭port‬‭is‬‭crucial‬‭for‬‭boosting‬‭trade‬‭and‬
‭investment between the two nations.‬
‭○‬ ‭India-Myanmar-Thailand‬ ‭Trilateral‬ ‭Highway‬ ‭Project:‬ ‭A‬ ‭road‬ ‭link‬ ‭beginning‬ ‭in‬
‭Moreh,‬ ‭Manipur‬ ‭(India),‬ ‭passing‬ ‭through‬ ‭Myanmar,‬ ‭and‬ ‭ending‬ ‭in‬ ‭Mae‬ ‭Sot,‬
‭Thailand,‬ ‭to‬ ‭facilitate‬ ‭seamless‬ ‭transportation‬ ‭and‬ ‭commerce‬ ‭across‬ ‭the‬ ‭three‬
‭countries.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Defense Partnership:‬
‭○‬ ‭Defense‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭maintain‬ ‭a‬ ‭close‬ ‭defense‬ ‭relationship,‬
‭with‬ ‭India‬ ‭providing‬ ‭military‬ ‭training‬ ‭and‬ ‭conducting‬ ‭joint‬ ‭exercises‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬
‭Myanmar Army.‬
‭○‬ ‭IMBAX:‬ ‭The‬ ‭India-Myanmar‬ ‭Bilateral‬ ‭Army‬ ‭Exercise‬ ‭aims‬ ‭to‬ ‭build‬ ‭and‬ ‭promote‬
‭closer relations between the armies of the two nations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Developmental‬ ‭Assistance:‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭extended‬ ‭USD‬ ‭2‬ ‭billion‬ ‭in‬ ‭soft‬ ‭loans‬ ‭and‬ ‭offers‬
‭developmental assistance tailored to Myanmar's needs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Higher‬ ‭Education‬ ‭and‬ ‭Research:‬ ‭Support‬ ‭for‬ ‭establishing‬ ‭institutions‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭Myanmar‬
‭Institute‬‭of‬‭Information‬‭Technology‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Advanced‬‭Centre‬‭for‬‭Agricultural‬‭Research‬‭and‬
‭Education.‬
‭●‬ ‭Disaster‬ ‭Risk‬ ‭Mitigation:‬ ‭India‬ ‭provides‬ ‭capacity-building‬ ‭support‬ ‭in‬ ‭disaster‬ ‭risk‬
‭mitigation and strengthening Myanmar's National Disaster Response Mechanism.‬
‭●‬ ‭Crisis‬ ‭Response:‬ ‭India's‬ ‭humanitarian‬ ‭aid‬ ‭to‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭during‬ ‭crises,‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬
‭COVID-19-related assistance, reflects strong bilateral relations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Disaster‬‭Relief:‬‭India‬‭has‬‭promptly‬‭responded‬‭to‬‭natural‬‭calamities‬‭in‬‭Myanmar,‬‭including‬

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 ‭Cyclone Mora (2017), Komen (2015), and the earthquake in Shan State (2010).‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural‬ ‭and‬ ‭Historical‬ ‭Ties:‬ ‭Shared‬ ‭Buddhist‬ ‭heritage‬ ‭and‬ ‭colonial‬ ‭history‬ ‭form‬ ‭a‬
‭foundation for strong diplomatic relations and mutual understanding.‬
‭●‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Diaspora:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Indian-origin‬ ‭population‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭constitutes‬ ‭about‬ ‭4%‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬
‭total‬‭population,‬‭significantly‬‭contributing‬‭to‬‭Myanmar's‬‭economy‬‭through‬‭business‬‭ventures,‬
‭trade, and investments.‬

‭Inverted Approach/ Policy Spin/ Twin Track Approach‬

‭●‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭twin-track‬ ‭approach‬ ‭to‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭engaging‬ ‭both‬ ‭the‬ ‭military‬ ‭junta‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬
‭democratic‬ ‭forces—places‬ ‭New‬ ‭Delhi‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭strategically‬ ‭advantageous‬ ‭position,‬ ‭especially‬
‭given‬‭its‬‭significant‬‭security‬‭and‬‭economic‬‭interests‬‭in‬‭the‬‭neighboring‬‭country,‬‭where‬‭the‬
‭military has recently returned to power.‬
‭●‬ ‭Support‬ ‭for‬ ‭Democracy:‬ ‭India,‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭vibrant‬ ‭democracy,‬ ‭historically‬ ‭supported‬ ‭Myanmar's‬
‭democratic‬ ‭transition,‬ ‭notably‬ ‭its‬ ‭ties‬ ‭with‬ ‭Aung‬ ‭San‬ ‭Suu‬ ‭Kyi.‬ ‭India‬ ‭had‬ ‭been‬ ‭a‬ ‭vocal‬
‭advocate‬ ‭for‬ ‭democratic‬ ‭reforms‬ ‭and‬ ‭peaceful‬ ‭governance‬‭in‬‭Myanmar,‬‭reflecting‬‭a‬‭strong‬
‭bond rooted in shared democratic values.‬
‭●‬ ‭Engagement‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭Military:‬ ‭Simultaneously,‬ ‭India‬ ‭had‬ ‭built‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭relations‬ ‭with‬
‭Myanmar's‬ ‭military‬ ‭over‬ ‭the‬ ‭past‬ ‭two‬ ‭decades,‬ ‭driven‬ ‭by‬ ‭geopolitical‬ ‭and‬ ‭security‬
‭considerations,‬‭particularly‬‭in‬‭relation‬‭to‬‭cross-border‬‭insurgency‬‭and‬‭regional‬‭stability.‬‭This‬
‭dual engagement is part of India's larger security calculus in Southeast Asia.‬
‭●‬ ‭Joint‬ ‭Military‬ ‭and‬ ‭Diplomatic‬ ‭Engagement:‬ ‭A‬ ‭key‬‭example‬‭of‬‭this‬‭approach‬‭is‬‭the‬‭joint‬
‭visit‬ ‭by‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭Foreign‬ ‭Secretary‬ ‭and‬ ‭Army‬ ‭Chief‬ ‭to‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭in‬ ‭October‬ ‭2023,‬
‭highlighting‬ ‭the‬ ‭balance‬ ‭between‬ ‭maintaining‬ ‭diplomatic‬ ‭relations‬ ‭with‬ ‭Myanmar's‬
‭democratic forces and strengthening military ties.‬
‭Security and Economic Stakes:‬
‭●‬ ‭Security‬‭Interests:‬‭India’s‬‭military‬‭ties‬‭with‬‭Myanmar‬‭are‬‭crucial,‬‭particularly‬‭in‬‭combating‬
‭cross-border‬ ‭insurgencies‬ ‭that‬ ‭affect‬ ‭both‬ ‭countries.‬ ‭This‬ ‭longstanding‬ ‭cooperation‬ ‭has‬
‭bolstered India’s border security and counter-insurgency operations in northeastern India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Connectivity‬ ‭Initiatives:‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭investment‬ ‭in‬ ‭infrastructure‬ ‭projects‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭Kaladan‬
‭Multimodal‬‭Transit‬‭Transport‬‭Project‬‭and‬‭the‬‭India-Myanmar-Thailand‬‭Trilateral‬‭Highway‬‭is‬
‭vital for linking Southeast Asia with India, enhancing trade and strategic connectivity.‬
‭○‬ ‭These‬ ‭projects‬ ‭are‬ ‭of‬ ‭immense‬ ‭importance,‬ ‭especially‬ ‭given‬ ‭Myanmar’s‬ ‭key‬

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 ‭geographic position as a gateway to Southeast Asia.‬

‭Rohingya Issue‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭crisis‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭a‬ ‭long-standing‬ ‭humanitarian‬ ‭and‬ ‭geopolitical‬ ‭issue‬ ‭with‬
‭far-reaching‬ ‭implications,‬ ‭particularly‬ ‭for‬ ‭India,‬ ‭which‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭significantly‬ ‭impacted‬ ‭by‬
‭the crisis both in terms of its regional security and its international standing.‬
‭Historical Background of the Rohingya:‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭are‬ ‭an‬ ‭Indo-Aryan‬ ‭Muslim‬ ‭minority‬ ‭group‬ ‭that‬ ‭has‬ ‭lived‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar’s‬
‭Rakhine‬‭State‬‭(formerly‬‭known‬‭as‬‭Arakan)‬‭for‬‭centuries,‬‭with‬‭some‬‭accounts‬‭suggesting‬
‭their‬ ‭settlement‬ ‭since‬ ‭the‬ ‭15th‬ ‭century.‬ ‭They‬ ‭are‬ ‭ethnically‬ ‭distinct‬ ‭from‬ ‭the‬ ‭majority‬
‭Burmese‬ ‭population,‬ ‭and‬ ‭their‬ ‭history‬ ‭in‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭is‬ ‭marked‬ ‭by‬ ‭periods‬ ‭of‬ ‭migratory‬
‭influx—both pre-colonial and colonial.‬
‭●‬ ‭However,‬‭the‬‭Myanmar‬‭government‬‭refuses‬‭to‬‭recognize‬‭the‬‭Rohingya‬‭as‬‭indigenous‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭region,‬‭labeling‬‭them‬‭as‬‭illegal‬‭immigrants,‬‭and‬‭often‬‭identifying‬‭them‬‭as‬‭Bengali‬‭migrants‬
‭who arrived post-Burmese independence and after the Bangladesh Liberation War.‬
‭The Rohingya Crisis Timeline‬
‭●‬ ‭2012‬ ‭Crisis:‬ ‭The‬ ‭first‬ ‭major‬ ‭outbreak‬ ‭of‬ ‭violence‬ ‭occurred‬ ‭in‬ ‭June‬ ‭2012,‬ ‭when‬ ‭tensions‬
‭erupted‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rakhine‬ ‭Buddhists‬ ‭and‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭Muslims‬ ‭in‬‭northern‬‭Rakhine.‬‭This‬
‭resulted‬ ‭in‬ ‭violence,‬ ‭including‬ ‭killings,‬ ‭rape,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭burning‬‭of‬‭homes.‬‭Around‬‭88‬‭deaths‬
‭were reported, and 90,000 people were displaced.‬
‭●‬ ‭2015‬ ‭Exodus:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭government‬ ‭implemented‬ ‭measures‬ ‭that‬ ‭further‬ ‭isolated‬ ‭the‬
‭Rohingya,‬ ‭including‬ ‭restrictions‬ ‭on‬ ‭their‬ ‭movement‬ ‭and‬ ‭rights.‬ ‭This‬ ‭caused‬ ‭thousands‬ ‭of‬
‭Rohingyas‬ ‭to‬ ‭flee‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭in‬ ‭rickety‬ ‭boats,‬ ‭seeking‬ ‭refuge‬ ‭in‬ ‭countries‬ ‭like‬‭Bangladesh,‬
‭Malaysia,‬‭and‬‭Thailand.‬‭Approximately‬‭25,000‬‭Rohingyas‬‭fled‬‭during‬‭the‬‭first‬‭few‬‭months‬‭of‬
‭2015.‬
‭●‬ ‭2016-2017‬‭Military‬‭Crackdown:‬‭The‬‭most‬‭severe‬‭phase‬‭of‬‭the‬‭crisis‬‭occurred‬‭in‬‭late‬‭2016‬
‭and‬ ‭2017,‬ ‭when‬ ‭Myanmar’s‬ ‭military‬ ‭began‬ ‭a‬ ‭brutal‬ ‭crackdown‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rohingya.‬ ‭This‬
‭military‬ ‭operation,‬ ‭referred‬ ‭to‬ ‭as‬ ‭clearance‬ ‭operations,‬ ‭led‬ ‭to‬ ‭widespread‬ ‭violence—rape,‬
‭killings,‬‭and‬‭burning‬‭of‬‭villages.‬‭By‬‭the‬‭end‬‭of‬‭2017,‬‭nearly‬‭900,000‬‭Rohingya‬‭refugees‬‭had‬
‭fled to Bangladesh, adding to the already existing refugee population.‬
‭Legal Status of Rohingyas‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭government‬ ‭has‬ ‭long‬ ‭denied‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rohingyas‬ ‭citizenship,‬ ‭rendering‬ ‭them‬

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 ‭stateless.‬
‭●‬ ‭Although‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rohingyas‬ ‭were‬ ‭previously‬ ‭allowed‬ ‭to‬ ‭register‬ ‭for‬ ‭temporary‬ ‭residency‬ ‭with‬
‭white‬‭cards‬‭(issued‬‭in‬‭the‬‭1990s),‬‭these‬‭cards‬‭were‬‭revoked‬‭in‬‭2015,‬‭further‬‭stripping‬‭them‬
‭of their rights, including the right to vote.‬
‭Global and Regional Responses‬
‭●‬ ‭United‬ ‭Nations:‬ ‭In‬ ‭August‬ ‭2016,‬ ‭the‬ ‭UN‬ ‭established‬ ‭a‬‭commission‬‭led‬‭by‬‭Kofi‬‭Annan‬‭to‬
‭propose‬ ‭solutions‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭crisis.‬ ‭The‬ ‭commission's‬ ‭report‬‭recommended‬‭measures‬‭to‬‭reduce‬
‭communal‬ ‭tensions‬ ‭and‬ ‭improve‬ ‭living‬ ‭conditions‬ ‭in‬ ‭Rakhine‬ ‭State,‬ ‭but‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭largely‬
‭ignored‬‭these‬‭recommendations.‬‭The‬‭UN‬‭High‬‭Commissioner‬‭for‬‭Human‬‭Rights‬‭and‬‭UNHCR‬
‭have repeatedly called the violence against the Rohingya a genocide.‬
‭●‬ ‭ASEAN:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Association‬ ‭of‬ ‭Southeast‬ ‭Asian‬ ‭Nations‬ ‭(ASEAN)‬‭has‬‭been‬‭criticized‬‭for‬‭its‬
‭lack‬ ‭of‬ ‭action‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭crisis,‬ ‭with‬ ‭member‬ ‭states‬ ‭like‬ ‭Malaysia,‬ ‭Indonesia,‬ ‭and‬
‭Thailand‬ ‭offering‬ ‭temporary‬ ‭refuge‬ ‭to‬ ‭some‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭refugees,‬ ‭though‬ ‭no‬ ‭coordinated‬
‭regional solution has been reached.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bangladesh:‬ ‭Bangladesh‬ ‭hosts‬ ‭over‬ ‭1‬ ‭million‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭refugees‬ ‭in‬ ‭camps‬ ‭near‬ ‭the‬
‭Myanmar‬ ‭border.‬ ‭The‬ ‭country‬ ‭has‬ ‭faced‬ ‭considerable‬ ‭strain‬ ‭due‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭large‬ ‭influx‬ ‭of‬
‭refugees,‬ ‭leading‬ ‭to‬ ‭plans‬ ‭to‬ ‭relocate‬ ‭some‬ ‭refugees‬ ‭to‬ ‭remote‬ ‭islands,‬ ‭which‬ ‭has‬ ‭raised‬
‭concerns about their safety and rights.‬
‭●‬ ‭United‬ ‭States:‬ ‭The‬ ‭U.S.‬ ‭State‬ ‭Department‬ ‭has‬ ‭expressed‬ ‭willingness‬ ‭to‬ ‭accept‬‭Rohingya‬
‭refugees,‬ ‭as‬ ‭part‬ ‭of‬ ‭its‬ ‭broader‬ ‭commitment‬ ‭to‬ ‭global‬ ‭refugee‬ ‭resettlement‬ ‭efforts.‬
‭Chicago, for instance, is home to one of the largest Rohingya populations in the U.S.‬
‭India’s Response‬
‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭a‬ ‭destination‬ ‭country‬ ‭for‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭refugees,‬ ‭with‬ ‭approximately‬ ‭40,000‬‭currently‬
‭living‬‭in‬‭the‬‭country,‬‭particularly‬‭in‬‭states‬‭like‬‭Jammu‬‭and‬‭Kashmir,‬‭Hyderabad,‬‭and‬‭Delhi.‬‭India’s‬
‭response to the Rohingya crisis has been nuanced:‬
‭●‬ ‭Humanitarian‬‭Response:‬‭India‬‭has‬‭provided‬‭aid‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Rohingyas,‬‭including‬‭relief‬‭donations‬
‭(such‬ ‭as‬‭the‬‭$1‬‭million‬‭donation‬‭to‬‭Myanmar‬‭in‬‭2012)‬‭and‬‭has‬‭hosted‬‭Rohingya‬‭refugees‬
‭who sought refuge in India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Deportation‬ ‭Plans:‬ ‭Despite‬ ‭this,‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭faced‬ ‭internal‬ ‭pressure‬ ‭over‬ ‭its‬ ‭stance‬ ‭on‬
‭Rohingya‬ ‭refugees.‬ ‭The‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭government‬ ‭has‬ ‭contemplated‬ ‭the‬ ‭deportation‬ ‭of‬
‭approximately‬ ‭40,000‬ ‭Rohingyas.‬ ‭The‬ ‭Union‬ ‭Minister‬ ‭for‬ ‭Home‬ ‭Affairs,‬ ‭in‬ ‭response‬ ‭to‬
‭queries in 2017, outlined a plan to deport Rohingyas, citing them as illegal immigrants.‬

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 ‭●‬ ‭Legal‬ ‭Issues:‬ ‭India‬ ‭is‬ ‭not‬ ‭a‬ ‭signatory‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭UN‬ ‭Refugee‬ ‭Convention,‬ ‭making‬ ‭it‬ ‭legally‬
‭easier‬‭for‬‭the‬‭government‬‭to‬‭deport‬‭refugees,‬‭even‬‭those‬‭with‬‭UNHCR‬‭cards.‬‭This‬‭has‬‭led‬
‭to‬ ‭widespread‬ ‭humanitarian‬ ‭concerns,‬ ‭as‬ ‭sending‬ ‭refugees‬ ‭back‬ ‭to‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭would‬ ‭put‬
‭them at risk of persecution.‬
‭India’s Strategic and Ethical Dilemmas‬
‭●‬ ‭Ethical‬ ‭Considerations:‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭historically‬ ‭welcomed‬ ‭refugees‬ ‭from‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lanka,‬ ‭Tibet,‬
‭Afghanistan,‬ ‭and‬ ‭Pakistan,‬ ‭and‬ ‭this‬ ‭tradition‬ ‭of‬ ‭refuge‬ ‭and‬ ‭asylum‬ ‭for‬ ‭persecuted‬
‭communities‬ ‭is‬ ‭part‬ ‭of‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭moral‬ ‭identity.‬ ‭However,‬ ‭the‬ ‭treatment‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rohingyas‬
‭presents‬ ‭a‬ ‭challenge‬ ‭for‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭standing‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭international‬ ‭community.‬ ‭Deporting‬
‭refugees would tarnish India’s image as a democratic, humane nation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Security‬ ‭Concerns:‬‭India’s‬‭reluctance‬‭to‬‭accept‬‭a‬‭large‬‭number‬‭of‬‭refugees‬‭stems‬‭in‬‭part‬
‭from‬ ‭security‬ ‭concerns.‬ ‭Some‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭refugees‬ ‭have‬ ‭been‬ ‭linked‬ ‭to‬ ‭militant‬ ‭groups,‬
‭leading‬ ‭to‬ ‭fears‬ ‭that‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭insurgents‬ ‭might‬ ‭target‬ ‭India,‬ ‭especially‬ ‭in‬ ‭regions‬ ‭like‬
‭Kashmir.‬ ‭India‬ ‭is‬ ‭also‬‭wary‬‭of‬‭possible‬‭terrorist‬‭infiltration‬‭and‬‭instability‬‭arising‬‭from‬‭an‬
‭influx of refugees.‬
‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical‬ ‭Concerns:‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭relationship‬ ‭with‬ ‭Myanmar‬ ‭is‬ ‭strategically‬ ‭important,‬
‭particularly‬‭under‬‭the‬‭Look‬‭East‬‭Policy,‬‭which‬‭aims‬‭to‬‭strengthen‬‭ties‬‭with‬‭Southeast‬‭Asia.‬
‭Myanmar‬ ‭plays‬‭a‬‭key‬‭role‬‭in‬‭India’s‬‭efforts‬‭to‬‭boost‬‭trade‬‭and‬‭connectivity‬‭in‬‭the‬‭region,‬
‭including through the Kaladan Project and the India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway.‬
‭Conclusion‬
‭The‬ ‭Rohingya‬ ‭refugee‬ ‭crisis‬ ‭continues‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭one‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭most‬ ‭devastating‬ ‭humanitarian‬
‭disasters‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭21st‬ ‭century.‬ ‭For‬ ‭India,‬ ‭the‬ ‭crisis‬ ‭poses‬ ‭significant‬ ‭challenges,‬ ‭balancing‬ ‭its‬
‭ethical‬‭obligations‬‭,‬‭regional‬‭security‬‭interests‬‭,‬‭and‬‭geopolitical‬‭strategy‬‭.‬‭While‬‭India‬‭has‬‭shown‬
‭some‬ ‭humanitarian‬ ‭response‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭plight‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rohingya,‬ ‭it‬ ‭remains‬ ‭hesitant‬ ‭to‬ ‭allow‬ ‭them‬
‭permanent‬ ‭settlement‬ ‭on‬ ‭its‬ ‭soil,‬ ‭prioritizing‬ ‭concerns‬ ‭related‬ ‭to‬ ‭security‬ ‭and‬ ‭relations‬ ‭with‬
‭Myanmar‬‭.‬ ‭At‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬ ‭time,‬ ‭India's‬ ‭stance‬ ‭may‬ ‭affect‬ ‭its‬ ‭international‬ ‭standing,‬ ‭especially‬
‭regarding its commitment to‬‭human rights‬‭and‬‭refugee‬‭protection‬‭.‬

‭India-Maldives Relations‬
‭●‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭share‬ ‭deep‬ ‭historical,‬ ‭cultural,‬ ‭and‬‭geographical‬‭connections‬‭that‬‭have‬
‭shaped‬ ‭their‬ ‭bilateral‬ ‭relationship.‬ ‭The‬ ‭name‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭is‬‭believed‬‭to‬‭have‬‭originated‬‭from‬
‭Sanskrit,‬ ‭where‬ ‭Mala‬ ‭means‬ ‭"garland"‬ ‭and‬ ‭Dweep‬ ‭means‬ ‭"island,"‬ ‭reflecting‬ ‭the‬

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 ‭archipelago's formation of numerous islands.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Maldives‬‭is‬‭thought‬‭to‬‭have‬‭been‬‭inhabited‬‭since‬‭the‬‭5th‬‭century‬‭BC‬‭by‬‭settlers‬‭from‬
‭southern India and Sri Lanka.‬
‭●‬ ‭Throughout‬ ‭history,‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭and‬ ‭India‬ ‭maintained‬ ‭close‬ ‭trade‬ ‭and‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭ties,‬
‭especially‬‭during‬‭ancient‬‭and‬‭medieval‬‭times,‬‭with‬‭India‬‭serving‬‭as‬‭an‬‭important‬‭partner‬‭in‬
‭regional commerce.‬

‭Historical Evolution of India-Maldives Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭1965:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭gained‬ ‭independence‬ ‭from‬ ‭the‬ ‭British,‬ ‭and‬‭India‬‭was‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭first‬
‭countries‬ ‭to‬ ‭establish‬ ‭diplomatic‬ ‭ties.‬ ‭In‬ ‭1972,‬ ‭India‬ ‭opened‬ ‭its‬ ‭mission‬ ‭in‬ ‭Male,‬ ‭the‬
‭Maldivian capital.‬
‭●‬ ‭1978:‬ ‭President‬ ‭Maumoon‬ ‭Abdul‬ ‭Gayoom‬ ‭assumed‬ ‭office.‬ ‭His‬ ‭tenure‬ ‭marked‬ ‭significant‬
‭strengthening‬‭of‬‭ties‬‭with‬‭India‬‭through‬‭mutual‬‭visits‬‭and‬‭increased‬‭cooperation‬‭in‬‭various‬
‭fields.‬
‭●‬ ‭1988:‬ ‭India‬ ‭played‬ ‭a‬ ‭key‬ ‭role‬ ‭during‬ ‭a‬ ‭coup‬ ‭attempt‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭when‬ ‭Maldivian‬
‭President‬ ‭Gayoom‬ ‭requested‬ ‭assistance.‬ ‭India‬ ‭sent‬ ‭troops‬ ‭and‬ ‭naval‬‭ships‬‭to‬‭help‬‭restore‬
‭the government.‬
‭●‬ ‭2008:‬ ‭Mohamed‬ ‭Nasheed‬ ‭was‬ ‭elected‬ ‭president‬ ‭and‬ ‭pursued‬ ‭closer‬ ‭security‬ ‭cooperation‬
‭with‬ ‭India.‬ ‭India‬ ‭helped‬ ‭in‬ ‭enhancing‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldivian‬ ‭Coast‬‭Guard‬‭capabilities‬‭by‬‭providing‬
‭helicopters, aircraft, and patrol boats.‬
‭●‬ ‭2013:‬ ‭Abdulla‬ ‭Yameen‬ ‭took‬ ‭office,‬ ‭shifting‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭towards‬ ‭a‬ ‭more‬ ‭China-friendly‬
‭stance.‬‭This‬‭period‬‭saw‬‭tensions‬‭with‬‭India,‬‭particularly‬‭over‬‭issues‬‭such‬‭as‬‭the‬‭presence‬‭of‬
‭Indian‬ ‭military‬ ‭personnel‬ ‭and‬ ‭Yameen's‬ ‭policies‬ ‭favoring‬ ‭China,‬ ‭including‬ ‭signing‬ ‭an‬ ‭FTA‬
‭with China and inviting Chinese investments in infrastructure.‬
‭●‬ ‭2018:‬ ‭Ibrahim‬ ‭Mohamed‬ ‭Solih‬ ‭won‬ ‭the‬ ‭presidential‬ ‭election‬ ‭and‬ ‭pursued‬ ‭an‬ ‭"India‬ ‭First"‬
‭policy,‬ ‭seeking‬ ‭to‬‭reverse‬‭the‬‭anti-India‬‭stance‬‭of‬‭the‬‭previous‬‭administration.‬‭This‬‭led‬‭to‬
‭several infrastructure projects, including the $500 million Greater Male Connectivity Project.‬
‭●‬ ‭2021:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Uthuru‬ ‭Thilafalhu‬ ‭harbor‬ ‭development‬ ‭agreement‬ ‭between‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭Maldives‬
‭sparked‬ ‭protests‬ ‭from‬ ‭pro-China‬ ‭factions‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldives,‬ ‭leading‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭“India‬ ‭Out”‬
‭campaign.‬

‭The "India Out" Campaign and "India First" Policy‬

‭●‬ ‭India‬‭Out‬‭Campaign:‬‭This‬‭is‬‭a‬‭political‬‭movement‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Maldives‬‭aimed‬‭at‬‭protesting‬‭the‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭presence‬ ‭of‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭military‬ ‭personnel‬ ‭on‬ ‭Maldivian‬ ‭soil.‬ ‭The‬ ‭campaign‬ ‭gained‬ ‭momentum‬
‭after‬‭the‬‭signing‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Uthuru‬‭Thilafalhu‬‭harbor‬‭project‬‭in‬‭2021‬‭and‬‭the‬‭announcement‬‭of‬
‭India's‬ ‭consulate‬ ‭in‬‭Addu‬‭Atoll.‬‭The‬‭campaign‬‭is‬‭primarily‬‭supported‬‭by‬‭figures‬‭like‬‭former‬
‭President‬‭Abdulla‬‭Yameen,‬‭who‬‭during‬‭his‬‭tenure‬‭was‬‭pro-China‬‭and‬‭sought‬‭to‬‭limit‬‭India's‬
‭influence in the Maldives.‬
‭●‬ ‭India‬ ‭First‬‭Policy:‬‭This‬‭policy‬‭was‬‭adopted‬‭by‬‭President‬‭Ibrahim‬‭Mohamed‬‭Solih‬‭after‬‭his‬
‭election‬ ‭in‬ ‭2018.‬ ‭It‬ ‭emphasizes‬ ‭strengthening‬ ‭ties‬ ‭with‬‭India,‬‭particularly‬‭in‬‭the‬‭areas‬‭of‬
‭security,‬ ‭socio-economic‬ ‭development,‬ ‭and‬‭regional‬‭cooperation.‬‭Under‬‭this‬‭policy,‬‭Maldives‬
‭sought‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭help‬ ‭in‬ ‭addressing‬ ‭the‬ ‭country’s‬ ‭development‬ ‭needs,‬ ‭including‬ ‭critical‬
‭infrastructure and economic aid, while also bolstering bilateral security cooperation.‬

‭Significance of Maldives for India‬

‭●‬ ‭Geo-Economic‬ ‭Importance:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭occupies‬ ‭a‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭position‬ ‭along‬ ‭major‬
‭international‬‭maritime‬‭trade‬‭routes.‬‭Approximately‬‭50%‬‭of‬‭India’s‬‭external‬‭trade‬‭and‬‭80%‬
‭of‬ ‭its‬ ‭energy‬ ‭imports‬‭pass‬‭through‬‭the‬‭sea‬‭lanes‬‭near‬‭the‬‭Maldives,‬‭making‬‭it‬‭critical‬‭for‬
‭India’s economic security.‬
‭●‬ ‭Geo-Political‬‭Importance:‬‭The‬‭Maldives‬‭is‬‭a‬
‭key‬ ‭partner‬ ‭in‬ ‭various‬ ‭regional‬ ‭organizations‬
‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭SAARC,‬ ‭IORA,‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭Colombo‬
‭Security‬ ‭Conclave.‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭also‬ ‭supports‬
‭India’s‬ ‭bid‬ ‭for‬ ‭a‬ ‭permanent‬ ‭seat‬ ‭at‬ ‭the‬
‭United Nations Security Council.‬
‭●‬ ‭Security‬ ‭Significance:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Maldives'‬
‭strategic‬ ‭location‬ ‭makes‬ ‭it‬ ‭a‬ ‭crucial‬ ‭ally‬ ‭in‬
‭India’s‬‭maritime‬‭security‬‭efforts.‬‭It‬‭acts‬‭as‬‭a‬
‭first‬‭line‬‭of‬‭defense‬‭against‬‭terrorism,‬‭piracy,‬
‭and‬ ‭other‬ ‭maritime‬ ‭crimes‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭Indian‬
‭Ocean.‬‭Its‬‭proximity‬‭to‬‭critical‬‭chokepoints‬‭like‬‭the‬‭Gulf‬‭of‬‭Aden‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Strait‬‭of‬‭Hormuz‬
‭is vital for regional stability.‬
‭●‬ ‭Indian‬‭Diaspora:‬‭A‬‭sizable‬‭Indian‬‭diaspora‬‭resides‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Maldives,‬‭contributing‬‭significantly‬
‭to‬ ‭sectors‬ ‭like‬ ‭tourism,‬ ‭healthcare,‬ ‭and‬ ‭education.‬ ‭This‬ ‭diaspora‬ ‭fosters‬ ‭people-to-people‬
‭ties between the two countries.‬

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‭Areas of Cooperation between India and Maldives‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭India‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭major‬ ‭partner‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭economic‬ ‭development‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬
‭Maldives.‬‭This‬‭includes‬‭a‬‭$500‬‭million‬‭grant‬‭for‬‭maritime‬‭connectivity,‬‭an‬‭$800‬‭million‬‭line‬
‭of‬ ‭credit‬ ‭from‬ ‭the‬ ‭Export-Import‬ ‭Bank‬ ‭of‬ ‭India,‬ ‭and‬‭India's‬‭status‬‭as‬‭the‬‭second-largest‬
‭trading partner of the Maldives.‬
‭●‬ ‭Infrastructure‬ ‭Development:‬‭India‬‭is‬‭involved‬‭in‬‭several‬‭key‬‭infrastructure‬‭projects‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭Maldives,‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭Greater‬ ‭Male‬ ‭Connectivity‬ ‭Project,‬ ‭which‬ ‭aims‬ ‭to‬ ‭connect‬‭Male‬‭to‬
‭nearby‬ ‭islands‬ ‭via‬ ‭bridges,‬ ‭causeways,‬ ‭and‬ ‭roads,‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭redevelopment‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬
‭Hanimaadhoo International Airport.‬
‭●‬ ‭Military‬ ‭and‬ ‭Security‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭cooperate‬ ‭extensively‬ ‭in‬
‭maritime‬ ‭security,‬ ‭humanitarian‬‭assistance,‬‭and‬‭disaster‬‭relief.‬‭India‬‭provides‬‭the‬‭Maldives‬
‭with‬ ‭defense‬ ‭training,‬ ‭equipment,‬ ‭and‬ ‭conducts‬ ‭joint‬ ‭military‬ ‭exercises.‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭Operation‬
‭Cactus in 1988 helped restore the Maldivian government after a coup attempt.‬
‭●‬ ‭Humanitarian‬‭Assistance:‬‭India‬‭has‬‭provided‬‭significant‬‭humanitarian‬‭aid‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Maldives,‬
‭including‬ ‭support‬ ‭during‬ ‭the‬‭2004‬‭tsunami,‬‭providing‬‭vaccines‬‭and‬‭medical‬‭supplies‬‭during‬
‭the‬ ‭COVID-19‬ ‭pandemic,‬ ‭and‬‭contributing‬‭to‬‭community‬‭development‬‭projects‬‭through‬‭the‬
‭High Impact Community Development Projects (HICDPs).‬

‭Challenges in India-Maldives Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Political‬‭Challenges:‬‭Pro-China‬‭sentiments‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Maldives,‬‭particularly‬‭among‬‭leaders‬‭like‬
‭Abdulla‬‭Yameen‬‭and‬‭Dr.‬‭Mohamed‬‭Muizzu,‬‭present‬‭a‬‭significant‬‭challenge‬‭for‬‭India,‬‭as‬‭they‬
‭oppose India’s military presence in the country.‬
‭●‬ ‭Radicalization:‬ ‭There‬ ‭is‬ ‭concern‬ ‭over‬ ‭the‬ ‭growing‬ ‭number‬‭of‬‭Maldivians‬‭joining‬‭extremist‬
‭groups such as ISIS, which could pose a security risk to both the Maldives and India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Chinese‬ ‭Influence:‬ ‭China's‬ ‭growing‬ ‭influence‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldives,‬ ‭including‬ ‭investments‬ ‭and‬
‭infrastructure‬ ‭projects‬ ‭under‬ ‭its‬ ‭"String‬ ‭of‬ ‭Pearls"‬ ‭strategy,‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭challenge‬ ‭for‬ ‭India’s‬
‭diplomatic and strategic interests in the region.‬
‭●‬ ‭Climate‬‭Change:‬‭The‬‭Maldives‬‭is‬‭extremely‬‭vulnerable‬‭to‬‭climate‬‭change,‬‭particularly‬‭rising‬
‭sea‬ ‭levels,‬ ‭which‬ ‭poses‬ ‭a‬ ‭long-term‬ ‭threat‬ ‭to‬ ‭both‬ ‭countries'‬ ‭security‬ ‭and‬ ‭economic‬
‭well-being.‬

‭Way Forward for India-Maldives Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Engagement‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭New‬ ‭Government:‬ ‭India‬ ‭must‬ ‭engage‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭newly‬ ‭elected‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭government‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldives‬ ‭to‬ ‭address‬ ‭their‬ ‭concerns,‬ ‭emphasizing‬ ‭the‬ ‭benefits‬ ‭of‬
‭collaborative infrastructure projects and security cooperation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Increase‬ ‭Development‬ ‭Assistance:‬ ‭India‬ ‭should‬ ‭focus‬ ‭on‬ ‭projects‬ ‭that‬ ‭have‬ ‭a‬ ‭broader‬
‭impact‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldivian‬ ‭populace,‬ ‭particularly‬ ‭in‬ ‭employment‬ ‭generation‬ ‭and‬ ‭economic‬
‭development, to counter the influence of the "India Out" campaign.‬
‭●‬ ‭Timely‬ ‭Completion‬ ‭of‬ ‭Infrastructure‬ ‭Projects:‬ ‭Ensuring‬ ‭the‬ ‭completion‬ ‭of‬ ‭projects‬ ‭like‬
‭the‬ ‭Greater‬ ‭Male‬ ‭Connectivity‬ ‭Project‬ ‭will‬ ‭provide‬ ‭tangible‬ ‭benefits‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭Maldivian‬
‭economy, offering alternatives to Chinese investments.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fostering‬‭Youth‬‭Employment:‬‭Initiatives‬‭targeting‬‭youth‬‭employment‬‭and‬‭entrepreneurship‬
‭will help counter radicalization and promote a positive image of India among the youth.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhanced‬ ‭Development‬ ‭Aid:‬ ‭Continued‬ ‭financial‬ ‭aid‬ ‭from‬ ‭India‬ ‭will‬ ‭help‬ ‭prevent‬ ‭a‬
‭potential debt crisis in the Maldives and secure its economic future.‬

‭Indo-Afghan Relations‬
‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭Afghanistan‬ ‭share‬ ‭a‬ ‭long‬ ‭history‬ ‭of‬ ‭cultural,‬ ‭political,‬ ‭and‬ ‭economic‬ ‭ties.‬ ‭These‬
‭connections have evolved through various historical phases:‬
‭●‬ ‭Ancient‬ ‭and‬ ‭Vedic‬ ‭Periods:‬ ‭During‬ ‭the‬ ‭Vedic‬ ‭Age,‬ ‭Gandhara,‬ ‭which‬ ‭included‬ ‭parts‬ ‭of‬
‭modern-day‬‭Afghanistan,‬‭was‬‭considered‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭16‬‭Mahajanapadas‬‭of‬‭Vedic‬‭India.‬‭The‬
‭Indus‬‭Valley‬‭Civilization‬‭established‬‭early‬‭contact‬‭between‬‭the‬‭people‬‭of‬‭modern-day‬‭India‬
‭and Afghanistan.‬
‭●‬ ‭Medieval‬ ‭Period:‬‭Afghanistan‬‭played‬‭a‬‭crucial‬‭role‬‭as‬‭a‬‭bridge‬‭between‬‭Central‬‭and‬‭South‬
‭Asia.‬‭Various‬‭empires‬‭and‬‭dynasties,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭the‬‭Mauryan‬‭Empire,‬‭Kushan‬‭Empire,‬‭and‬‭later‬
‭the Ghaznavids and Mughals, maintained and enhanced these connections.‬
‭●‬ ‭Modern‬ ‭Era:‬ ‭During‬ ‭the‬ ‭Soviet‬‭intervention‬‭in‬‭Afghanistan‬‭(1979-89),‬‭India‬‭was‬‭the‬‭only‬
‭South‬‭Asian‬‭nation‬‭to‬‭recognize‬‭the‬‭Soviet-backed‬‭Democratic‬‭Republic‬‭of‬‭Afghanistan.‬‭In‬
‭2005,‬‭India‬‭proposed‬‭Afghanistan's‬‭membership‬‭in‬‭the‬‭South‬‭Asian‬‭Association‬‭for‬‭Regional‬
‭Cooperation (SAARC).‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭signing‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Strategic‬ ‭Partnership‬ ‭Agreement‬‭in‬‭2011‬‭further‬‭reinforced‬‭the‬
‭strong, vibrant, and multi-faceted relations between the two countries.‬
‭○‬ ‭After‬‭the‬‭Taliban‬‭takeover,‬‭India‬‭initiated‬‭Operation‬‭Devi‬‭Shakti‬‭to‬‭evacuate‬‭Indian‬
‭citizens and foreign nationals from Afghanistan.‬

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‭Importance of Afghanistan to India‬
‭Afghanistan‬ ‭holds‬ ‭significant‬‭importance‬‭for‬‭India‬‭due‬‭to‬‭several‬‭strategic,‬‭economic,‬‭and‬‭cultural‬
‭reasons:‬
‭●‬ ‭Regional‬ ‭Balance‬ ‭of‬ ‭Power:‬
‭Afghanistan‬ ‭is‬ ‭key‬ ‭to‬ ‭India’s‬
‭vision‬ ‭of‬‭regional‬‭leadership‬‭and‬
‭a‬‭counterbalance‬‭to‬‭Chinese‬‭and‬
‭Pakistani influence.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic‬ ‭Location:‬ ‭Positioned‬
‭at‬ ‭the‬ ‭crossroads‬ ‭of‬ ‭South‬ ‭and‬
‭Central‬ ‭Asia,‬ ‭Afghanistan‬ ‭is‬
‭critical‬ ‭for‬ ‭India's‬ ‭regional‬
‭interests.‬
‭●‬ ‭Security‬ ‭Concerns:‬ ‭Stability‬ ‭in‬
‭Afghanistan‬ ‭is‬ ‭essential‬ ‭for‬ ‭India's‬ ‭security,‬ ‭given‬ ‭the‬ ‭threat‬ ‭of‬ ‭terrorism‬ ‭and‬ ‭regional‬
‭instability.‬
‭●‬ ‭Energy‬ ‭and‬ ‭Resources:‬ ‭Afghanistan's‬ ‭natural‬ ‭resources‬ ‭offer‬ ‭potential‬ ‭for‬ ‭energy‬
‭cooperation and economic development.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural‬ ‭Ties:‬ ‭Rich‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭heritage‬ ‭shared‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬ ‭two‬ ‭countries‬ ‭promotes‬ ‭strong‬
‭people-to-people connections.‬
‭●‬ ‭Regional‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭India‬ ‭supports‬ ‭Afghanistan's‬ ‭efforts‬ ‭towards‬ ‭peace,‬ ‭stability,‬ ‭and‬
‭development as part of its broader South Asian regional cooperation strategy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Connectivity:‬‭Afghanistan‬‭is‬‭considered‬‭India's‬‭gateway‬‭to‬‭Central‬‭Asia,‬‭vital‬‭for‬‭trade‬‭and‬
‭regional integration.‬

‭Areas of Engagement‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Partnership Agreement:‬
‭○‬ ‭Assistance in rebuilding infrastructure and institutions.‬
‭○‬ ‭Encouraging investment in Afghanistan's natural resources.‬
‭○‬ ‭Support for an Afghan-led peace and reconciliation process.‬
‭●‬ ‭Heart‬ ‭of‬ ‭Asia‬ ‭Process:‬ ‭Political‬ ‭consultations,‬ ‭confidence-building‬ ‭measures,‬ ‭and‬
‭cooperation with regional organizations to support Afghanistan.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭●‬ ‭Reconstruction‬‭Efforts:‬‭India‬‭has‬‭committed‬‭over‬‭$3‬‭billion‬‭to‬‭Afghanistan,‬‭financing‬‭key‬
‭projects‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭Delaram-Zaranj‬ ‭Highway,‬ ‭the‬ ‭Parliament‬ ‭Building,‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬
‭India-Afghanistan Friendship Dam.‬
‭●‬ ‭Defence‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭Providing‬ ‭military‬ ‭training‬ ‭and‬ ‭equipment,‬ ‭including‬ ‭Mi-25‬ ‭attack‬
‭helicopters.‬
‭●‬ ‭People-to-People‬ ‭Ties:‬ ‭Scholarships‬ ‭and‬ ‭educational‬ ‭opportunities‬ ‭for‬‭Afghan‬‭students‬‭in‬
‭India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Multilateral‬ ‭Cooperation:‬ ‭Collaboration‬ ‭in‬ ‭international‬ ‭bodies‬ ‭like‬ ‭SAARC‬ ‭and‬ ‭through‬
‭projects like the Chabahar port.‬
‭●‬ ‭Disaster‬‭Assistance:‬‭Emergency‬‭relief‬‭and‬‭development‬‭aid,‬‭including‬‭assistance‬‭after‬‭the‬
‭2022 earthquake.‬

‭Roadblocks in India-Afghanistan Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Pakistan's‬ ‭Role:‬ ‭Pakistan's‬ ‭opposition‬ ‭to‬ ‭India's‬ ‭presence‬ ‭in‬ ‭Afghanistan‬ ‭and‬ ‭support‬ ‭for‬
‭militant groups poses a significant challenge.‬
‭●‬ ‭Terrorist‬ ‭Groups:‬ ‭The‬ ‭presence‬ ‭of‬ ‭terrorist‬ ‭groups‬ ‭like‬ ‭Al-Qaeda‬ ‭and‬ ‭their‬ ‭impact‬ ‭on‬
‭regional security is a major concern for India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic‬ ‭and‬ ‭Infrastructure‬ ‭Challenges:‬ ‭Security‬ ‭issues‬ ‭and‬ ‭corruption‬ ‭hamper‬ ‭India's‬
‭development efforts in Afghanistan.‬
‭●‬ ‭China‬‭Factor:‬‭China's‬‭increasing‬‭engagement‬‭with‬‭Afghanistan,‬‭including‬‭with‬‭the‬‭Taliban,‬
‭raises concerns for India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Drug‬ ‭Trafficking:‬ ‭Afghanistan's‬ ‭opium‬ ‭trade‬ ‭contributes‬ ‭to‬ ‭regional‬ ‭instability,‬ ‭affecting‬
‭both India and Afghanistan.‬

‭Concerns After the US Withdrawal‬

‭●‬ ‭Revival‬ ‭of‬ ‭Terrorism:‬ ‭The‬ ‭resurgence‬ ‭of‬ ‭groups‬ ‭like‬ ‭the‬ ‭Haqqani‬ ‭network‬ ‭poses‬ ‭a‬ ‭direct‬
‭threat to India's security.‬
‭●‬ ‭Threat‬ ‭to‬ ‭Investments:‬ ‭The‬ ‭Taliban‬ ‭takeover‬ ‭endangers‬ ‭India's‬ ‭$3‬ ‭billion‬ ‭investment‬ ‭in‬
‭Afghanistan.‬
‭●‬ ‭Influence‬‭of‬‭China‬‭and‬‭Pakistan:‬‭The‬‭growing‬‭influence‬‭of‬‭these‬‭countries‬‭in‬‭Afghanistan‬
‭is a strategic concern for India.‬

‭Reorienting Ties with Taliban-led Afghanistan‬

‭●‬ ‭Engagement‬ ‭Strategy:‬ ‭Engaging‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭Taliban‬ ‭to‬ ‭address‬ ‭security‬ ‭concerns‬ ‭and‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭maintain influence in Afghanistan.‬
‭●‬ ‭National Security:‬‭Conveying concerns about terrorist‬‭activities linked to the Taliban.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mutually‬ ‭Beneficial‬ ‭Relations:‬ ‭Resuming‬ ‭diplomatic‬ ‭missions‬ ‭and‬ ‭direct‬ ‭flights,‬ ‭and‬
‭supporting Afghan military training.‬
‭●‬ ‭Long-term‬ ‭Strategic‬ ‭Approach:‬ ‭A‬ ‭coherent‬ ‭strategy‬ ‭incorporating‬ ‭political,‬ ‭economic,‬
‭military, and diplomatic dimensions to safeguard India's interests in Afghanistan.‬
‭●‬ ‭Increased‬ ‭Investment:‬ ‭Focusing‬ ‭on‬ ‭infrastructure‬ ‭development,‬ ‭agriculture,‬‭and‬‭energy‬‭to‬
‭strengthen economic ties and support Afghan development.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 11: India-Sri Lanka Relations‬

‭India-Sri Lanka‬
‭●‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lanka‬ ‭has‬ ‭a‬ ‭very‬ ‭strategic‬ ‭location‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Indian‬

‭Ocean‬ ‭region.‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭at‬ ‭the‬ ‭crossroads‬ ‭of‬

‭international shipping lines.‬

‭●‬ ‭Strategic Importance of Sri Lanka:‬

‭○‬ ‭Columbo‬ ‭and‬ ‭Trincomalee‬ ‭are‬ ‭one‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬‭two‬

‭busiest‬‭trade‬‭ports.‬‭Hence,‬‭it‬‭has‬‭become‬‭part‬

‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Belt‬ ‭and‬ ‭Road‬ ‭Initiative‬ ‭(BRI)‬ ‭of‬

‭China.‬

‭○‬ ‭Naval‬ ‭Importance:‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lanka‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬‭major‬‭base‬

‭for‬‭military‬‭bases‬‭and‬‭maritime‬‭security‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Indian‬‭Ocean.‬‭It‬‭is‬‭a‬‭very‬‭important‬

‭place‬ ‭to‬ ‭establish‬ ‭a‬ ‭naval‬ ‭base‬ ‭to‬ ‭monitor‬ ‭the‬‭Indian‬‭Ocean‬‭and‬‭the‬‭increasingly‬

‭busy shipping lanes.‬

‭India’s Foreign Policy and Sri Lanka:‬

‭●‬ ‭SAGAR‬ ‭(‬‭Security‬ ‭and‬ ‭Growth‬ ‭for‬ ‭All‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭Region‬‭)‬ ‭Initiative:‬ ‭The‬ ‭project‬ ‭focuses‬‭on‬

‭enhancing‬ ‭security,‬ ‭and‬ ‭economic‬ ‭cooperation‬ ‭and‬ ‭promoting‬ ‭sustainable‬ ‭development‬

‭among Indian Ocean littoral states.‬

‭○‬ ‭Indian‬‭Ocean‬‭Littoral‬‭States:‬‭These‬‭consist‬‭of‬‭all‬‭the‬‭nations‬‭having‬‭coasts‬‭in‬‭the‬

‭Indian‬ ‭Ocean.‬ ‭There‬ ‭are‬ ‭29‬‭countries‬‭and‬‭6‬‭island‬‭nations‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Indian‬‭Ocean.‬

‭They have‬‭around more than 10% of the world's GDP.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭●‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Ocean‬ ‭Symposium:‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬

‭platform‬ ‭for‬ ‭dialogue‬ ‭between‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭Ocean‬

‭nations‬ ‭that‬ ‭have‬ ‭common‬ ‭challenges‬ ‭and‬

‭problems.‬

‭●‬ ‭Island‬ ‭Diplomacy:‬ ‭In‬ ‭the‬ ‭policy,‬ ‭India‬

‭engages‬ ‭with‬ ‭island‬ ‭nations‬‭and‬‭builds‬‭strong‬

‭relations.‬ ‭Here‬ ‭India‬ ‭ensures‬ ‭that‬ ‭issues‬ ‭like‬

‭maritime‬ ‭security,‬ ‭Climate‬ ‭change,‬ ‭and‬

‭economic development are taken care of.‬

‭●‬ ‭‘‘Necklace‬ ‭of‬ ‭Diamond‬ ‭strategy’’:‬ ‭It‬‭involves‬‭securing‬‭India’s‬‭trade‬‭by‬‭establishing‬‭a‬

‭list of friendly nations in the Indian Ocean to counter China’s’’ string of pearls’’.‬

‭String of Pearls‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭term‬‭suggests‬‭that‬‭China‬‭is‬‭building‬‭a‬‭network‬‭of‬‭military‬‭and‬‭commercial‬‭facilities‬
‭in countries along the Indian Ocean, from the Chinese mainland to Port Sudan.‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬ ‭network‬ ‭is‬ ‭seen‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭way‬ ‭for‬ ‭China‬ ‭to‬ ‭expand‬‭its‬‭influence‬‭in‬‭the‬‭region.‬‭India’s‬
‭Necklace of Diamond is seen as India's response to String of Pearls.‬

‭History of Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭Both‬ ‭nations‬ ‭were‬ ‭British‬ ‭colonies‬ ‭and‬ ‭initiated‬ ‭diplomatic‬ ‭relations‬ ‭after‬ ‭gaining‬

‭independence.‬

‭●‬ ‭Conflicts between the Sinhalese (Buddhists) and Tamil minority strained bilateral ties.‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭emergence‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Liberation‬ ‭Tigers‬ ‭of‬ ‭Tamil‬ ‭Eelam‬ ‭(LTTE)‬ ‭further‬ ‭deteriorated‬

‭India-Sri Lanka relations.‬

‭Current Relations‬
‭●‬ ‭Economic Relations‬
‭○‬ ‭High‬ ‭Bilateral‬ ‭Trade‬‭:‬ ‭India‬ ‭is‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lanka’s‬‭largest‬‭trading‬‭partner,‬‭with‬‭significant‬

‭Indian investments in Sri Lanka.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭Currency‬ ‭Swap‬ ‭Agreement‬ ‭(2020)‬‭:‬ ‭Signed‬ ‭to‬ ‭aid‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lanka's‬ ‭economic‬ ‭recovery‬

‭during its financial crisis.‬

‭○‬ ‭Tourism‬‭and‬‭Culture‬‭:‬‭India‬‭is‬‭expanding‬‭ties‬‭through‬‭tourism‬‭and‬‭promoting‬‭shared‬

‭cultural heritage.‬

‭○‬ ‭Policy‬ ‭Cooperation‬‭:‬ ‭Strengthened‬ ‭by‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭"Neighborhood‬ ‭First"‬ ‭and‬ ‭Sri‬‭Lanka’s‬

‭"India First" policies.‬

‭●‬ ‭Defense Cooperation‬

‭○‬ ‭Joint‬ ‭Exercises‬‭:‬ ‭Includes‬ ‭Mitra‬ ‭Shakti‬ ‭(army)‬ ‭and‬ ‭SLINEX‬ ‭(navy)‬ ‭to‬ ‭enhance‬

‭defense collaboration.‬

‭○‬ ‭Maritime‬‭Security‬‭:‬‭Cooperation‬‭on‬‭protecting‬‭trade‬‭routes‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Indian‬‭Ocean‬‭and‬

‭combating piracy.‬

‭●‬ ‭Other Cooperation‬

‭○‬ ‭Regional‬ ‭Platforms‬‭:‬ ‭Both‬ ‭are‬ ‭active‬ ‭members‬ ‭of‬ ‭BIMSTEC‬ ‭and‬‭SAARC,‬‭fostering‬

‭regional integration.‬

‭○‬ ‭Development‬ ‭Aid‬‭:‬ ‭India‬ ‭has‬ ‭provided‬ ‭reconstruction‬ ‭packages‬ ‭for‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lanka’s‬

‭war-torn northern regions.‬

‭○‬ ‭Renewable‬‭Energy‬‭:‬‭Indian‬‭firms‬‭like‬‭Adani‬‭Power‬‭are‬‭investing‬‭in‬‭Sri‬‭Lanka's‬‭clean‬

‭and sustainable energy sector.‬

‭Current Issues:‬

‭●‬ ‭Presence‬‭of‬‭China:‬‭China's‬‭increasing‬‭presence‬‭in‬‭Sri‬‭Lanka,‬‭including‬‭its‬‭debt‬‭trap‬

‭policy, has created security threats for India.‬

‭●‬ ‭Hambantota‬‭Port:‬‭China’s‬‭control‬‭over‬‭the‬‭port‬‭undermines‬‭India's‬‭influence‬‭in‬‭the‬

‭Bay of Bengal.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭●‬ ‭Kachchatheevu‬ ‭Island‬ ‭Dispute:‬ ‭The‬ ‭island‬ ‭remains‬ ‭contentious,‬ ‭as‬ ‭both‬ ‭nations‬

‭previously claimed it.‬

‭Kachchatheu Island:‬

‭●‬ ‭This‬ ‭island‬ ‭is‬ ‭not‬ ‭suitable‬ ‭for‬ ‭human‬ ‭settlement‬‭due‬

‭to lack of resources e.g. drinking water.‬

‭●‬ ‭These‬ ‭islands‬ ‭have‬ ‭been‬ ‭a‬ ‭point‬ ‭of‬ ‭conflict‬ ‭between‬

‭India and Sri Lanka.‬

‭●‬ ‭India‬ ‭1974‬ ‭handed‬‭over‬‭Kachchatheu‬‭to‬‭Sri‬‭Lanka‬‭but‬

‭on three conditions,‬

‭○‬ ‭To take rest during fishing‬

‭○‬ ‭For drying fishing nets‬

‭○‬ ‭For celebrating St. Anthony Church festival.‬

‭●‬ ‭Fishermen’s‬ ‭Issues:‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lankan‬ ‭fishers‬ ‭complain‬ ‭about‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭mechanized‬ ‭boats,‬‭while‬

‭Indian fishers report harassment by the Sri Lankan Navy.‬

‭●‬ ‭Kachchatheevu‬ ‭Conditions:‬‭India‬‭handed‬‭over‬‭the‬‭island‬‭in‬‭1974‬‭with‬‭conditions,‬‭such‬‭as‬

‭fishing rights and celebrating St. Anthony's Church festival.‬

‭●‬ ‭Harassment‬ ‭Allegations:‬ ‭Indian‬ ‭fishers‬ ‭accuse‬ ‭the‬ ‭Sri‬ ‭Lankan‬ ‭Navy‬ ‭of‬ ‭mistreatment‬

‭during their rest on the island.‬

‭●‬ ‭2022‬‭Rajya‬‭Sabha‬‭Statement:‬‭India‬‭reaffirmed‬‭that‬‭Kachchatheevu‬‭lies‬‭within‬‭Sri‬‭Lankan‬

‭waters, further intensifying tensions.‬

‭Way Forward:‬

‭●‬ ‭Development of Palk Strait Bridge with rail and road networks to enhance connectivity.‬

‭●‬ ‭Strengthening bilateral trade and investment to support Sri Lanka’s economic recovery.‬

‭●‬ ‭Collaboration on sustainable maritime initiatives to enhance the blue economy.‬

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‭●‬ ‭Addressing‬ ‭grievances‬ ‭of‬ ‭fishermen‬ ‭through‬ ‭dialogue‬ ‭and‬ ‭joint‬ ‭mechanisms‬ ‭for‬ ‭mutual‬

‭benefit.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 10: Indian Bangladesh (Part 02)‬

‭Steps Taken by Government to Strengthen Relations with Bangladesh:‬

‭●‬ ‭Border Security‬‭: India has fenced the entire border‬‭to improve security.‬
‭●‬ ‭Land Boundary Agreement 2015‬‭: India and Bangladesh‬‭exchanged enclaves, resolving a‬
‭long-standing border dispute.‬
‭○‬ ‭It facilitated the transfer of 111 enclaves from India to Bangladesh. Conversely,‬
‭India received 51 enclaves which were in Bangladesh. The‬‭100th Constitutional‬
‭Amendment Act‬‭was introduced in the Indian Constitution‬‭to give effect to this‬
‭agreement.‬
‭●‬ ‭Connectivity‬‭: Improved road and railway links between‬‭the two nations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strategic Cooperation‬‭: Both countries have supported‬‭each other in countering China's‬
‭influence in the region.‬
‭●‬ ‭COVID-19 Support‬‭: India aided Bangladesh through the‬‭Vaccine Maitri‬‭program during the‬
‭pandemic.‬
‭●‬ ‭Major Initiatives:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bangladesh, China, India, and Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIM):‬‭Bangladesh‬
‭plays a very important role in this economic corridor because it will help India in‬
‭establishing direct road trade with China. This initiative would help the India in‬
‭development of north-eastern region, exploration of resources like natural gas in‬
‭Bangladesh and development of Kolkata Port.‬
‭○‬ ‭Maitri Setu:‬‭India’s initiative to build a‬‭bridge‬‭on Feni river‬‭will help in connecting‬
‭Chittagong and Haldia port. This bridge will reduce India’s dependence upon the‬
‭Siliguri Corridor.‬
‭●‬ ‭Defence Initiative:‬‭Both the nations have enhanced‬‭defence cooperation through the‬
‭following:‬
‭○‬ ‭Annual Defence Dialogue‬‭to ensure better defence cooperation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint military exercises like‬‭SAMPRITI, Bongo Sagar‬‭have helped both the nations‬
‭in defence cooperation.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭In 2024, India and Bangladesh participated in the‬‭Milan Exercise.‬
‭○‬ ‭In November 2024, the army chief of India and Bangladesh met virtually to discuss‬
‭the‬‭stability in the region.‬
‭○‬ ‭Both nations are working on‬‭military security‬‭in the region.‬

‭Economic Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭Both nations have increased trade in the last decade. Both countries are enjoying‬‭free‬
‭trade‬‭in the region.‬
‭●‬ ‭India is relying upon its‬‭investments in telecom and‬‭hydrocarbon sector‬‭along with‬
‭electricity exports‬‭. (Balance of Trade is in India's‬‭favour.)‬

‭New Areas of Cooperation:‬

‭●‬ ‭Both nations are investing in‬‭blue economy initiatives‬‭in the Bay of Bengal region‬‭for‬
‭sustainable fishing, resource exploration, and renewable sources of energy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Both are cooperating in the‬‭security of Bay of Bengal.‬
‭●‬ ‭Both the nations are‬‭important partners in South Asia.‬

‭Current Issues:‬
‭●‬ ‭Recent‬‭political crisis in Bangladesh‬‭has created‬‭concerns for India.‬
‭●‬ ‭New Moore Dispute‬‭in the recent years has somehow‬‭created issues between India and‬
‭Bangladesh which has now been resolved because of the submergence of island.‬
‭●‬ ‭Growing relations between Bangladesh and China‬‭through‬‭duty free trade is a major‬
‭concern for India.‬
‭○‬ ‭China is very keen to invest in the‬‭Chittagong Port‬‭as well as the‬‭Mongla Port‬
‭areas.‬
‭○‬ ‭China is also pursuing Bangladesh to develop‬‭inland‬‭waterways on Teesta river‬‭.‬

‭Way Forward:‬
‭●‬ ‭India has to‬‭counter China‬‭’s presence by focusing‬‭on‬‭Act East Policy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Both India and Bangladesh can collaborate in the areas of‬‭nuclear cooperation (Ruppur‬
‭Nuclear Power Plant)‬‭to ensure peaceful nuclear energy.‬
‭○‬ ‭Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant will be commissioned in 2024 on Padma river.‬
‭●‬ ‭Both the nations can‬‭collaborate on renewable energy resources‬‭.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬

‭Lecture 09: India-Bangladesh Relations‬

‭Significance of Bangladesh for India‬

‭●‬ ‭Shared Border‬‭

:‬
‭○‬ ‭India and Bangladesh share a‬‭4,096 km land border‬‭, the fifth longest in the world.‬
‭○‬ ‭Proximity to the‬‭Siliguri Corridor‬‭makes Bangladesh strategically important.‬
‭●‬ ‭Neighbourhood First Policy‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bangladesh is a key pillar of India’s‬‭Neighbourhood‬‭First Policy‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Security in Bay of Bengal Region‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Bangladesh is important for ensuring‬‭security in the‬‭Bay of Bengal region‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Gateway to Northeast India‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Provides‬ ‭essential‬ ‭rail‬ ‭networks,‬ ‭inland‬ ‭waterways,‬ ‭and‬ ‭road‬ ‭connectivity‬ ‭to‬
‭northeastern India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Coastal and Port Development‬‭:‬
‭○‬ ‭Joint development of ports like‬‭Chittagong Port‬‭strengthens‬‭maritime networks.‬
‭○‬ ‭Important for mutual coastal network development, including‬‭entry and exit points‬‭.‬

‭Recent Issues in India-Bangladesh Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Teesta Water Dispute‬

‭○‬ ‭Importance of Teesta River‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭Bangladesh‬ ‭share‬ ‭the‬ ‭Teesta‬ ‭River,‬ ‭which‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬‭crucial‬‭source‬‭of‬
‭water‬ ‭for‬ ‭irrigation‬ ‭in‬ ‭both‬ ‭countries.‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭vital‬ ‭for‬ ‭supporting‬ ‭paddy‬
‭cultivation in key agricultural regions of India and Bangladesh.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭■‬ ‭For‬ ‭India:‬ ‭Supports‬ ‭agriculture‬ ‭and‬ ‭water‬ ‭needs‬ ‭in‬ ‭West‬ ‭Bengal‬ ‭and‬
‭Sikkim.‬
‭■‬ ‭For Bangladesh: Maintains livelihoods in‬‭northern‬‭Bangladesh‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Details of the Dispute‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭India claims‬‭55% of water‬‭, while Bangladesh demands‬‭equal sharing.‬
‭■‬ ‭In‬ ‭2011,‬ ‭a‬ ‭proposed‬ ‭agreement‬ ‭allocated‬ ‭42.5%‬ ‭to‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭37.5%‬ ‭to‬
‭Bangladesh‬‭, but it remains unresolved due to‬‭West‬‭Bengal’s opposition‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Reasons for the Issue Remaining Unresolved‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Politically sensitive issue between the‬‭Centre and State Governments‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭India’s‬ ‭Complex‬ ‭federal‬ ‭structure‬ ‭limits‬ ‭the‬ ‭Centre's‬ ‭ability‬ ‭to‬
‭accommodate state concerns.‬
‭○‬ ‭Possible Solutions‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Increased‬‭diplomatic engagement‬‭between India and Bangladesh.‬
‭■‬ ‭Building‬‭trust with the West Bengal government‬‭.‬
‭■‬ ‭Promoting‬ ‭sustainable‬ ‭water‬ ‭practices‬‭,‬ ‭like‬ ‭less‬ ‭water-intensive‬ ‭crops‬
‭and‬‭advanced agriculture techniques‬‭.‬

‭●‬ ‭Farakka Barrage Issue‬

‭○‬ ‭Details of the Issue‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Located‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭Ganga‬ ‭River‬‭,‬ ‭the‬ ‭Farakka‬ ‭Barrage‬ ‭affects‬ ‭water‬ ‭flow‬ ‭to‬
‭Bangladesh.‬
‭○‬ ‭Importance for India‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Helps‬ ‭improve‬ ‭Kolkata‬ ‭Port’s‬ ‭navigability‬ ‭by‬ ‭supplying‬ ‭water‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬
‭Hooghly River.‬
‭■‬ ‭Supports‬‭irrigation‬‭in the Farakka region and aids‬‭in‬‭power generation‬‭.‬
‭○‬ ‭Complaints of Bangladesh‬‭:‬
‭■‬ ‭Causes‬‭water scarcity‬‭in downstream areas.‬
‭■‬ ‭Leads to‬‭environmental degradation‬‭in Bangladesh.‬
‭■‬ ‭Despite‬ ‭the‬ ‭Ganga‬ ‭Water‬ ‭Treaty,‬ ‭Bangladesh‬ ‭accuses‬ ‭India‬ ‭of‬ ‭using‬
‭excessive water‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Other Water Disputes‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭○‬ ‭India‬ ‭and‬ ‭Bangladesh‬ ‭share‬ ‭54‬ ‭rivers‬‭,‬ ‭including‬ ‭the‬ ‭Meghna‬‭,‬ ‭Barak‬‭,‬ ‭and‬
‭Brahmaputra.‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬ ‭Joint‬ ‭River‬ ‭Commission‬ ‭(JRC)‬ ‭was‬ ‭created‬ ‭in‬ ‭1972‬ ‭to‬ ‭resolve‬ ‭disputes,‬‭but‬
‭progress has been limited.‬
‭●‬ ‭Illegal Migration:‬
‭○‬ ‭Cross-border‬ ‭migration‬ ‭affects‬‭demographics,‬‭resources,‬‭and‬‭law‬‭enforcement‬‭in‬
‭India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Northeast Insurgency:‬
‭○‬ ‭Militant groups use‬‭Bangladesh as a base‬‭, affecting‬‭India’s security.‬
‭●‬ ‭China-Bangladesh Relations‬
‭○‬ ‭Growing ties between Bangladesh and China pose‬‭strategic challenges‬‭for India.‬
‭○‬ ‭China is investing in‬‭Bangladesh’s infrastructure‬‭and military‬‭.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 08: India, Bhutan and Bangladesh‬
‭India-Bhutan Relations‬
‭A Brief History of India Bhutan Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭Background:‬‭Bhutan signed a treaty with British‬
‭India in 1910. According to this treaty, the‬
‭British guided the defense and foreign affairs of‬
‭Bhutan.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cordial Relations:‬‭India and Bhutan share‬
‭cordial relations. It is based on a shared‬‭cultural‬
‭heritage from the historical past.‬
‭○‬ ‭As quoted by our Hon'ble Prime Minister, India Bhutan relationship is like 'milk and‬
‭water'. They cannot be separated.‬
‭●‬ ‭Recognition:‬‭Bhutan was the first country to recognize‬‭India's independence in 1947.‬
‭●‬ ‭Treaty of Friendship:‬‭India- Bhutan Treaty of Friendship‬‭and Cooperation was signed in‬
‭1949 This treaty was updated in 2007.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relations:‬‭Diplomatic relations between the two countries‬‭were officially established in‬
‭1968 after the appointment of an Indian representative as a resident in Thimphu, the‬
‭capital of Bhutan‬
‭●‬ ‭Trade and Commerce Agreement:‬‭India Bhutan Trade‬‭and Commerce Agreement was‬
‭signed in 1972. It provided for free trade and commerce between the two countries.‬

‭Bhutan-China Border Issues:‬

‭●‬ ‭North Bhutan:‬‭In the Jakarlung and Pasamlung regions, China has constructed several‬
‭villages within Bhutanese territory.‬
‭●‬ ‭West Bhutan:‬‭The Doklam Plateau is claimed by China‬‭as an extension of its Chumbi‬
‭Valley region, located between Sikkim and Bhutan. However, India regards Doklam as part‬
‭of Bhutanese territory.‬
‭●‬ ‭East Bhutan:‬‭China claims the Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary,‬‭located near the Arunachal‬
‭Pradesh border with India, as its own territory.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
‭Implications of China’s Growing Influence in Bhutan for India:‬
‭●‬ ‭Security Threat to India:‬
‭A Bhutan-China‬
‭negotiated border deal in‬
‭the‬‭Doklam region‬‭could‬
‭impact India’s security‬
‭due to its proximity to the‬
‭strategically critical‬
‭Siliguri Corridor.‬
‭●‬ ‭Geopolitical Shifts:‬
‭China’s increased presence‬
‭in Bhutan may disrupt the‬
‭regional geopolitical‬
‭balance, intensifying‬
‭India-China tensions.‬
‭○‬ ‭For Example:‬‭In 2017, a standoff occurred between‬‭the Indian and Chinese armies‬
‭at the Doklam tri-junction. Chinese access to Doklam would grant it leverage over‬
‭India’s northeastern region, including the disputed state of Arunachal Pradesh.‬
‭●‬ ‭Diminished Influence for India:‬‭Closer Bhutan-China‬‭ties could erode Bhutan's traditionally‬
‭pro-India stance in its foreign policy.‬
‭India Bhutan Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭They are very unique and all weather relations based upon trust and understanding.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bhutan shares a border with‬‭Assam, Arunachal, Sikkim‬‭and West Bengal.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bhutan is a‬‭landlocked nation‬‭which is dependent upon‬‭tourism and hydropower.‬

‭Strategic Importance of Bhutan:‬

‭●‬ ‭Bhutan serves protection to the Siliguri Corridor and has helped India to fight insurgency in‬
‭the North East.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bhutan offers a vital connectivity to Siliguri corridor‬
‭●‬ ‭Bhutan is out of the Belt and Road initiative by China and does not maintain any‬
‭diplomatic relations with China.‬
‭Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty:‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭●‬ ‭Both the nations signed a friendship treaty in 1949 which talked about mutual coexistence‬
‭and protection to Bhutan by managing its foreign policy.‬
‭●‬ ‭According to Article 2 of the treaty, India was given the responsibility to manage foreign‬
‭affairs of Bhutan. In 2007 this treaty was revised to ensure freedom to Bhutan in its‬
‭foreign policy making, it also allows Bhutan to import military equipment from other‬
‭nations keeping in mind the interest of India.‬
‭Significance of Bhutan:‬
‭●‬ ‭Geostrategic Importance:‬‭Bhutan is not just a neighboring‬‭country but a crucial strategic‬
‭ally. Its border with India spans over 600 km, serving as a buffer between China and India.‬
‭This geographical and strategic positioning has bolstered bilateral ties since India's‬
‭independence.‬
‭●‬ ‭It supports India at International forums. For ex: United Nations‬
‭●‬ ‭Both the nations are part of multilateral cooperation.‬‭For Example:‬‭South Asian Association‬
‭for Regional Cooperation, Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Project, Bay of Bengal Initiative‬
‭for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC).‬
‭●‬ ‭Trade‬‭: India is Bhutan’s top trade partner both as‬‭an import source and as an export‬
‭destination, with the balance of trade in India’s favor.‬
‭○‬ ‭India is the leading source of investments in Bhutan, comprising 50% of the‬
‭country’s total FDI.‬
‭○‬ ‭The India-Bhutan Trade and Transit Agreement, originally signed in 1972 and last‬
‭renewed in 2016, facilitates a free-trade regime between the countries and ensures‬
‭duty-free transit for Bhutanese exports to third countries.‬
‭○‬ ‭Both the Nations are cooperating in start up sectors.‬
‭○‬ ‭India has significantly funded Bhutan's Five-Year Plans, committing 4,500 crore for‬
‭the 12th Five-Year Plan (2018-2023).‬
‭Hydropower Cooperation:‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭Chukha Power Project‬‭funded by India in 1987 (Loan+‬‭Aid) has been a successful‬
‭collaboration.‬
‭●‬ ‭Tala Power Project‬‭has also given benefit to India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mangdechu Power Project‬‭is supplying uninterrupted‬‭power to India‬
‭●‬ ‭In 2024, Adani and Reliance power have announced to invest money in Bhutan to scale up‬
‭power production.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭●‬ ‭These power projects have been advantageous for the Eastern part of India, whereas‬
‭Bhutan gets electricity for domestic purposes and earns revenue from exporting it to India.‬
‭Concerns in Hydropower Cooperation:‬
‭●‬ ‭Ecological and Environmental concerns:‬‭Concerns over‬‭environmental damage caused by‬
‭large-scale hydropower projects are growing.‬
‭●‬ ‭Debt Concerns:‬‭A significant portion (73%) of Bhutan's‬‭external debt is tied to the‬
‭hydropower sector. The shift in financing models from a 60:40 (grants to loans) to a 30:70‬
‭ratio has exacerbated the debt burden.‬
‭●‬ ‭Power Purchasing Policy:‬‭India's past changes in power‬‭purchasing policy, not able to fairly‬
‭negotiate power tariff delay in completion of projects‬‭(E.g. Punatsangchhu I & II) by‬
‭India.‬
‭Military Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭India have established‬‭Indian Military Training Team‬‭(IMTRAT)‬ ‭in Western Bhutan‬
‭permanently to‬‭train the Royal Bhutan Army‬
‭●‬ ‭The Bhutanese army helps the‬‭Indian army to fight‬‭insurgency and organized crime‬
‭●‬ ‭The Eastern command of‬‭Indian Airforce manages air‬‭protection of Bhutan‬
‭●‬ ‭India's Border Road Organisation (BRO) has built the majority of roads in‬‭Bhutan under‬
‭project 'DANTAK'.‬
‭Cultural Ties:‬
‭●‬ ‭Buddhism has been a bridge of Indo-Bhutan cultural relations.‬
‭Other Areas:‬
‭●‬ ‭Tourism:‬‭Open border policy and visa free entry for‬‭Indians. Indians are charged Sustainable‬
‭Development Fee.‬
‭●‬ ‭Student Exchange Programmes:Numerous Bhutanese students' study in India. The‬
‭India-Bhutan Foundation, established in 2003, promotes people-to-people exchanges in‬
‭education, culture, scientific and technical research, and environmental protection.‬
‭●‬ ‭India-Bhutan Satellite:‬‭Also called the ISRO Nano‬‭Satellite 2 for Bhutan (INS-2B), this‬
‭satellite was launched as a payload aboard ISRO's PSLV C54 rocket on November 26, 2022.‬
‭It was collaboratively developed by scientists from both India and Bhutan.‬
‭Issues in India-Bhutan Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭Bhutan is considered as drifting away from India and moving towards China.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bhutan is dissatisfied from India due to frequent China-India conflicts.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
‭Way Forward:‬
‭●‬ ‭During the Prime minister of India’s visit to Bhutan in March 2024 further strengthened‬
‭the ties and India signed agreements for trade, Space cooperation and People to people‬
‭relations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Financial Assistance:‬‭India will provide Rs.10,000‬‭crore as financial support to Bhutan over‬
‭next five years to bolster cooperation in areas like energy, space etc.‬
‭●‬ ‭Rail Links:‬‭MoUs to establish two rail links including‬‭Kokrajhar - Gelephu and‬
‭Banarhat-Samtse to improve connectivity.‬
‭●‬ ‭Connectivity:‬‭Bhutan is planning to build an international‬‭city -‬‭Gelephu Mindfulness‬
‭City- that will connect its border with Assam.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭International Relations‬
‬

‭Challenges in India-Nepal Relations:‬

‭● ‭Unresolved Border Disputes:‬‭Border disputes have created‬‭bitter relations. The
‭Constitutional Amendment of‬‭Nepal leading to the issuance‬‭of an official map of Nepal
‭with the Kalapani region‬‭being shown as part of Nepal's‬‭territory‬‭has led to a region
‭which i‬‭s under India's sovereignty being demanded‬‭by Nepal.
‭○ ‭Both countries have‬‭decided to resolve this issue‬‭bilaterally.‬‭However,‬‭India has
‭not been showing much interest in resolving this issue‬‭which Nepal's elite‬‭feel
‭very deeply about.
‭● ‭The China Factor:‬‭Nepal’s‬‭growing relation with China‬‭is giving an‬‭edge to China in this
‭region.
‭● ‭Political Instability in Nepal:‬‭Political instability‬‭in Nepal has‬‭always created tensions
‭between India and Nepal relations‬‭. There is usually‬‭a‬‭political bashing of India by
‭political groups‬‭particularly those to the left of‬‭India's‬‭big brother attitude, interference
‭in domestic political issues etc.
‭○ ‭The KP Oli government‬‭gave some priority to India‬‭in Nepal’s foreign relations.
‭● ‭India’s Policy Paralysis‬‭: India has‬‭been accused of‬‭only making policies and not
‭implementing‬‭them whereas‬‭China implements its promises.
‭● ‭India's Agni Veer Scheme:‬‭Nepal's‬‭Gurkha community‬‭was an integral part of the Indian
‭Army‬‭. However, the Agniveer scheme which is a four-year‬‭limited employment structure in
‭the Army has not been taken well in‬‭Nepal as they‬‭see employment in the Indian army
‭as a coveted employment.

‭Note:‬
‭● ‭In September 2024‬‭, the Prime Minister of India and‬‭Prime minister of Nepal KP Oli
‭met each other‬‭at United Nations General Assembly‬‭and discussed about
‭development partnership, Hydropower projects, people to people relations and
‭enhanced connectivity.

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭●‬ ‭The Prime Minister of India recently highlighted that Nepal is very important bloc of‬
‭India’s Neighbourhood Policy.‬

‭Solutions to India-Nepal challenges‬

‭●‬ ‭Trade:‬‭India needs to increase its trade as compared‬‭to China, India constitute‬‭s 64.1% of‬
‭the total trade of Nepal,‬‭comprising about‬‭$8.85 billion‬‭USD (Indian FY 22-23).‬‭This‬
‭includes‬‭$8.015 billion USD of exports from India‬‭to Nepal and $839.62‬‭million USD of‬
‭exports from Nepal to India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cultural Ties:‬‭India can invest in cultural ties in‬‭the region. For example: Currently India is‬
‭funding Pashupatinath Temple development‬‭along with‬‭the‬‭creation of Sister city‬
‭Tourism (Ayodhya- Jankapur and Lumbini-Bodh Gaya)‬
‭●‬ ‭Amicable Solutions:‬‭Amicable solutions of the Border‬‭dispute can be‬‭done without any‬
‭foreign interference.‬
‭●‬ ‭Hydroproject Investment:‬‭Investments in Hydropower‬‭projects can be‬‭done in Nepal‬
‭which can help India to procure electricity from Nepalese Projects‬
‭○‬ ‭In 2023 a‬‭five point agreement was signed between‬‭India and Nepal in‬‭which‬
‭India would develop‬‭10,000 megawatts of Hydropower‬‭in next 10 years. This will‬
‭ensure Nepal to‬‭supply 365 days of electricity in‬‭India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Defense Cooperation:‬‭India and Nepal have enhanced‬‭their defense ties through joint‬
‭military exercise‬‭Surya- Kiran.‬‭India has also‬‭recruited‬‭Gurkha in its army‬‭since 1947. But‬
‭after‬‭Agniveer, the Nepal government was concerned‬‭about the Gurkha regiment .‬
‭●‬ ‭Investing in Developmental Projects:‬‭Indian government‬ ‭can help Nepal in development‬
‭through enhanced‬‭regional connectivity by building‬‭Rail networks and Highways.‬
‭○‬ ‭For example‬‭: A feasibility study for the‬‭Raxaul-Kathmandu‬‭railway‬‭has been‬
‭completed, and a‬‭direct rail service from Ayodhya‬‭to Janakpur is under‬
‭consideration‬
‭●‬ ‭Connectivity:‬‭India has been assisting Nepal in development‬‭of b‬‭order infrastructure‬
‭through upgradation of 10 roads‬‭in the Terai area;‬‭development of‬‭cross-border rail links‬
‭at Jogbani-Biratnagar, Jaynagar-Bardibas;‬‭and‬‭establishment of Integrated Check‬
‭Posts at Birgunj, Biratnagar, Bhairahawa, and Nepalgunj.‬
‭●‬ ‭Access to Sea‬‭: India can also help to‬‭provide better‬‭access to the sea to Nepal.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
‭●‬ ‭Big brother Image:‬‭India can shed its‬‭Big brother image‬‭in the region and help the‬
‭neighboring countries to grow faster‬
‭●‬ ‭Enhancing the role of NDRF:‬‭India can also help in‬‭Disaster management through its‬
‭National Disaster Relief forces in Nepal.‬
‭●‬ ‭Maintenance of Borders :‬‭Both the Nations can work in better maintenance of borders to‬
‭ensure‬‭that no anti-India activities happen.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‬

‭Current Issues in India-Nepal Relations:‬

‭Kalapani-Lipulekh Dispute:‬

‭● ‭Recently Kalapani Lipulekh in‬‭the North-west border of Nepal‬‭was in news because of

‭Nepal’s claim over it.

‭● ‭Background‬‭: Kalapani is a‬‭ancient trade route a‬‭nd serves as a link between Tibet and

‭Nepal as well as India and Tibet

‭○ ‭As per‬‭Treaty of Sugauli,‬‭the Kali river would serve as a border between‬‭India and

‭Nepal.

‭○ ‭The‬‭origin of river is a point of clash‬‭between India and Nepal.

‭○ ‭India Claims that the river originates from the‬‭Eastern part‬‭whereas Nepal claims

‭that‬‭Kalapani-Lipulekh and Limpiyadhura are part of Nepal .

‭Geopolitical Significance of Lipulekh Region:‬

‭This area marks several important and strategic locations:‬

‭● ‭Kalapani:‬‭It is the easternmost corner of Uttarakhand and serves as a tri junction between

‭India-Nepal-Tibet. The‬‭1816 Treaty of Sagauli,‬‭signed between the‬‭British East India

‭Company and Nepal‬‭, established the‬‭Kali River as Nepal's western border w‬‭ith India.

‭○ ‭However, it‬‭did not specify the ridgeline,‬‭and British surveyors later marked the

‭river's source inconsistently on maps.‬‭This ambiguity has fueled ongoing border

‭disputes between India and Nepal, with Nepal‬‭officially raising the Kalapani issue

‭with India in 1998.

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭●‬ ‭Lipulekh:‬‭Its importance lies i‬‭n being a Pass between India and Tibet.‬‭It also serves as a‬

‭trade route .‬

‭●‬ ‭Limpiyadhura‬‭: Nepal treats it as‬‭the origin point of river Kali.‬

‭●‬ ‭Lipulekh and Kalapani form a‬‭trijunction between India and China,‬‭holding significant‬

‭geostrategic and geopolitical value.‬‭They enable India to‬‭monitor potential‬

‭encroachment by China and track movements‬‭of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA)‬

‭towards its territory.‬

‭●‬ ‭The area of‬‭Kalapani will be useful for China as it can have surveillance‬‭over the Indian‬

‭state of Uttarakhand‬

‭Point of Disagreement between India and Nepal:‬

‭●‬ ‭Nepal identifies the‬‭river flowing west of Kalapani, originating from either Limpiyadhura‬

‭or the nearb‬‭y Lipulekh pass, as the main Kali River‬‭, claiming this area as Nepalese‬

‭territory.‬

‭●‬ ‭In contrast, India asserts that the‬‭Kali River begins at a smaller stream called‬

‭Pankhagad,‬‭located‬‭south of Kalapani, with the ridge to the east marking the true‬

‭border.‬

‭●‬ ‭When India‬‭published its new map in 2019‬‭after the bifurcation of Jammu and Kashmir it‬

‭highlighte‬‭d Lipulekh/Kalapani area as a part of Uttarakhand‬‭which was later objected by‬

‭Nepal by publishing its own map‬‭(This area was under India’s control since 1960).‬

‭Susta Dispute:‬

‭●‬ ‭Due to the‬‭change of course of Gandak river in Champaran‬‭region of Bihar, the Susta‬

‭region became a‬‭dispute between India and Nepal‬

‭●‬ ‭It is a‬‭14,000 hectare land parcel‬‭which is fit for agriculture‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭●‬ ‭Susta is‬‭currently controlled by India as part of Bihar‬‭, though Nepal claims it as Nepali‬

‭territory,‬‭asserting that its residents are Nepali citizens.‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭1816 Treaty of Sugauli established the Gandak Rive‬‭r as the boundary between the‬

‭two countries, with‬‭Nepal controlling the right bank and India the left.‬

‭●‬ ‭Originally,‬‭Susta village was on the right bank and part of Nepal‬‭, but shifts in the‬

‭Gandak’s course moved it to the‬‭left bank, placing it under India's control.‬

‭●‬ ‭The Nepalese government has repeatedly insisted that Susta should be returned to Nepal.‬

‭India-Nepal 1950 Friendship Treaty Dispute :‬

‭●‬ ‭Nepal’s Political system is against this treaty now because i‬‭t creates inequality and‬

‭imbalances.‬

‭●‬ ‭The local population of Nepal consider it to be‬‭Anti-Nepal treaty,‬‭because it gives upper‬

‭hand to India in the‬‭relations and curtails Nepal’s sovereignty‬

‭Cross- Border Water Dispute:‬

‭●‬ ‭Kosi and Gandak barrage h‬‭ave been the center of disputes since the 1950s.‬

‭●‬ ‭Nepal criticizes India for‬‭exploiting water resources of these rivers‬

‭Mahakali River Dispute:‬

‭●‬ ‭The Mahakali treaty since‬‭1996 has not been properly implemented between India and‬

‭Nepal‬‭due to disagreement over water sharing, dam management etc.‬

‭Open Border Policy:‬

‭●‬ ‭India has always got‬‭impacted by the Open border policy and migratio‬‭n of Nepalese into‬

‭Indian territory‬

‭●‬ ‭This has acted against the‬‭security interest of India because Pakistan has also used‬

‭this area‬‭to supply‬‭fake currency, drugs and terrorism‬

‭●‬ ‭The open border has‬‭increased the crime rates in India.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
‭Madhesi Issue:‬

‭●‬ ‭Madhesis are the people of‬‭Terai region (Plains) of Nepal‬‭having cultural links with‬‭Bihar‬

‭and Uttar Pradesh.‬‭They are people residing in Nepal's southern Terai region, near the‬

‭border with India.‬

‭●‬ ‭They have been‬‭discriminated by Nepalese Government and raised the concern of equal‬

‭representation in the system‬

‭●‬ ‭In 2016,‬‭they blocked the India-Nepal border,‬‭which created tensions among the‬

‭India-Nepal government .‬

‭●‬ ‭Hence,‬‭Madhesis are demanding the fair representation in the system.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
 ‭International Relations‬

‭Lecture 05: India and its Neighbourhood (Pakistan +‬

‭Nepal)‬

‭Indus Water Treaty:‬

‭●‬ ‭The Indus Water Treaty is one of the most successful cases of conflict resolution. However,‬
‭there have been several instances where Pakistan has raised concerns over India's irrigation‬
‭projects.‬
‭●‬ ‭India proposed the‬‭Tulbul Water Project‬‭, the Kishanganga Project on the Jhelum, and‬
‭Chenab rivers. Pakistan has raised concerns against India for using the Jhelum's water.‬
‭●‬ ‭In 2024, India sent a notice to Pakistan under Article XII of the treaty, which allows for‬
‭changes to the terms signed in 1960 between India, Pakistan, and the World Bank.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
‭India’s Demands:‬

‭●‬ ‭Due to population changes, the water-sharing percentage should be revised.‬

‭●‬ ‭Both countries should focus on developing clean energy to meet emission targets.‬
‭●‬ ‭Both countries should work together to maintain the environment in the region.‬

‭Pakistan’s Contention:‬
‭Pakistan wants the treaty to be renegotiated in front of a court of arbitration, which India has‬
‭denied.‬
‭(Note: The Court of Arbitration is situated in The Hague, Netherlands.)‬

‭Way Forward:‬

‭1.‬ ‭India should focus on its‬‭Neighbourhood First policy‬‭to ensure good relations with the rest‬
‭of the nations. This will help counter both Pakistan and China.‬
‭2.‬ ‭India should‬‭enhance relations with West Asia‬‭to balance Pakistan.‬
‭3.‬ ‭India should‬‭use both hard and soft power‬‭to ensure its leadership in South Asia and‬
‭manage its relationship with Pakistan.‬
‭4.‬ ‭India should use‬‭international organizations‬‭like‬‭the UN and FATF to counter Pakistan.‬
‭5.‬ ‭India should focus on‬‭strengthening SAARC‬‭to ensure‬‭a peaceful South Asia.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Ajit Doval’s policy of offensive-defence is an effective way to counter terrorism from‬
‭Pakistan.‬

‭Defensive-Offensive:‬

‭●‬ ‭Under this, India will ensure the use of force against terrorist camps based in Pakistan.‬
‭●‬ ‭Apart from the above measures, enhancing trade, mutual cooperation, and‬
‭people-to-people contact can be the best method to balance India-Pakistan relations.‬

‭PW Web/App:‬‭[Link]
‭Recent Development:‬
‭Recently, an argument was raised regarding the demilitarization of Siachen due to its high cost (5‬
‭crore).‬

‭Arguments in Favor of Demilitarization:‬

‭1.‬ ‭High costs involved.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Loss of human life.‬
‭3.‬ ‭The area is unsustainable and uninhabitable.‬
‭4.‬ ‭The presence of the army creates environmental concerns.‬
‭5.‬ ‭It would be a good international gesture by India.‬

‭Arguments Against Demilitarization:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Bad intentions of China and Pakistan regarding the Siachen Glacier.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Money should not be an issue when national security is involved.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Technological advancements can reduce environmental concerns (e.g., the use of drones).‬
‭4.‬ ‭Demilitarization would weaken India's position in Asia.‬

‭Hence, it is not advisable to demilitarize the region until relations with China and Pakistan‬
‭normalize.‬

‭Pakistan Election 2024‬

‭The new Pakistani government is being considered soft toward India, and normalization of trade‬
‭could happen soon. The only concern remains the control of the military in international matters.‬
‭Nevertheless, the civil unrest in Pakistan and China's interests would likely prevent the‬
‭normalization of relations.‬

‭Note:‬‭80-20 IWT - This means that Pakistan receives‬‭80 percent of the total water flow, while‬
‭India receives 20 percent.‬

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‭80-20 Issue:‬

‭●‬ ‭Under this formula, 80 percent of the water has been allocated to Pakistan, which flows‬
‭through the Chenab and Jhelum rivers, while 20 percent of the water from the Ravi, Beas,‬
‭and Sutlej rivers has been allocated to India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Experts view that India has allocated excess water to Pakistan, and hence, the treaty‬
‭should be reviewed.‬

‭India and Nepal Relations:‬

‭Indo-Nepal relations have been guided by the‬‭1950‬‭Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship‬‭,‬
‭which has been a crucial framework throughout the past 17 years.‬

‭History of Relations:‬

‭1.‬ ‭The‬‭Friendship Treaty of 1950‬‭established diplomatic‬‭relations between India and Nepal.‬

‭This treaty focuses on the open border, free movement of people, trade relations, and‬
‭defense cooperation. In fact, this treaty also helped India ensure Nepal's support in the‬
‭region.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Relations are deeply rooted in culture and religion, with Hinduism and Buddhism being‬
‭major areas of cooperation, particularly in the form of religious tourism.‬
‭3.‬ ‭During the Cold War, China's interference in Nepal strained Indo-Nepal relations, making‬
‭them more bitter.‬
‭4.‬ ‭In 1989, India imposed an economic blockade on Nepal in response to the China-Nepal‬
‭defense deal.‬

‭Currently, India maintains a balanced relationship with Nepal, particularly in trade and other‬
‭engagements.‬

‭Current Issues:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Growing proximity between China and Nepal.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Unstable government in Nepal.‬
‭3.‬ ‭The open border issue (insurgency concerns).‬

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‭4.‬ ‭The‬‭Lipulekh issue‬‭.‬
‭5.‬ ‭The‬‭Madhesi issue‬‭.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 04: India and its Neighbourhood (Pakistan)‬
‭(Part-02)‬
‭Factors Behind the Complex Relations:‬
‭●‬ ‭Cross-border Terrorism:‬‭Pakistan's strategy of "bleeding‬‭India with a thousand cuts" has‬
‭seen decades of support for militant activities across the border. This ongoing issue has‬
‭fueled distrust and security concerns for India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Kashmir Dispute:‬‭Since independence, Pakistan has‬‭claimed Kashmir, leading to three wars‬
‭and continuous tensions. Many analysts believe this dispute remains central to the‬
‭relationship and without its resolution, peace may be elusive.‬
‭●‬ ‭Siachen Glacier Conflict:‬‭The boundary at NJ9842 in‬‭Siachen remains unresolved. This‬
‭high-altitude conflict zone is a point of contention, with both nations stationing troops in‬
‭harsh conditions to defend their respective territorial claims.‬
‭●‬ ‭China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC):‬‭The development‬‭of the CPEC through‬
‭Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (POK) poses a sovereignty issue for India, as it involves‬
‭infrastructure projects on what India claims as its territory.‬
‭●‬ ‭Rann of Kachchh -‬‭Sir Creek Dispute: The Sir Creek‬‭dispute concerns the marshlands in‬
‭Gujarat, where Pakistan claims the entire 96 km area. India, however, advocates for using‬
‭the Thalweg principle, which demarcates borders based on the deepest point of a river‬
‭channel. Sir Creek is also valuable for its fishing resources, hydrocarbon potential, and‬
‭access to maritime resources.‬
‭●‬ ‭Gilgit-Baltistan:‬‭Pakistan recently granted provincial‬‭status to Gilgit-Baltistan, which India‬
‭opposes, as it claims the region as part of its territory.‬
‭●‬ ‭China's Support for Pakistan:‬‭China's alignment with‬‭Pakistan in international forums‬
‭reinforces Pakistan’s position on issues like Kashmir and emboldens its stance against‬
‭India.‬
‭●‬ ‭Strengthening China-Pakistan-Russia Relations:‬‭The‬‭trilateral ties between these‬
‭countries have implications for India’s strategic and security interests in the region.‬

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‭●‬ ‭Trade Tensions:‬‭India and Pakistan have minimal trade, hindered further by the lack of‬
‭progress on the South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA). After the 2019 Pulwama‬
‭attack, India withdrew Pakistan’s Most Favoured Nation status, resulting in a sharp decline‬
‭in Pakistan’s exports to India.‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 03: India and its Neighbourhood (Pakistan)‬
‭Types of Diplomacy‬
‭●‬ ‭Diplomacy is a key element in International Relations and‬‭is used by the states and‬
‭other international actors to pursue foreign relations.‬‭Following are the types of‬
‭Diplomacy used in International Relations:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Bilateral Diplomacy:‬‭It focuses on‬‭negotiations and‬‭relations between two‬
‭states.‬‭It remains the most common form of diplomacy.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Multilateral Diplomacy‬‭:‬‭Interaction between two or‬‭more countries in the form of‬
‭treaties, alliances etc.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Track-I Diplomacy:‬‭In this form of Diplomacy‬‭the high-level‬‭officials of‬
‭government are engaged.‬‭It is a formal way of diplomacy.‬‭For example Ministers of‬
‭respective governments.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Track-II Diplomacy:‬‭It is an unofficial form of interaction,‬‭for example Civil‬
‭Society, NGOs, MNCs etc.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Track 1.5 Diplomacy:‬‭Under this track-I and track-II‬‭are simultaneously utilised for‬
‭interaction. For example, during government discussions the non-governmental policy‬
‭experts also discuss international issues.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Track-III Diplomacy:‬‭It involves people-to-people‬‭interactions.‬‭For example, the‬
‭Pakistan forum ‘aman ki asha’ promotes better relations between India and‬
‭Pakistan.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Gunboat Diplomacy:‬‭It is a form of coercive diplomacy‬‭in which a country uses‬
‭or threatens to use force to achieve its foreign policy.‬‭For example, USA used to‬
‭display force to achieve its agenda, similarly China uses this in the South China‬
‭Sea.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Shuttle Diplomacy:‬‭In this type of diplomacy a 3rd‬‭party mediator shuttles‬
‭between the conflicting parties to negotiate‬‭among‬‭them for example America used‬
‭this policy during Kissinger’s time in the Middle East War (1973).‬

‭India and its Neighbourhood‬

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‭India and Pakistan‬
‭●‬ ‭Pakistan’s geographical significance has been utilised for the following reasons:‬
‭○‬ ‭Location:‬‭Its location on the Arabian Sea has always‬‭given benefits to China and‬
‭the USA.‬
‭○‬ ‭Gateway to Central Asia:‬‭Pakistan lies on the crossroads‬‭of west Asia, South Asia‬
‭and Central Asia.‬
‭○‬ ‭Interest of Superpowers:‬
‭i.‬ ‭Chinese interest:‬
‭➔‬ ‭Pakistan has become a rentier state, which has given its land and‬
‭resources to China. China has established a‬‭China-Pakistan‬
‭Economic Corridor‬‭due to economic and strategic interests.‬‭For‬
‭example, this corridor is used for economic interaction with Western‬
‭nations such as African nations.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Pakistan also helps China to‬‭contain the radicalisation‬‭of the‬
‭Xinjiang‬‭region and development of Xinjiang.‬
‭ii.‬ ‭The interest of the USA:‬
‭➔‬ ‭For the USA‬‭Pakistan is a Zipper state‬‭because it‬‭is close to‬
‭Afghanistan and has helped the USA to maintain its hegemony in‬
‭the region. For example, Pakistan is a link to south, west, central‬
‭and east Asia.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Pakistan was also a major consumer of US-made goods‬‭.‬
‭iii. The interests of Iran:‬
‭➔‬ ‭Iran has a deep interest in Pakistan due to its border, also‬‭Iran is a‬
‭bit sceptical about the Baluch demand in the region.‬‭Baluchistan‬
‭is an ethnic region in western Pakistan and some parts of east Iran.‬

‭Nature of Indo-Pak Relations‬

‭●‬ ‭Pakistan is considered a deep state‬‭(a state being‬‭ruled by underground powers in a‬
‭parallel system) for example Pakistani army is a parallel government.‬
‭●‬ ‭Both countries have‬‭antagonistic relations due to‬‭unsettled border disputes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Pakistan’s democratic deficit has failed the democratic peace theory.‬
‭○‬ ‭The theory emphasises that democracy leads to peace in the region.‬

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‭Phases of Indo-Pak Relations‬
‭Phase of Active Aggression (1947-2001)‬
‭1.‬ ‭1947-1950 - 1st Pak War‬
‭2.‬ ‭1950-1965 - Revival of Relations‬
‭3.‬ ‭1965-1971 - Two wars‬
‭4.‬ ‭1972-1980 - Shimla Agreement‬
‭5.‬ ‭1980s - Intrusion of Militancy; Operation Meghadoot‬
‭6.‬ ‭1998- Both countries enter the nuclear club‬
‭7.‬ ‭1999- Kargil war and suspension of relations‬
‭8.‬ ‭2001- Attack on Indian Parliament‬
‭Phase of Reconciliation (2001-2008)[Post Lahore Declaration]‬
‭1.‬ ‭Confidence building majors‬
‭2.‬ ‭Samjhuta express‬
‭3.‬ ‭Enhanced trade relations‬
‭4.‬ ‭2008 Mumbai Attack‬
‭Phase of Bilateralism (2008- 2019)‬
‭1.‬ ‭Relation Revivalism‬
‭2.‬ ‭Soni- Shawl diplomacy‬
‭3.‬ ‭Kartarpur corridor‬
‭4.‬ ‭Renewed aggression (Pulwama, Amarnath attacks; Uri, Balakot airstrikes)[India became‬
‭soft to hard state]‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 02: Indian Foreign Policy Since‬
‭Independence‬
‭Change in Foreign Policy:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Non-aligned to multi-aligned-‬‭India shifted from a non-aligned state to a multi-aligned‬
‭state. Currently, India is part of groupings like QUAD, G-20 etc.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Look East to Act East-‬‭India has shifted towards becoming a regional power by adopting‬
‭the Act East policy.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Promotion of Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy-‬‭India now uses cultural power in the‬
‭form of Yoga, Bollywood, and other similar heritage to promote its interests.‬
‭4.‬ ‭India has now become‬‭assertive in border disputes‬‭for example recent negotiations in‬
‭Ladakh with China.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Engagement in the Indo-Pacific Region‬‭has given an‬‭edge to India over other regional‬
‭players.‬

‭Types of Power‬
‭1.‬ ‭Hard Power-‬‭It is a traditional notion of power in which force or coercion is used to moderate‬
‭the behaviour of other countries. This power is identified in the form of military, economic‬
‭sanctions and defence agreements.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Soft Power‬‭- Under this, the country has the ability to shape the behaviour of other countries‬
‭by using cultural influence, diplomacy and political values.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Smart Power‬‭- It is a combination of both hard and soft. Under this, both coercive and‬
‭persuasive powers are used to ensure the fulfilment of national interest eg military intervention‬
‭backed by diplomacy.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Assertive Power‬‭(not important)‬
‭5.‬ ‭Sharp Power‬‭(not important)[Recently this term was in the news, it is when countries like‬
‭China and Russia use manipulative and deceptive campaigns to influence foreign policy for‬
‭example, the country spreads misinformation or interferes in other countries' internal matters‬
‭through cyber attack, data theft etc.]‬

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‭India’s Neighbourhood‬
‭●‬ ‭Since independence India has witnessed a crisis in its neighbourhood areas. This gave birth‬
‭to various policies throughout the decades.‬
‭●‬ ‭Nehruvian Vision:‬
‭○‬ ‭Nehru’s‬‭Panchsheel policy‬‭and the‬‭‘family approach’‬‭treated the neighbourhood‬
‭as a vast Asian family.‬
‭○‬ ‭He emphasised the peaceful co-existence of all the nations through mutual efforts‬
‭like Panchsheel.‬
‭●‬ ‭After Nehru, the priorities for the neighbourhood shifted from PM to PM.‬
‭●‬ ‭In the 1990,s the‬‭Gujral Doctrine‬‭focused on the new foreign policy to enhance regionalism‬
‭and engagement with the eastern nations (Look East).‬
‭○‬ ‭Features of Gujral Doctrine:‬
‭i.‬ ‭Non-Reciprocity- India offered support to the smaller‬
‭nations(neighbours) without expecting any return from them.‬
‭ii.‬ ‭Non-interference- respect for their sovereignty and non-interference in‬
‭their internal matters.‬
‭iii.‬ ‭Peaceful Dispute Resolution.‬
‭iv.‬ ‭Comprehensive Cooperation eg economic cooperation‬
‭●‬ ‭Vajpayee’s Era‬
‭○‬ ‭Confidence-building Measures with Pakistan‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhanced economic cooperation‬
‭●‬ ‭Manmohan Doctrine-‬
‭○‬ ‭Under this policy, economic integration along with enhanced trade was prioritised.‬
‭This policy also implemented regional integration.‬
‭○‬ ‭Neighbourhood First Policy (2008)-‬
‭i.‬ ‭Stability and prosperity in the region.‬
‭ii.‬ ‭Support in their development.‬
‭iii.‬ ‭Regional connectivity.‬
‭iv.‬ ‭India as the primary actor in Southeast Asia.‬
‭●‬ ‭PM Modi’s Act East Policy (2014)‬

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 ‭○‬ ‭It is an enhanced version of the look east policy by PM Modi for proactive‬
‭engagement in Southeast Asia.‬
‭○‬ ‭Features:‬
‭i.‬ ‭Economic cooperation‬
‭ii.‬ ‭Better connectivity‬
‭iii.‬ ‭Defence cooperation‬
‭iv.‬ ‭People to people to ties‬
‭○‬ ‭During this policy, India signed the following agreements:‬
‭i.‬ ‭India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway‬
‭ii.‬ ‭Maritime Exercises‬
‭iii.‬ ‭India ASEAN trade relations‬
‭iv.‬ ‭Cultural Exchange like student exchange‬
‭➔‬ ‭What is Panchsheel? These are 5 principles which formed the foundations of‬
‭Indo-China relations:‬
‭a.‬ ‭Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty‬
‭b.‬ ‭Mutual non-aggression‬
‭c.‬ ‭Non-interference‬
‭d.‬ ‭Mutual benefit‬
‭e.‬ ‭Peaceful co-existence.‬

‭Challenges Faced by India in the Neighbourhood‬

‭●‬ ‭Expansion of China through the Belt and Road Initiative(BRI)‬
‭●‬ ‭Border disputes across the region.‬
‭●‬ ‭Unstable governments in the neighbourhood.‬
‭●‬ ‭River water Disputes‬
‭●‬ ‭Cross border terrorism‬

‭Way Forward‬
‭●‬ ‭Peaceful dispute resolution‬
‭●‬ ‭Revival of SAARC‬
‭●‬ ‭More people to people contact‬
‭●‬ ‭Free Trade Agreement‬

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 ‭International Relations‬
‭Lecture 01: IR Overview, Lexicon, and India’s Foreign‬
‭Policy Since Independence‬

‭Syllabus‬

‭●‬ ‭India and its neighborhood‬

‭●‬ ‭Relations between India and neighboring countries‬

‭●‬ ‭Bilateral, regional, and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting‬

‭India's Interests‬

‭●‬ ‭Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India's interests‬

‭●‬ ‭Indian diaspora‬

‭●‬ ‭Important international institutions, agencies, and fora‬

‭India's International Relations Based on Location:‬

‭➔‬ ‭India and its neighbors (Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka,‬

‭China, and Nepal)‬

‭➔‬ ‭India and various organizations (UN, G20, ASEAN, GCC, IMF, EU, World Bank, etc.)‬

‭➔‬ ‭India and the different regions (the Americas, Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia,‬

‭Europe, etc.)‬

‭➔‬ ‭India and the rich nations (Australia, Japan, USA, etc.)‬

‭➔‬ ‭India and the 5 UNSC members (USA, France, China, Russia, and UK)‬

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‭India's foreign policy during the different phases:‬

‭➔‬ ‭Post-independence‬

‭➔‬ ‭Cold War‬

‭➔‬ ‭Non-alignment Movement‬

‭➔‬ ‭Wartime with Pakistan and China‬

‭➔‬ ‭Fall of the USSR‬

‭➔‬ ‭Post 9/11‬

‭➔‬ ‭Current events (Coronavirus, Vaccine, diplomacy, etc)‬

‭Lexicons (Keywords)‬

‭1.‬ ‭Actors-‬ ‭Actors in international relations are those‬‭nations that are involved in the‬
‭maintenance of international politics‬‭. These actors‬‭can be divided into 2 categories:‬
‭a.‬ ‭State actors-‬‭These are sovereign countries that are‬‭recognised as primary units in‬
‭the international system.‬‭They consist of territories,‬‭population, sovereignty, and‬
‭government.‬‭For example- India, China etc‬
‭b.‬ ‭Non-State Actors-‬‭These are important elements of‬‭the international system and‬
‭consist of international organisations, non-government organisations, MNCs and‬
‭armed organisations (Hamas).‬

‭2.‬ ‭Idealism vs Realism In International Relations-‬

‭a.‬ ‭Idealism is a philosophy that highlights the concepts of international‬
‭cooperation, peace, and a liberal economy. Idealists believe that human nature‬
‭is fundamentally good, and hence,‬‭they ensure a peaceful‬‭system.‬
‭b.‬ ‭On the other hand,‬‭realism highlights that the international‬‭system is anarchic‬
‭in nature and is only concerned with wars, power, and hegemony. Humans, by‬
‭nature, are‬‭self-centred and hence always try to maximise‬‭the state's power.‬

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‭India’s Foreign Policy‬
‭Since independence, it has evolved depending upon the changing world. Despite the current issues,‬
‭India’s policy has never drifted away from the concept of peace and non-alignment.‬

‭Continuity in Foreign Policy:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Principle of Non-Alignment-‬‭After independence India‬‭followed the‬‭NAM system‬‭to‬
‭ensure that we do not become part of any block. It is still being used to ensure the‬
‭strategic autonomy of India.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Peaceful Co-existence-‬‭India still follows a dispute‬‭resolution approach rather than a‬
‭conflict approach.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Promotion of Global Interest-‬‭India has always promoted‬‭the interest of developed and‬
‭under-developed countries.‬‭For example, India always‬‭promotes South-South cooperation.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Nuclear No First Use-‬‭India has maintained its stand‬‭of no first use policy with regard to‬
‭nuclear bombs.‬

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