LECTURE 03: ELECTRIC POTENTIAL/VOLTAGE & ENERGY
-ELECTRIC FIELD PROPAGATION VELOCITY-
1. INTRO.: From Lecture 01, any charge, Q (C) will create an electrical medium, of relative
permittivity, ɛr, in the region surrounding it, by generating its own electrostatic field which
theoretically extends from itself up to infinity – in all directions -. If another charge, X (C), –
which of course, is having its own electrostatic field which theoretically extends up to infinity,
also – of the same polarity is placed within the field of charge, Q, as shown in fig. 1, X will
experience a force of repulsion acting on it due to Q, (as similar charges repel each other).
Fig. 1:
Of course, Q will, also, experience the same force of repulsion acting on it due to X; this
repulsive force being mutual.
2. ENERGY: If we imagine Q to be fixed and X movable, then, as X is brought nearer to Q, the
force of repulsion acting on it (and, of course, that acting on Q, also) increases, and work, or
energy, is required to move X to a point such as A, from its initial position, within the electric
field. Hence, when at point A, X has some amount of electrical potential energy (or simply
electrical potential) with reference to infinity. Similarly, other points, such as B, D etc, in the
field, as shown in fig.2, also have some electric potentials, of different magnitudes from each
other, as well as that of A.
Fig.2: Charge Potentials Within An Electric Field
X will move away from Q if free to do so –i.e., when released from the restraining force -,
because its potential energy is now converted to kinetic energy which can do work, or expend
energy.
This is similar to a body raised above the ground level, in Mechanics, having a certain amount of
mechanical potential energy by virtue of its height, h, above ground, and which by definition is
given by the amount of work done in raising it to that height. If, for example, a body of, m =
5Kg, is raised against gravity, g = 9.81ms-1, through a height, h = 10m, then the potential energy,
W (J), of the body is;
W = mgh = 5 x 9.8 x 10J = 490J
The body falls because there is gravitational attraction between itself and ground, and always
proceeds from a place of higher mechanical potential energy to one of lower mechanical
potential energy. So, we speak of gravitational potential energy (or simply gravitational
potential) at different points within the Earth’s gravitational field.
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The force, F, acting on the charges, Q & X, is gb;
F = EQX/(ɛrd2) = 9 x 109QX/(ɛrd2)
For X to be moved/shifted through a distance, d, energy must be expended, and, the energy
content of the charges is equal to the product of their force and the distance moved by the force;
W = Fd = [EQX/(ɛrd2)]d = EQX/(ɛrd)
= 9 x 109QX/(ɛrd)
EXAMPLE 1: Determine the energy contents of two charges of 3μC and 5nC when placed a
distance of 4cm apart in vacuum.
SOLUTION: Given – W =?, Q1 = 3 x 10-6C, Q2 = 5 x 10-9C, d = 4 x 10-2m, ɛr = 1
ANSWER: W = Fd = [EQ1Q2/ɛrd2]d = EQ1Q2/ɛrd
= 9 x 109[3 x 10-6 x 5 x 10-9/4 x 10-2] = 33.5 x 10-3J
= 33.5mJ
Hence,
W ∞ 1/d
Then W decreases as d increases, and furthermore;
W = 0, when d = ∞
Therefore, infinity, ∞, is the place of zero electric energy.
3. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL: Also, moving X through a distance, d, means shifting it through
a p.d of V volts (V), but the energy, W (J), expended on charge, X, is gb;
W = XV
And;
V = W/X = [EQX/(ɛrd)]/X = EQ/(ɛrd)
= 9 x 109Q/(ɛrd) (J/C)
Hence, the potential at any point in the field is, the work done per unit charge in moving the
charge from infinity to the point within the electric field.
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EXAMPLE 2: If 12J of energy is expended in moving a charge of 6μC to a point through a
distance of 4cm within an electric field in vacuum, determine the electric potential of the charge
at the final point, relative to its initial point.
SOLUTION: Given- W = 12J, Q = 6 x 10-6C, d = 4 x 10-2m, ɛr = 1, V =?
ANSWER:
V = W/X = [EQX/(ɛrd)]/X = EQ/(ɛrd) = 9 x 109Q/(ɛrd)
= 9 x 109x 6 x 10-6/4 x 10-2 V = 13.5 x 10V
= 135V
Hence;
V ∞ 1/d
And;
V decreases as d increases.
Hence;
V = 0, when d = ∞
And, infinity, ∞, is the place of zero electric potential.
The potential at any point in an electric field is measured in units of voltage, V.
If charge, X, is now a unit +ve charge, then at any point d (m) from Q, as shown in fig.2, the
force, F (N), on it is;
F = EQ/(ɛrd2)
And;
W = Fd = EQ/(ɛrd)
Hence;
V = W, when X = +1C.
Hence, the potential at any point in an electric field may be defined as being “Numerically equal
to the work done in bringing a unit +ve charge from infinity to that point against the electric
field”.
Since infinity is the place where F, W and V tends to zero, then infinity is the theoretical, natural,
zero electrical potential point. In practice, however, earth is chosen as the zero electrical
potential, because it is such a large conductor that its potential remains practically constant,
although it keeps on losing and gaining electric charge every day.
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Also, since the potential, V, is the work, W, per unit charge, Q. Then;
V = W/X
If;
W = 1J and X = 1C, then;
V = 1V = 1J/C
Then, the volt, V, may be defined as the potential at a point within an electric medium necessary
for 1J of energy to be expended in shifting a charge of 1C from infinity to the point against the
electric field: If in shifting 1C of charge from infinity to a certain point in the electric field, the
work done is 1J, then the potential at that point is 1V.
4. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (PD): The potential difference (p.d.) between two points in an
electrical medium is the difference in the electrical states of these points necessary for a charge
to be moved from one point to the other, if free to do so. Potential difference is, also, measured
in unit of voltage, V, and p.d, of 1V exists between two points if 1J of work is done in shifting a
unit charge from one point to the other.
Hence, the potential at any point in an electric medium is the p.d. between that point and the
point of zero potential within the medium.
EXAMPLE 3: The potential difference between two points 6cm apart within an electric field, in
vacuum, is 120V, determine the magnitude of the charge moving through these points.
SOLUTION: Given – d = 6 x 10-2m, ɛr = 1, V = 120V, Q =?
ANSWER:
V = W/X = EQ/(ɛrd) = 9 x 109Q/(ɛrd)
Q = ɛrdV/E = 6 x 10-2 x 120/9 x 109C = 80 x 10-7C
= 8μC
It will be observed that the quantity symbol for p.d. is the same as its unit symbol, namely V,
which is one exception from the general rule that the quantity symbol must be different from the
symbol used for the unit in which it is measured.
5. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF): The EMF is the driving force necessary to be applied
across a medium in order to produce a p.d. across it, and hence, necessary to move a charge from
one end to the other, if free to do so; it, is, therefore, measured in units of volts, V. Although both
p.d. and emf are measured in the same unit, volts, they are not the same quantity. Essentially,
emf (being the driving force) causes current to flow; whilst a p.d. occurs as the result of current
flowing through/between two different electrical points. Thus emf is a cause and p.d. is an effect.
The emf is provided by a source of electrical energy such as a battery or generator, and its circuit
diagram symbol is as shown in fig. 3,
1. Single Cell 2. Battery Of Cells
Fig. 3: Circuit Diagram Symbols For EMF Source
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Note that the +vely charged plate (the long line) usually does not have a plus, +, sign written
alongside it. Neither does the -ve plate normally have a minus, -, sign written alongside it. These
signs have been included here merely to indicate (for the first timer) the symbol used for each
plate.
Furthermore, the speed with which the effect of an emf. is experienced at all parts of an electrical
medium is called the velocity of propagation of electrical field. It is independent of the flow of
charge and voltage and has a high, but constant, value of nearly the speed of light in vacuum, c =
3 x 108 m/s.
ELECTRIC ENERGY & POWER:
ENERGY: From above, if a charge of Q (C) is shifted through a p.d. of V volts (V), then the
energy, W (J), expended is;
W = QV = (It)V
= VIt Joules (J)
Hence, the power, P, is;
P = W/t = VIt/t
= VI Watts (W)
EXAMPLE 4: A current of 1.4A flows for 15min in an electric circuit and dissipates 200KJ of
energy. Determine;
i) The pd across the circuit
ii) The power dissipated within the circuit.
SOLUTION: Given – I = 1.4A, t = 15 x 60s, W = 2 x 105J, V =?, P =?
ANSWER:
i) V = W/Q = W/It = 2 x 105/1.4 x 15 x 60 = 158.7V
= 159V
ii) P = W/t = 2 x 105/15 x 60W
= 222W
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ASSIGNMENT 1:
A 12V emf battery maintains a current of 5A, within a circuit for 4minutes. Determine the
following;
i) The energy supplied to the circuit
ii) The power taken from the supply
ASSIGNMENT 2:
Q = 60C, I = 200mA, t =?, W =?, V =?
ASSIGNMENT 3:
I = 1.4A, t = 15min, W = 200KJ, V =?, P =?
ASSIGNMENT 4:
Calculate the cost of operating a 12.5KW machine continuously for a period of 8.5h, if the cost
per KWh unit is NLe7902.