Kwame Nkrumah University of Science &
Technology
RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODS
A Arko-Adjei
Department of Geomatic Engineering
KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
arkoadjei@[Link]
March 2022
Course content
• Unit 1: Introduction to Research Methods
• Unit 2: Research Design and Methods
• Unit 3: Scientific Writing Process
• Unit 4: How to Review Literatures
• Unit 5: Writing Research Proposal
• Unit 6: Research Data Management
• Unit 7: Technical Writing Issues
• Unit 8: Citation Style for Research Report
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UNIT OVERVIEW
▪ Elements of Research Design Process
▪ Stages in the Research Process
▪ Overview of Research design
▪ Types of research methods
▪ Experiments
▪ Surveys
▪ Action research
▪ Case studies
▪ Historical research
▪ Ethnography
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
▪ To describe the research design process.
▪ To understand the difference between qualitative and
quantitative research
▪ To evaluate when to apply when to use various research
methods
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ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS
Definition
▪ The logical sequence that links the empirical data to the
research problems and ultimately to its conclusions.
▪ The logical framework or process for realizing the
research objectives (e.g. a road map)
Why?
▪ To avoid a situation where the evidence gathered does
not address the research problem or question.
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ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS
Research design
▪ Deals with the logical problem and the step-by-step
approach for realizing the research objectives
Work plan
▪ Deals with logistical problem or needs and a road map.
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STAGES IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Formulate Problem
Determine Research Design
Design Data Collection
Method and Forms
Design Sample and Collect Data
Analyze and Interpret the Data
Prepare the Research Report
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TYPES OF RESEARCH
What do you want your data & results to look
like?
▪ Do you want to show learning, engagement, the process
of the activity?
▪ Do you want to show that your tool works, or that it is
better than an alternative?
▪ Do you want to describe, code, run statistics, present a
case study?
▪ How will you design the study to get the type of results
you want to present?
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RESEARCH DESIGN
Exploratory
▪ “discovery”
Descriptive
▪ “relationships”
Causal
▪ “cause-and-effect”
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EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ Intends merely to explore the research questions and does
not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing
problems.
▪ Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem
▪ Not intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to
have a better understanding of the problem.
▪ Researcher ought to be willing to change his/her direction as
a result of revelation of new data and new insights.
▪ Exploratory research tends to tackle new problems on which
little or no previous research has been done
▪ Is the initial research, which forms the basis of more
conclusive research.
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EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ This type of research involves either identifying the
characteristics of an observed phenomenon or exploring
possible correlations among two or more.
▪ It primarily concerned with finding out “what is”, solving
the problems through the interoperation of the data that
has been gathered, (answering the questions who, what,
where, when and how...)
▪ Descriptive “what is the current situation?”
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OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Uses Types
▪ Formulate problems more precisely ▪ Literature search
▪ Develop Hypotheses ▪ Experience survey
Exploratory ▪ Establish priorities for research ▪ Analysis of select cases
Research ▪ Eliminate impractical ideas ▪ Interviews
▪ Clarify concepts ▪ Focus groups
▪ Etc.
▪ Describe segment characteristics
▪ Estimate proportion of people ▪ Longitudinal study
Descriptive ▪ Panels
who behave in a certain way
Research ▪ Sample Survey
▪ Make specific predictions
Causal ▪ Provide evidence regarding causal ▪ Laboratory experiment
Research relationships ▪ Field experiment
▪ Rule out all other explanations
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CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH METHODS
▪ By purpose:
▪ Basic/fundamental/pure research
▪ Applied research
▪ By time:
▪ Cross-sectional
▪ Longitudinal
▪ By methodology:
▪ Quantitative vs. Qualitative
▪ Exploratory vs. Experimental
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CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH METHODS
▪ Quantitative: answers are found through
numerical data
▪ Field & lab experiments
▪ Surveys
▪ Formal methods (e.g. mathematical modelling)
▪ Qualitative: answers are found through textual
data
▪ Action research
▪ Case studies
▪ Grounded theory
▪ Ethnography
▪ Differentiate between data gathering & data
analysis!
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QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Objective To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and
understanding of the generalize the results from
underlying reasons and the sample to the population
motivations of interest
Sample Small number of non- Large number of
representative cases representative cases
Data Collection Unstructured Structured
Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical
Outcome Develop an initial Recommend a final course of
understanding action
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RESEARCH METHODS VS RESEARCH DESIGN
▪ Quantitative
▪ Experimental
▪ Surveys (usually)
▪ Qualitative
▪ Biography,
▪ Grounded theory
▪ Case study
▪ Mixed methods
▪ You can’t account for context with numbers
▪ The plural of story is not data
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RESEARCH METHODS
(upon which methodologies can be built)
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
▪ Experimental Research: research that allows for the causes
of behaviour to be determined
▪ Experiment: a carefully regulated procedure where one or
more factors are deliberately manipulated and all other
factors are held constant.
▪ Cause-effect relationship occurs if:
▪ The cause is correlated with the effect.
▪ The cause occurred before the effect.
▪ We can rule out other plausible explanations of the causal
relationship
▪ Example: Learning effectiveness of e-service delivery of
land transaction
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: FACTORS
▪ Independent Variable (IV): factor that is manipulated
▪ Dependent Variable (DV): factor that is measured
▪ Experimental condition: subjects that are manipulated
▪ Control condition: subjects that are not manipulated
▪ Confounding variable: an extraneous variable that should
be controlled, but is not. Can lead to false/spurious
conclusions!
▪ Anecdote:
▪ Day 1: drink water + beer. Result? Drunk!
▪ Day 2: drink water + wine. Result? Drunk!
▪ Day 3: drink water + whiskey. Result? Drunk!
▪ Conclusion?
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QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
▪ Quasi-experimental research
▪ Almost but not quite real experiments
▪ No manipulation of the variables (so no IV)
▪ Compare groups biased on naturally occurring variables
▪ Two types of natural variables
▪ Subject variable: Characteristics that vary between participants, but
can not be manipulated
▪ Time variable: Comparing individuals at different points in time (age
3 and 6)
▪ One-shot post-test, no control group
▪ Example: The impact of marketing strategy
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CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
Ex Post Facto = Causal-Comparative Research
▪ Explores possible causes and effects
▪ The independent variable is not manipulated, it has
already been applied
▪ Focuses first on the effect, then attempts to determine
what caused the observed effect.
▪ Seeks to explain differences between two groups that
have occurred
▪ Example: Why are IT multinational companies are more
innovative than local firms?
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SURVEY RESEARCH
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SURVEY RESEARCH
▪ The survey is a group of research methods commonly used
to determine the present status of a given phenomenon
▪ A survey is a systematic method of collecting primary data
based on a sample
▪ Survey may be used for exploratory, descriptive and causal
studies
▪ Unlike case study, the purpose of a survey is not to consider
a specific case in depth but to capture the main
characteristics of the population at any instant
▪ For example: We want to explore the opinion of top
executives on Lands Commission
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SURVEY RESEARCH
▪ Collecting standardized information from people using an
interview or self-report format.
▪ Typically survey knowledge or opinions.
▪ To standardized the information one uses a questionnaire
with set questions.
▪ Ideally the questionnaire has been validated.
▪ Representativeness of the sample is very important.
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SURVEY RESEARCH
▪ Interviews
▪ Advantage - Comprehensive, ensure participant
understands the question, minimizes missing data, enables
clarification of unclear responses
▪ Disadvantage – expensive, people more like to refuse
participation, can be risky for interviewer, interviewer may
bias the responses.
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TYPES OF SURVEY METHODS
▪ Face-to-face interviews
▪ Expensive and time-consuming
▪ Telephone interviews
▪ Need to use random-digit dialing to reach both listed and
unlisted numbers.
▪ Mail
▪ Return rate is usually low (20-30%).
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TYPES OF QUESTIONS
▪ Open-ended
▪ E.g., Can you tell me about your typical experience with
dating?
▪ Close-ended
▪ E.g., How do you typically meet someone to date?
▪ Introduced by someone
▪ Social event
▪ In university class or place of work
▪ At a bar
▪ Through sports or other athletic events
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ACTION RESEARCH
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ACTION RESEARCH
▪ "Action research is a form of collective self-reflective
enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in
order to improve on the rationality and justice of their own
social or educational practices, as well as their
understanding of their own social or educational practices
and the situations in which these practices are carried out.
▪ The approach is only action research when it is
collaborative, though it is important to realize that the
action research of the group is achieved through the
critically examined action of individual group members."
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ACTION RESEARCH: HOW IT WORKS
▪ Diagnostic stage:
▪ Collaborative analysis of the social situation by researcher
+ (consenting) subjects.
▪ Hypotheses are formulated.
▪ Therapeutic stage:
▪ Collaboratively, changes are introduced.
▪ Effects are studied
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ACTION RESEARCH: PROPERTIES
▪ Researcher is actively involved as a participant (an
interventionist approach).
▪ Emphasis on collaborative effort.
▪ Two objectives:
▪ Effecting (positive) change (i.e. practical)
▪ Contribute to body of knowledge (i.e. theoretical)
▪ Good fit with IS research, hence recent popularity.
▪ Warning: potential lack of objectivity!
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HISTORICAL RESEARCH
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HISTORICAL RESEARCH
▪ The conduct of historical research entails the following
steps:
▪ The recognition of a historical research problem or the
identification of a need for certain historical knowledge
▪ The gathering of as much pertinent information about
the problem or topic as possible
▪ If appropriate, the forming of hypotheses that tentatively
explain relationships between historical factors
variables)
▪ The selection, organization, and analysis of conclusion
▪ The recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative
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FOUR STEPS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
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ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
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ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
▪ Ethnographic research involves field research and
requires contextualization - the interpretation of result in
the data collection.
▪ Holistic approach: a system’s properties cannot be
understood independently of each other (i.e. as in
experiments)
▪ Ethnographic studies focus on organizations, which
consist of defined groups of people who interact in regular
and structured ways.
▪ Useful for understanding (corporate) culture, business
process.
▪ Arose from field of anthropology.
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THE PROCESS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
▪ Identification of the phenomenon to be studied
▪ Identification of subjects
▪ Hypothesis generation
▪ Data Collection
▪ Observation
▪ Interview
▪ Reviewing other sources
▪ Triangulation
▪ Analysis of Data
▪ Drawing Conclusion
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CASE STUDIES
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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Case study research
▪ Investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-
life context, especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.
▪ Case studies focus on understanding the dynamics present
within a single setting.
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CASE STUDIES RESEARCH
▪ Empirical investigation of particular phenomenon
(“unit”)
▪ Unit of analysis could be individual, group, organization,
community, country, etc.
▪ Purpose is more exploratory, i.e. hypothesis
development
▪ Single vs. Multiple cases:
▪ Multiple cases are suggested to compare and contrast
different cases
▪ Certain single cases are warranted: revelatory / critical /
extreme / unique
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DOING CASE STUDY RESEARCH
▪ Use qualitative and quantitative data:
▪ Documentation, archives
▪ Interviews
▪ Direct observation (cf. ethnography)
▪ Analysis:
▪ Heavily dependent on researcher’s aptitude
▪ Group of researchers are beneficial
▪ Multiple data affords triangulation.
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WHICH METHOD SHOULD BE USED?
▪ Can the phenomenon be studied outside its setting?
▪ Must the study focus on contemporary events?
▪ Is control or manipulation of subjects/events necessary?
▪ Does the phenomenon have an established theoretical
base?
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