SRM Institute of Science and Technology

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Delhi – Meerut Road, Sikri Kalan, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh – 201204

Academic Year: 2023-24 (EVEN)(SET-A)

Solution:

Section -A

1. D
2. B
3. B
4. A
5. A
6. A
7. A
8. D
9. A
10. A
Section- B
[Link] Fermi level determines the probability of electron occupancy at
different energy levels. The closer the Fermi level is to the conduction band
energy, the easier it will be for electrons in the valence band to transition
into the conduction band. Electrons settle into the lowest available energy
states at absolute zero temperature and build a "Fermi sea" of electron
energy states. The Fermi Level (with Fermi energy Ef) is the “surface” of
this sea where electrons will not have enough energy to rise above the
surface. It is the energy level which is occupied by the highest electron
 orbital at 0 Kelvin (absolute zero temperature) and a parameter of the
Fermi-Dirac distribution:

where T is the absolute temperature and k is Boltzmann’s constant. This

function gives the probability f(E) of an electron to occupy a state with
energy E. The distribution function value will have to be nonzero in the
conduction band for electrical conductivity to be possible. For solids, the
probability of occupancy with the energy level determines the ease of
conductivity; whether a material is an insulator, semiconductor, or conductor.
Different orbitals have different corresponding energies. The lower energy
orbitals form a band called the valence electron band, and the higher energy
orbitals form a band called the conduction band. There is a gap between the
valence and conduction band called the energy gap; the larger the energy gap,
the more energy is required to transfer the electron from the valence band to the
conduction band. At the Fermi level (when E=Ef), the probability simplifies to ½
and thus Ef lies halfway between the valence and conduction band, or in the
middle of the energy gap (Egap/2).

For insulators, the energy gap is large enough so that the Fermi level lies
 far from the conduction band or states that can carry current. The opposite is
true for conductors where the Fermi level is within a band or nearby states that
readily carry current. Impurities and temperature can affect the Fermi level.
Semiconductor atoms are closely grouped together in a crystal lattice and so
they have very few free electrons to be good conductors. The ability of
semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by introducing
donor or acceptor atoms to the crystalline structure, either producing more free
electrons or more holes. This process is called “doping” and as the
semiconductor material is no longer pure, these donor and acceptor atoms are
collectively referred to as “impurities”. By carefully designing the doping
process, semiconductor crystals can be modified into one of two distinct types
of semiconductors: N-type or P-type. In both semiconductor types, the position
of the Fermi level relative to the band structure can be controlled to a significant
degree by doping. Introducing impurities to atoms will bring the Fermi level up
and when it is brought high enough, part of the tail will go over to the
conduction band. This makes it easier for electrons to travel to the conduction
band and thus conductivity will improve. From the distribution function,
temperature directly affects how the energy states are occupied. The tail of the
function also gets longer and wider at higher temperatures, stretching out to the
conduction band.

12. Doping means the introduction of impurities into a semiconductor crystal to

the defined modification of conductivity. Two of the most important materials
silicon can be doped with, are boron (3 valence electrons = 3-valent) and
phosphorus (5 valence electrons = 5-valent). Other materials are aluminum,
indium (3-valent) and arsenic, antimony (5-valent). The dopant is integrated into
the lattice structure of the semiconductor crystal, the number of outer electrons
define the type of doping. Elements with 3 valence electrons are used for p-type
doping, 5-valued elements for n-doping. The conductivity of a deliberately
contaminated silicon crystal can be increased by a factor of 10 6. he 5-valent
dopant has an outer electron more than the silicon atoms. Four outer electrons
combine with ever one silicon atom, while the fifth electron is free to move and
serves as charge carrier. This free electron requires much less energy to be lifted
from the valence band into the conduction band, than the electrons which cause
the intrinsic conductivity of silicon. The dopant, which emits an electron, is
known as an electron donor (donare, lat. = to give).

The dopants are positively charged by the loss of negative charge carriers
and are built into the lattice, only the negative electrons can move. Doped
semimetals whose conductivity is based on free (negative) electrons are n-type
or n-doped. Due to the higher number of free electrons those are also named as
majority charge carriers, while free mobile holes are named as the minority
charge carriers.

n-doping with phosphorus

In contrast to the free electron due to doping with phosphorus, the 3-valent
dopant effect is exactly the opposite. The 3-valent dopants can catch an
additional outer electron, thus leaving a hole in the valence band of silicon
atoms. Therefore the electrons in the valence band become mobile. The holes
move in the opposite direction to the movement of the electrons. The necessary
energy to lift an electron into the energy level of indium as a dopant, is only 1 %
of the energy which is needed to raise a valence electron of silicon into the
 conduction band.

With the inclusion of an electron, the dopant is negatively charged, such

dopants are called acceptors (acceptare, lat. = to add). Again, the dopant is fixed
in the crystal lattice, only the positive charges can move. Due to positive holes
these semiconductors are called p-conductive or p-doped. Analog to n-doped
semiconductors, the holes are the majority charge carriers, free electrons are the
minority charge carriers.

p-doping with boron

13. The DC supply is provided for the operation of a transistor. This DC supply
is given to the two PN junctions of a transistor which influences the actions of
majority carriers in these emitter and collector junctions. The junctions are
forward biased and reverse biased based on our requirement. Forward biased is
the condition where a positive voltage is applied to the p-type and negative
voltage is applied to the n-type material. Reverse biased is the condition where a
positive voltage is applied to the n-type and negative voltage is applied to the p-
type material.
Transistor biasing
The supply of suitable external dc voltage is called as biasing. Either forward or
reverse biasing is done to the emitter and collector junctions of the transistor.
These biasing methods make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of regions
such as Active region, Saturation region, Cutoff region and Inverse active
region.

EMITTER COLLECTOR REGION OF

JUNCTION JUNCTION OPERATION

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region

Forward biased Reverse biased Active region

Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse active region

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cutoff region

Among these regions, Inverse active region, which is just the inverse of active
region, is not suitable for any applications and hence not used.

Active region
This is the region in which transistors have many applications. This is also called
as linear region. A transistor while in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.

14. An interface or a boundary within a semiconductor device, between the P-

type and the N-type semiconductor material, is called the PN junction. The P-
side, or positive side, of a semiconductor, contains more holes than the N-side, or
negative side, which has more electrons. The PN junction in a semiconductor is
created by the doping process. A PN junction diode is a semiconductor device
that is formed through this method and used in allowing the flow of electric
current in one direction and blocking in the opposite.

PN Junction Diode Symbol

The symbol of the PN junction diode is depicted as a triangle pointing towards a

line or running through one vertex. This arrangement shows the direction of
current flow in the circuit from the positive anode terminal to the negative
cathode terminal.

Let us first discuss the process of doping to get a better understanding of the
working principle of the PN junction diode.
The technique used to increase or decrease the number of holes and electrons in a
semiconductor is known as doping To make N-type semiconductor material,
atoms with one additional valence electron than silicon are employed. For this
purpose, elements from group V of the periodic table are used. These elements
have 5 valence electrons out of which 4 participate in the covalent bond formation
with silicon and an additional valence electron is left unbound. As a result, more
electrons are introduced to the conduction band, increasing the total amount of
electrons in the system.

Section- C

[Link] stands for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. It

 is a type of Field Effect Transistor and it is voltage controlled device. It is
also called as Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET). It is used for
switching or amplifying electronic signals in the electronic devices. It is the
most commonly used transistor and it can be used in both analog and
digital circuits. In the Enhancement MOSFET the source and the drain are
not connected physically so in the symbol lines are broken and in the
Depletion mode line is continuous. In the N type the arrow points inside
and in the P type arrow points outside.

Construction of MOSFET:

The metallic gate terminal in the MOSFET is insulated from the semiconductor
layer by a SiO2 layer or dielectric layer. The MOSFET consists of three
terminals, they are source(S), Gate (G), Drain (D) and the body which is called as
substrate. The substrate is connected to the source internally.

In the Enhancement MOSFET the source and the drain are not connected
physically so in the symbol lines are broken and in the Depletion mode line is
continuous. In the N type the arrow points inside and in the P type arrow points
outside.
Construction of MOSFET:

The metallic gate terminal in the MOSFET is insulated from the semiconductor
layer by a SiO2 layer or dielectric layer. The MOSFET consists of three
terminals, they are source(S), Gate (G), Drain (D) and the body which is called as
substrate. The substrate is connected to the source internally.