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Structural engineering is a field of engineering that deals with the design of structural
systems with the purpose of supporting and resisting various loads. Though other Engineering Portal
disciplines touch on this field, a physical object or system is truly considered a part of
structural engineering, regardless of its central scientific or industrial application, if its main function is designed
to resist loads and dissipate energy. Structural engineering is usually considered a specialty discipline within civil
engineering, but it can also be studied in its own right.[1]

A structural engineer is most commonly involved in the design of

buildings and nonbuilding structures[2]but also plays an essential role
in designing machinery where structural integrity of the design item
impacts safety and reliability. Large man-made objects, from furniture
to medical equipment to a variety of vehicles, require significant design
input from a structural engineer. Structural engineers ensure that their
designs satisfy a given "design intent", predicated on safety (e.g.
structures do not collapse without due warning), or serviceability (e.g.
floor vibration and building sway do not result in discomfort for the
occupants). Structural engineers are responsible for making creative
and efficient use of funds and materials to achieve these goals. [2]

Contents[hide]

1 Etymology
2 The structural engineer
3 History of structural engineering
3.1 Pre-Twenthieth Century structural engineering developments
3.2 Modern developments in structural engineering
3.3 Significant structural failures
4 Specialisations
4.1 Building structures
4.2 Civil engineering structures
4.3 Mechanical structures
5 Structural elements
5.1 Columns
5.2 Beams
5.2.1 Trusses
5.3 Plates
5.4 Shells Burj Dubai, the world's tallest building,
5.5 Arches currently under construction in Dubai
5.6 Catenaries
6 Structural engineering theory
6.1 Loads
6.2 Strength
6.3 Stiffness
6.4 Safety Factors
6.5 Newton's Laws of Motion
6.6 Statical determinacy
6.7 Elasticity
6.8 Plasticity
6.9 The Euler-Bernoulli beam equation
6.10 Buckling
7 Materials
7.1 Iron
7.1.1 Wrought Iron
7.1.2 Cast Iron
7.1.3 Steel
7.1.4 Stainless Steel
7.2 Concrete
7.3 Aluminium
7.4 Composites
7.5 Masonry
7.6 Timber
7.7 Other structural materials
8 See also
9 References

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Clifton Suspension Bridge, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, in Bristol, UK

10 Notes
11 External links

Etymology

The term structural derives from the Latin word structus, which is "to pile, build assemble". The first use of the
term structure was c.1440.[3] The term engineer derives from the old French term engin, meaning "skill,
cleverness" and also 'war machine'. This term in turn derives from the Latin word ingenium, which means "inborn
qualities, talent," and is constructed of in- "in" + gen-, the root of gignere, meaning "to beget, produce." The term
engineer is related to ingenious.[4] The term structural engineer is generally applied only to those who have
completed a degree in structural engineering. The term engineer in isolation varies widely in its use and
application, and can, depending on the geographical location of its use, refer to many different technical and
creative professions in its common usage.

The structural engineer

Structural engineers are responsible for producing engineering design or

analysis. Entry-level structural engineers may design the individual structural
elements of a structure, for example the beams, columns, and floors of a building.
More experienced engineers would be responsible for the structural design and
integrity of an entire system, such as how a building in its entirety resists vertical
and lateral forces on it without collapsing or failing to function. Structural
engineers often specialise in particular fields, such as bridge engineering,
building engineering, pipeline engineering, industrial structures or special
structures such as vehicles or aircraft. Structural engineering has existed since
humans first started to construct their own structures. It became a more defined
and formalised profession with the emergence of the architecture profession as
distinct from the engineering profession during the industrial revolution in the late
19th Century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were often one
and the same - the master builder. Only with the understanding of structural
theories that emerged during the 19th and 20th century did the professional
structural engineer as it is known now begin to exist. The role of a structural
engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic Gustave Eiffel, pioneer of the
use of iron in structural
loading, and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of engineering
modern structures often requires great creativity in order to support and resist the
loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a three, four
or five year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being
able to be considered fully qualified.[5] Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned
societies and regulatory bodies around the world (for example, the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK)
[5]. Depending on the degree course they have studied, they may be accredited (or licensed) as just structural
engineers, or as civil and as structural engineers.

History of structural engineering

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Structural engineering dates back to at least 2700 B.C. when the stepped
pyramid of King Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known
by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient
civilisations because it is a structural form which is inherently stable and can be
almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot
be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).[6] Throughout
ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was
carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of
master builder. No theory of structures existed and understanding of how
structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical
evidence of 'what had worked before'. Knowledge was retained in guilds and
seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in
scale were incremental.[6] No record exists of the first calculations of the strength
of structural members or the behaviour of structural material, but the profession of
structural engineer only really took shape with the industrial revolution and the re-
invention of concrete (see History of Concrete. The physical sciences underlying
structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have been Statuette of Imhotep, in the
Louvre, Paris, France
developing ever since.

Pre-Twenthieth Century structural engineering developments

z In the 3rd Century BC Archimedes published his work On the Equilibrium of

Planes in two volumes, in which he sets out the Law of the Lever, stating:

Equal weights at equal distances are in equilibrium, and equal weights at unequal

“ distances are not in equilibrium but incline towards the weight which is at the greater
distance. ”
Archimedes is said to have
Archimedes used the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers remarked about the lever:
of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles, paraboloids, and "Give me a place to stand on,
hemispheres. [7] Archimedes work on this and his work on calculus and and I will move the Earth."
geometry, together with Euclidian geometry, underpin much of the
mathematics and understanding of structures in modern structural
engineering.

z In the 15th and 16th Centuries Leonardo da Vinci, despite lacking beam
theory and calculus produced many engineering designs based on
scientific observations and rigour, including a design for a bridge to span
the Bosporus. Though dismissed at the time, the design has since been
judged to be both feasible and structurally valid[8]
z In 1638 Galileo published Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences[9],
outlining the sciences of the strength of materials and the motion of objects
(essentially defining gravity as a force giving rise to a constant
acceleration). It was the first establishment of a scientific approach to
structural engineering, including the first attempts to develop a theory for
beams. This is also regarded as the beginning of structural analysis, the
mathematical representation and design of building structures.
Leonhard Euler portrait by
z In 1676 Robert Hooke first stated Hooke's Law, providing a scientific Johann Georg Brucker
understanding of elasticity of materials and their behaviour under load. [10]
z In 1687 Sir Isaac Newton published Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, setting out his Laws of Motion, providing for the first time an understanding of the
fundamental laws governing structures.[11]
z In the 17th Century Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz independently developed the Fundamental
theorem of calculus, providing one of the most important mathematical tools in engineering.[12]
z In the 18th Century Leonhard Euler pioneered much of the mathematics and many of the methods which
allow structural engineers to model and analyse structures. Specifically, he developed the Euler-Bernoulli
beam equation with Daniel Bernoulli circa 1750 - the fundamental theory underlying most structural
engineering design.[13][14]
z In the 18th Century Johann (Jean) Bernoulli (1667-1748) and Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) are credited
with formulating the theory of virtual work, providing a tool using equilibrium of forces and compatibility of
geometry to solve structural problems. In 1717 Jean Bernoulli wrote to Pierre Varignon explaining the
principle of virtual work, while in 1726 Daniel Bernoulli wrote of the "composition of forces".[15]
z In 1757 Leonhard Euler derived the Euler buckling formula, greatly advancing the ability of engineers to
design compression elements.[14]
z In 1821 Claude-Louis Navier formulated the general theory of elasticity in a mathematically usable form. In
his lecons of 1826 he explored a great range of different structural theory, and was the first to highlight that
the role of a structural engineer is not to understand the final, failed state of a structure, but to prevent that

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failure in the first place.[13] In 1826 he also established the elastic modulus as a property of materials
independent of the second moment of area, allowing engineers for the first time to both understand
structural behaviour and structural materials.[16]
z In1873 Carlo Alberto Castigliano presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which contains his
theorem for computing displacement as partial derivative of the strain energy.[17]

Modern developments in structural engineering

Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, materials science and
structural analysis underwent development at a tremendous pace.

z In 1824, Portland Cement was patented by the engineer Joseph Aspdin as

"a superior cement resembling Portland Stone", British Patent no. 5022.
Although different forms of cement already existed (Pozzolanic cement was
used by the Romans as early as 100 B.C. and even earlier by the ancient
Greek and Chinese civilizations) and were in common usage in Europe
from the 1750s, the discovery made by Aspdin used commonly available,
cheap materials, making concrete construction an economical possibility.
[18]
z In 1848 Joseph-Louis Lambot built a rowing boat of ferrocement - the
forerunner of modern reinforced concrete. He patented his system of mesh
reinforcement and concrete in 1855, one year after W.B. Wilkinson also
patented a similar system.[19]
z In the 1850s Henry Bessemer developed the Bessemer process to produce
steel. He gained patents for the process in 1855 and 1856 and successfully Bessemer converter, Kelham
completed the conversion of cast iron into cast steel in 1858.[20] Eventually Island Museum, Sheffield,
mild steel would replace both wrought iron and cast iron as the preferred England (2002)
metal for construction.
z In 1867, a reinforced concrete planting tub was patented by Joseph Monier
in Paris, using steel mesh reinforcement similar to that used by Lambot and
Wilkinson. Monier took the idea forward, filing several patents for tubs,
slabs and beams, leading eventually to the Monier system of reinforced
structures, the first use of steel reinforcement bars located in areas of
tension in the structure. [21]
z During the late 19th Century, great advancements were made in the use of
cast iron, gradually replacing wrought iron as a material of choice. Belper North Mill
Ditherington Flax Mill in Shrewsbury, designed by Charles Bage, was the
first building in the world with an interior iron frame. It was built in 1797. In
1792 William Strutt had attempted to build a fireproof mill at Belper in Derby
(Belper West Mill), using cast iron columns and timber beams within the
depths of brick arches that formed the floors. The exposed beam soffits
were protected against fire by plaster. This mill at Belper was the world's
first attempt to construct fireproof buildings, and is the first example of fire
engineering. This was later improved upon with the construction of Belper
North Mill, a collaboration between Strutt and Bage, which by using a full
cast iron frame represented the world's first "fire proofed" building.[22][23]
z In 1889, the wrought-iron Eiffel Tower was built by Gustave Eiffel and
Maurice Koechlin, demonstrating the potential of construction using iron, Eiffel Tower under
construction in July 1888.
despite the fact that steel construction was already being used elsewhere.
z During the late 19th Century, Russian structural engineer Vladimir Shukhov
developed analysis methods for tensile structures, thin-shell structures and
new structural geometries such as hyperboloid structures. Pipeline
transport was pioneered by Vladimir Shukhov and the Branobel company in
the late 19th century.
z From 1892 onwards François Hennebique's firm used his patented
reinforced concrete system to build thousands of structures throughout
Europe. Thaddeus Hyatt in the US and Wayss & Freitag in Germany also The world's first double
patented systems. The firm AG für Monierbauten constructed 200 curvature lattice steel Shell by
reinforced concrete bridges in Germany between 1890 and 1897 [24] Vladimir Shukhov (under
z During the first third of the 20th Century, Robert Maillart and others construction), Vyksa, Russia,
pioneered the use of reinforced concrete, and greatly furthered the 1897
understanding of its behaviour. Maillart noticed that many concrete bridge
structures were significantly cracked, and as a result left the cracked areas
out of his next bridge design - correctly believing that if the concrete was
cracked, it was not contributing to the strength. Wilhelm Ritter formulated
the truss theory for the shear design of reinforced concrete beams in 1899, and Emil Mörsch improved this
in 1902. He went on to demonstrate that treating concrete in compression as a linear-elastic material was
a conservative approximation of its behaviour[25]. Concrete design and analysis has been progressing
ever since, with the development of analysis methods such as yield line theory, based on plastic analysis

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of concrete (as opposed to linear-elastic), and many different variations on

the model for stress distributions in concrete in compression[26] [27]
z Prestressed concrete, pioneeered by Eugène Freyssinet with a patent in
1928, gave a novel approach in overcoming the weakness of concrete
structures in tension. Freyssinet constructed an experimental prestressed
arch in 1908 and later used the technology in a limited form in the
Plougastel Bridge in France in 1930. He went on to build six prestressed
concrete bridges across the Marne River, firmly establishing the
technology.[28] Salginatobel Bridge by Robert
z In 1930 Professor Hardy Cross’s developed his Moment Distribution Maillart.
Method, allowing the real stresses of many complex structures to be
approximated quickly and accurately.[29]
z In the mid 20th Century John Fleetwood Baker developed the plasticity
theory of structures, providing a powerful tool for the safe design of steel
structures.[29]
z In 1941 Alexander Hrennikoff submitted his [Link] thesis at MIT on the topic
of discretization of plane elasticity problems using a lattice framework. This
was the forerunner to the development of finite element analysis. In 1942,
Richard Courant developed a mathematical basis for finite element
analysis. This led in 1956 to the publication by J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H.
C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's of a paper on the "Stiffness and Deflection of Screenshot from the ANSYS
Complex Structures". This paper introduced the name "finite-element finite element analysis
method" and is widely recognised as the first comprehensive treatment of software.
the method as it is known today. [30]
z In 1987 Jörg Schlaich and Kurt Schafer published the culmination of almost ten years of work on the strut
and tie method for concrete analysis - a tool to design structures with discontinuities such as corners and
joints.[31]
z In the late 20th and early 21st Centuries the development of powerful computers has allowed finite
element analysis to become a significant tool for structural analysis and design. The development of finite
element programs has led to the ability to accurately predict the stresses in complex structures, and
allowed significant advances in structural engineering design and architecture. In the 1960s and 70s
computational analysis was used in a significant way for the first time on the design of the Sydney Opera
House roof. Many modern structures could not be understood and designed without the use of
computational analysis.[32]

Developments in the understanding of materials and structural behaviour in the latter part of the 20th Century
have been significant, with detailed understanding being developed of topics such as fracture mechanics,
earthquake engineering, composite materials, temperature effects on materials, dynamics and vibration, fatigue,
creep and others. The depth and breadth of knowledge now available in structural engineering, and the
increasing range of different structures and the increasing complexity of those structures has led to increasing
specialisation of structural engineers.

Significant structural failures

Structural engineering has advanced significantly because of the greater Mechanical failure modes
understanding of structures achieved from studying structural failures. The history of Buckling
structural engineering contains many collapses and failures. Amongst the most Corrosion
significant in developing structural engineering knowledge are: Creep
Fatigue
z On the 24th May, 1847 the Dee Bridge collapsed as a train passed over it, with Fracture
the loss of 5 lives. It was designed by Robert Stephenson, using cast iron Melting
girders reinforced with wrought iron struts. The bridge collapse was subject to Rupture
one of the first formal inquiries into a structural failure. The result of the enquiry Thermal shock
was that the design of the structure was fundamentally flawed, as the wrought Wear
iron did not reinforce the cast iron at all, and due to repeated flexing it suffered a
Yielding
brittle failure due to fatigue. [33]
z The Dee bridge disaster was followed by a number of cast iron bridge
collapse, including the collapse of the first Tay Rail Bridge on the 28
December 1879, also when a train passed over it. 75 people lost their lives.
The bridge failed because of poorly made cast iron, and the failure of the
designer Thomas Bouch to consider wind loading on the bridge. The
collapse resulted in cast iron largely being replaced by steel construction,
and a complete redesign of the Forth Railway Bridge of 1890. The Forth
Bridge was as a result the first entirely steel bridge in the world.[34]
z In 1940 the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed spectacularly due to
wind induced resonant vibration with positive feedback (causing continually Fallen Tay Rail Bridge
increasing amplitude). This collapse, and the research that followed, led to
increased understanding of wind/structure interactions, including the
phenomenon of flutter, a torsional mode of vibration. Several bridges were altered following the collapse to

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prevent a similar event occurring again. The only fatality was 'Tubby' the
dog.[34]
z During 1954 two de Havilland Comet C1 jet airliners, the world's first
commercial airliner, crashed with the loss of all on board. After lengthy
investigations, and the grounding of all Comet airliners, the cause was
discovered to be metal fatigue at the corners of the windows. The square
corners had led to stress concentrations which after continual stress cycles
from pressurisation and de-pressurisation, failed catastropically in flight.
The research into the failures led to significant improvements in
understanding of fatigue loading of airframes, and the redesign of the
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Comet and all subsequent airliners to incorporate rounded corners to doors collapsing
and windows.
z On the 16 May, 1968 the 22 storey residential tower Ronan Point in the
London borough of Newham collapsed when a relatively small gas explosion on the 18th floor caused a
structural wall panel to be blown away from the building. The tower was constructed of precast concrete,
and the failure of the single panel caused one entire corner of the building to collapse. The panel was able
to be blown out because there was insufficient reinforcement steel passing between the panels. This also
meant that the loads carried by the panel could not be redistributed to other adjacent panels, because
there was no route for the forces to follow. As a result of the collapse, building regulations were
overhauled to prevent disproportionate collapse, and the understanding of precast concrete detailing
was greatly advanced. Many similar buildings were altered or demolished as a result of the collapse.[35]
z On the 17 July, 1981, two suspended walkways through the lobby of the Hyatt Regency in Kansas City,
Missouri, collapsed, killing 114 people at a tea dance. The collapse was due to a late change in design,
altering the method in which the rods supporting the walkways were connected to them, and inadvertently
doubling the forces on the connection. The failure highlighted the need for good communication between
design engineers and contractors, and rigorous checks on designs and especially on contractor proposed
design changes. The failure is a standard case study on engineering courses around the world, and is
used to teach the importance of ethics in engineering.[35][36]
z On 19 April, 1995, the nine storey concrete framed Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma was
struck by a huge car bomb causing partial collapse, resulting in the deaths of 168 people. The bomb,
though large, caused a significantly disproportionate collapse of the structure. The bomb blew all the glass
off the front of the building and completely shattered a ground floor reinforced concrete column (see
brisance). At second storey level a wider column spacing existed, and loads from upper storey columns
were transferred into fewer columns below by girders at second floor level. The removal of one of the
lower storey columns caused neighbouring columns to fail due to the extra load, eventually leading to the
complete collapse of the central portion of the building. The bombing was one of the first to highlight the
extreme forces that blast loading from terrorism can exert on buildings, and led to increased consideration
of terrorism in structural design of buildings.[37]
z On 11 September, 2001, the two towers of the World Trade Center in New York were struck by
aeroplanes. Though the towers initially withstood the impact, the jet fuel on board caused fires which
ultimately caused the buildings to collapse due to buckling failures in the perimeter gravity frame. Both
towers collapsed in their entirety because as each floor collapsed, it fell on the floor below and caused it
too to collapse. This mode of collapse is known as progressive collapse. The significant investigations into
the collapse led to changes in the way tall buildings are designed to withstand both fire and terrorism, and
the methods in which people escape in emergencies.

Specialisations

Building structures

See also: Building engineering

Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the

design of buildings. It is the branch of structural engineering that is close to
architecture. Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative
manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and
scientific principles to achieve an end which fulfils its functional requirements and
is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be
expected to experience, while being economical and practical to construct. This is
subtly different to architectural design, which is driven by the creative
manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture and light to
achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional and often artistic. The architect is Sydney Opera House,
designed by Ove Arup &
usually the lead designer on buildings, with a structural engineer employed as a Partners, with the architect
sub-consultant. The degree to which each discipline actually leads the design Jorn Utzon
depends heavily on the type of structure. Many structures are structurally simple
and led by architecture, such as multi-storey office buildings and housing, while
other structures, such as tensile structures, shells and gridshells are heavily
dependent on their form for their strength, and the engineer may have a more
significant influence on the form, and hence much of the aesthetic, than the

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architect. Between these two extremes, structures such as stadia, museums and
skyscrapers are complex both architecturally and structurally, and a successful
design is a collaboration of equals. The structural design for a building must
ensure that the building is able to stand up safely, able to function without
excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural
elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for
occupants. It must account for movements and forces due to temperature, creep, Gare do Oriente in Lisbon,
cracking and imposed loads. It must also ensure that the design is practically Portugal (1998), by the
buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of the materials. It must structural engineer and
allow the architecture to work, and the building services to fit within the building architect Santiago Calatrava
and function (air conditioning, ventilation, smoke extract, electrics, lighting etc).
The structural design of a modern building can be extremely complex, and
requires a large team to complete. Structural engineering specialties for buildings
include:

z Façade Engineering
z Fire engineering
z Roof engineering Millennium Dome in London,
z Tower engineering UK, by Buro Happold and
z Wind Engineering Richard Rogers.

Civil engineering structures

Civil structural engineering includes all structural engineering related to the built
environment, excluding occupiable buildings. It includes:

z Bridges z Power Stations

z Dams z Railways
z Earthworks z Retaining Structures and Walls
z Foundations z Roads
z Offshore structures z Tunnels
z Pipelines z Waterways

The Millau Viaduct in France,

The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the designed by Michel Virlogeux
sole designer. In the design of structures such as these, structural safety is of with Foster & Partners
paramount importance (in the UK, dams, nuclear power stations and bridges
must be signed off by a chartered engineer). Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme
forces, such as large variations in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from
water or compressed gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in
industrial facilities or below ground.

Mechanical structures

The design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry (in
fact, so-called static structures can move significantly, and structural engineering
design must take this into account where necessary), but the design of moveable
or moving structures must account for fatigue, variation in the method in which
load is resisted and significant deflections of structures. The forces which parts of
a machine are subjected to can vary significantly, and can do so at a great rate.
The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do An Airbus A380, the world's
so thousands of times over the structure's lifetime. The structural design must largest passenger airliner
ensure that such structures are able to endure such loading for their entire design
life without failing. Mechanical structural engineering includes:

z Airframe and Fuselage Engineering

z Coachwork and Carriage Engineering
z Vessel and Hull Engineering
z Heavy Lifting and Moving Engineering

Structural elements

Any structure is essentially made up of only a small number of different types of

elements:

z Columns
z Beams
z Plates
z Arches
z Shells A statically determinate simply
z Catenaries supported beam, bending
under an evenly distributed

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Columns
load.

Columns are elements that carry only axial force -

either tension or compression - or both axial force
and bending. The design of a column must check the
axial capacity of the element, and the buckling
capacity. The buckling capacity is the capacity of the
element to withstand the propensity to buckle
because of inaccuracies in straightness or position of
the column. Its capacity depends upon its geometry,
material and the effective length of the column, which
depends upon the restraint conditions at the top and
bottom of the column. This is shown in the table on
the right, where the effective length is
<math>K*l</math> where <math>l</math> is the real
length of the column. The capacity of a column to
carry axial load depends on the degree of bending it
is subjected to, and vice versa. This is represented on
an interaction chart and is a complex non-linear
relationship.

Beams

A beam may be:

Table showing values of K for structural columns of various
end conditions (adapted from Manual of Steel Construction,
z cantilevered (supported at one end only with a 8th edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Table
fixed connection) C1.8.1)
z simply supported (supported vertically but able
to rotate at the supports)
z continuous (supported vertically and unable to rotate at the supports)

Beams are elements which carry pure bending only. Bending causes one section of a beam (divided along its
length) to go into compression and the other section into tension. The compression section must be designed to
resist buckling and crushing, while the tension section must be able to adequately resist the tension.

Trusses

A truss is a lightweight version of a beam, which allows the required strength and
stiffness to be achieved with a smaller amount of material than a solid beam. A
truss consists of top and bottom members which carry tension or compression,
with linking 'lacers' which transfer the forces to these members and restrain them,
ensuring the truss acts as a single structural element. In a pin-jointed truss
(where all joints are essentially hinges), the individual elements of a truss carry
only axial load. From experiments it can be shown that even trusses with rigid
joints will behave as though the joints are pinned. Trusses are usually utilised to
span large distances, where it would be uneconomical and unattractive to use
solid beams. Little Belt: a truss bridge in
Denmark

Plates

Plates carry bending in two directions. A concrete flat slab is an example of a

plate. Plates are understood by using continuum mechanics, but due to the
complexity involved they are most often designed using a codified empirical
approach, or computer analysis. They can also be designed with yield line theory,
where an assumed collapse mechanism is analysed to give an upper bound on
the collapse load (see Plasticity). This is rarely used in practice.
The McDonnell Planetarium
Shells by Gyo Obato in St Louis,
USA, a concrete shell
See also: Gridshell structure

Shells derive their strength from their form, and carry forces in compression in
two directions. A dome is an example of a shell. They can be designed by making a hanging-chain model, which
will act as a catenary in pure tension, and inverting the form to achieve pure compression.

Arches

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Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only, which is why it is

appropriate to build arches out of masonry. They are designed by ensuring that
the line of thrust of the force remains within the depth of the arch.

Catenaries

Catenaries derive their strength from their form, and carry transverse forces in
pure tension by deflecting (just as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it).
They are almost always cable or fabric structures. A fabric structure acts as a
catenary in two directions.

Structural engineering theory

A masonry arch
1. Keystone 2. Voussoir
3. Extrados 4. Impost
5. Intrados 6. Rise 7. Clear
span 8. Abutment

Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of loads, physics and

materials to understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight
and imposed loads. To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer
will need a detailed knowledge of mathematics and of relevant empirical and
theoretical design codes. The criteria which govern the design of a structure are
either serviceability (criteria which define whether the structure is able to
adequately fulfil its function) or strength (criteria which define whether a structure
is able to safely support and resist its design loads). A structural engineer designs
a structure to have sufficient strength and stiffness to meet these criteria. Loads
imposed on structures are supported by means of forces transmitted through
structural elements. These forces can manifest themselves as:
Figure of a bolt in shear. Top
z tension (axial force) figure illustrates single shear,
z compression (axial force) bottom figure illustrates
z shear double shear.
z bending (or flexure (a bending moment is a force multiplied by a distance,
or lever arm, hence producing a turning effect or torque)

Loads

Structural loads on structures are generally classified as live (imposed) loads and dead loads. Live loads are
transitory or temporary loads, and are relatively unpredicatable in magnitude. They may include the weight of a
building's occupants and furniture, the forces/weights of wind and water, temperature, vibration, seismic activity,
blast loading, fire loading and temporary loads the structure is subjected to during construction. Dead loads are
permanent, and may include the weight of the structure itself and all major permanent components. Dead load
may also include the weight of the structure itself supported in a way it wouldn't normally be supported, for
example during construction.

Strength

Strength depends upon material properties. The strength of a material depends on its capacity to withstand axial
stress or shear stress. The strength of a material is measured in force per unit area (newtons per square
millimetre or N/mm², or the equivalent megapascals or MPa). A structure fails the strength criterion when the
stress (force divided by area of material) induced by the loading is greater than the capacity of the structural
material to resist the load without breaking, or when the strain (percentage extension) is so great that the
element no longer fulfils its function (yield). See also:

See also: Tensile strength

See also: Compressive strength
See also: Shear strength

Stiffness

Stiffness depends upon material properties and geometry. The stiffness of a structural element of a given
material is the product of the material's Young's modulus and the element's second moment of area. Stiffness is
measured in force per unit length (newtons per millimetre or N/mm), and is equivalent to the 'force constant' in
Hooke's Law. The deflection of a structure under loading is dependent on its stiffness. The dynamic response
of a structure to dynamic loads (the natural frequency of a structure) is also dependent on its stiffness. In a
structure made up of multiple structural elements, the elements will carry loads in proportion to their relative

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stiffness - the stiffer an element, the more load it will attract. A structure is considered to fail the chosen
serviceability criteria if it is insufficiently stiff to have acceptably small deflection or dynamic response under
loading. The inverse of stiffness is the flexibility.

See also: Flexibility method

See also: Matrix stiffness method

Safety Factors

The safe design of structures requires a design approach which takes account of the statistical likelihood of the
failure of the structure. Structural design codes are based upon the assumption that both the loads and the
material strengths vary with a normal distribution. The job of the structural engineer is to ensure that the chance
of overlap between the distribution of loads on a structure and the distribution of material strength of a structure
is acceptably small (it is impossible to reduce that chance to zero). It is normal to apply a partial safety factor to
the loads and to the material strengths, to design using 95th percentiles (two standard deviations from the
mean). The safety factor applied to the load will typically ensure that in 95% of times the actual load will be
smaller than the design load, while the factor applied to the strength ensures that 95% of times the actual
strength will be higher than the design strength. In design for strength the following safety factors for loads are
typical:

z 1.4 for dead loads

z 1.6 for live loads
z 1.2 for wind loads

The safety factors for material strength vary depending on the material and the use it is being put to and on the
design codes applicable in the country or region. In design for serviceability criteria it is normal to use factors of
1.0 for the loads.

Newton's Laws of Motion

The most important natural laws for structural engineering are Newton's Laws of Motion Newton's First Law
states that every body perseveres in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward, except
insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed. Newton's Second Law states that the rate of
change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same
direction. Mathematically, F=ma (force = mass x acceleration). Newton's Third Law states that all forces occur in
pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. With these laws it is possible to
understand the forces on a structure and how that structure will resist them. The Third Law requires that for a
structure to be stable all the internal and external forces must be in equilibrium. This means that the sum of all
internal and external forces on a free-body diagram must be zero:

z <math> \sum \vec F = 0 </math>: the vectorial sum of the forces acting on the body equals zero. This
translates to

Σ H = 0: the sum of the horizontal components of the forces equals zero;

Σ V = 0: the sum of the vertical components of forces equals zero;

z <math> \sum \vec M = 0 </math>: the sum of the moments (about an arbitrary point) of all forces equals
zero.

Statical determinacy

A structural engineer must understand the internal and external forces of a structural system consisting of
structural elements and nodes at their intersections. A statically determinate structure can be fully analysed
using only consideration of equilibrium, from Newton's Laws of Motion. A statically indeterminate structure has
more unknowns than equilibrium considerations can supply equations for (see simultaneous equations). Such a
system can be solved using consideration of equations of compatibility between geometry and deflections in
addition to equilibrium equations, or by using virtual work. If a system is made up of <math>b</math> bars,
<math>j</math> pin joints and <math>r</math> support reactions, then it cannot be statically determinate if the
following relationship does not hold: <math>r + b = 2j</math> It should be noted that even if this relationship
does hold, a structure can be arranged in such a way as to be statically indeterminate.[38]

Elasticity

See also: Hooke's Law

Much engineering design is based on the assumption that materials behave elastically. For most materials this
assumption is incorrect, but empirical evidence has shown that design using this assumption can be safe.
Materials that are elastic obey Hooke's Law, and plasticity does not occur. For systems that obey Hooke's Law,

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the extension produced is directly proportional to the load:

<math> \vec{\mathbf{F}}=-k\vec{\mathbf{x}} \ </math>

where

x is the distance that the spring has been stretched or compressed away from the equilibrium position,
which is the position where the spring would naturally come to rest [usually in meters],
F is the restoring force exerted by the material [usually in newtons], and
k is the force constant (or spring constant). This is the stiffness of the spring. The constant has units of
force per unit length (usually in newtons per metre)

Plasticity

Some design is based on the assumption that materials will

behave plastically.[29] It applies to ductile materials. It can be
used for reinforced concrete structures assuming they are
underreinforced and the steel reinforcement fails before the
concrete. Plasticity theory states that the point at which a
structure collapses (reaches yield) lies between an upper and
a lower bound on the load, defined as follows:

z If, for a given external load, it is possible to find a

distribution of moments that satisfies equilibrium
requirements, with the moment not exceeding the yield
moment at any location, and if the boundary conditions
are satisfied, then the given load is a lower bound on
the collapse load.
z If, for a small increment of displacement, the internal
work done by the stucture, assuming that the moment at
every plastic hinge is equal to the yield moment and that
the boundary conditions are satisfied, is equal to the Comparison of Tresca and Von Mises Criteria
external work done by the given load for that same small
increment of displacement, then that load is an upper
bound on the collapse load.

If the correct collapse load is found, the two methods will give the same result for the collapse load.[39] Plasticity
theory depends upon a correct understanding of when yield will occur. A number of different models for stress
distibution and approximations to the yield surface of plastic materials exist:[13]

z Mohr's circle
z Von Mises yield criterion
z Henri Tresca

The Euler-Bernoulli beam equation

The Euler-Bernoulli beam equation defines the behaviour of a

beam element (see below). It is based on five assumptions: (1)
continuum mechanics is valid for a bending beam
(2) the stress at a cross section varies linearly in the direction
of bending, and is zero at the centroid of every cross section.
(3) the bending moment at a particular cross section varies
linearly with the second derivative of the deflected shape at
that location.
(4) the beam is composed of an isotropic material Deflection of a cantilever under a point load (f) in
(5) the applied load is orthogonal to the beam's neutral axis engineering
and acts in a unique plane. A simplified version of Euler-
Bernoulli beam equation is:

<math>EI \frac{d^4 u}{d x^4} = w(x).\,</math>

Here <math>u</math> is the deflection and <math>w(x)</math> is a load per unit length. <math>E</math> is
the elastic modulus and <math>I</math> is the second moment of area, the product of these giving the stiffness
of the beam. This equation is very common in engineering practice: it describes the deflection of a uniform, static
beam. Successive derivatives of u have important meaning:

z <math>\textstyle{u}\,</math> is the deflection.

z <math>\textstyle{\frac{\partial u}{\partial x}}\,</math> is the slope of the beam.

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z <math>\textstyle{EI\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2}}\,</math> is the bending moment in the beam.

z <math>\textstyle{-\frac{\partial}{\partial x}\left(EI\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2}\right)}\,</math> is the
shear force in the beam.

A bending moment manifests itself as a tension and a compression force, acting as a couple in a beam. The
stressed caused by these forces can be represented by:

<math>\sigma = \frac{My}{I} = E y \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2}\,</math>

where <math>\sigma</math> is the stress, <math>M</math> is the bending moment, <math>y</math> is the
distance from the neutral axis of the beam to the point under consideration and <math>I</math> is the second
moment of area. This equation allows a structural engineer to assess the stress in a structural element when
subjected to a bending moment.

Buckling

When subjected to compressive forces it is possible for structural elements to

deform significantly due to the destabilising effect of that load. The effect can be
initiated or exacerbated by possible inaccuracies in manufacture or construction.
The Euler Buckling formula defines the axial compression force which will cause
a strut (or column) to fail in buckling.

<math>F=\frac{\pi^2 EI}{(Kl)^2}</math>

where

<math>F</math> = maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),

<math>E</math> = modulus of elasticity,
<math>I</math> = area moment of inertia, or second moment of area A column under a centric axial
<math>l</math> = unsupported length of column, load exhibiting the
characteristic deformation of
<math>K</math> = column effective length factor, whose value depends buckling.
on the conditions of end support of the column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), <math>K</math> =
1.0.
For both ends fixed, <math>K</math> = 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, <math>K</math> =
0.70.
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally,
<math>K</math> = 2.0.

This value is sometimes expressed for design purposes as a critical buckling

stress.

<math>\sigma=\frac{\pi^2 E}{(\frac{Kl}{r})^2}</math>

where
A demonstration model
<math>\sigma</math> = maximum or critical stress illustrating the effects of
<math>r</math> = the least radius of gyration of the cross section lateral-torsional buckling on
an I-section beam.
Other forms of buckling include lateral torsional buckling, where the compression
flange of a beam in bending will buckle, and buckling of plate elements in plate girders due to compression in the
plane of the plate.

Materials

Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and

their properties, in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads. Common structural
materials are:

Iron

Wrought Iron

Wrought iron is the simplest form of iron, and is almost pure iron (typically less than 0.15% carbon). It usually
contains some slag. Its uses are almost entirely obsolete, and it is no longer commercially produced. Wrought
iron is very poor in fires. It is ductile, malleable and tough. It does not corrode as easily as steel.

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Cast Iron

Cast iron is a brittle form of iron which is weaker in tension than in

compression. It has a relatively low melting point, good fluidity,
castability, excellent machinability and wear resistance. Though almost
entirely replaced by steel in building structures, cast irons have
become an engineering material with a wide range of applications,
including pipes, machine and car parts. Cast iron retains high strength
in fires, despite its low melting point. It is usually around 95% iron, with
between 2.1-4% carbon and between 1-3% silicon. It does not corrode
as easily as steel.

Steel

Stress-strain curve for low-carbon steel.

Hooke's law (see above) is only valid for
the portion of the curve between the origin
and the yield point.
1. Ultimate strength
2. Yield strength-corresponds to yield
point.
3. Rupture
4. Strain hardening region
5. Necking region.

See also: Steel frame

Steel is a iron alloy with between 0.2 and 1.7% carbon. Steel is used extremely
widely in all types of structures, due to its relatively low cost, high strength to
weight ratio and speed of construction. Steel is a ductile material, which will
behave elastically until it reaches yield (point 2 on the stress-strain curve), when it
becomes plastic and will fail in a ductile manner (large strains, or extensions,
before failure at point 3 on the curve). Steel is equally strong in tension and
compression. Steel is very weak in fires, and must be protected in most buildings.
Because of its high strength to weight ratio, steel buildings typically have low
thermal mass, and require more energy to heat (or cool) than similar concrete
buildings. The elastic modulus of steel is approximately 205 GPa Steel is very
prone to corrosion (rust).

Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is an iron-carbon alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium The 630 foot (192 m) high,
content. There are different types of stainless steel, containing different stainless-clad (type 304)
proportions of iron, carbon, molybdenum, nickel. It has similar structural Gateway Arch in Saint Louis,
properties to steel, although its strength varies significantly. It is rarely used for Missouri's.
primary structure, and more for architectural finishes and building cladding. It is
highly resistant to corrosion and staining.

Concrete

Concrete is used extremely widely in building and civil engineering structures,

due to its low cost, flexibility, durability and high strength. It also has high
resistance to fire. Concrete is brittle material, which is very strong in compression
and very weak in tension. It behaves non-linearly at all times. Because it has
essentially zero strength in tension, it is almost always used as reinforced
concrete, a composite material. It is a mixture of sand, aggregate, cement and
water. It is placed in a mould, or form, as a liquid, and then it sets (goes off), due
a chemical reaction between the water and cement. The reaction produces a
significant amount of heat. Concrete increases in strength continually from the
The interior of the Sagrada
day it is cast. It shrinks over time as it dries out, and deforms over time due to a Familia, constructed of
phenomenon called creep. It's strength depends highly on how it is mixed, reinforced concrete to a
poured, cast, compacted and cured (kept wet while setting). It can be cast into design by Gaudi
any shape that a form can be made for. Its colour, quality and finish depend upon
the complexity of the structure, the material used for the form and the skill of the
pourer. Concrete is a non-linear, non-elastic material, and will fail suddenly, with
a brittle failure, unless adequate reinforced with steel. An "under-reinforced" concrete element will fail with a
ductile manner, as the steel will fail before the concrete. An "over-reinforced" element will fail suddenly, as the

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concrete will fail first. Reinforced concrete elements should be designed to be

under-reinforced so users of the structure will receive warning of impending
collapse. The elastic modulus of concrete can vary widely and depends on the
concrete mix, age and quality, as well as the on the type and duration of loading
applied to it. It is usually taken as approximately 25 GPa for long-term loads once
it has attained its full strength (usually considered to be at 28 days after casting).
It is taken as approximately 38 Gpa for very short-term loading, such as footfalls.
Concrete has very favourable properties in fire - it is not adversely affected by fire
until it reaches very high temperatures. It also has very high mass, so it is good
for providing sound insulation and heat retention (leading to lower energy
requirements for the heating of concrete buildings). This is offset by the fact that
producing and transporting concrete is very energy intensive.
A "cage" of reinforcing steel
Aluminium

Aluminium is a soft, lightweight, malleable metal. The yield strength of

pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield
strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about
one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is ductile, and easily
machined, cast, and extruded. Corrosion resistance is excellent due to
a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide that forms when the metal is
exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation. The strongest
aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions
with alloyed copper. Aluminium is used in some building structures
(mainly in facades) and very widely in aircraft engineering because of
its good strength to weight ratio. It is a relatively expensive material. In
aircraft it is gradually being replaced by carbon composite materials.

Composites

Stress vs. Strain curve typical of aluminum

1. Ultimate Strength
2. Yield strength
3. Proportional Limit Stress
4. Rupture
5. Offset Strain (typically 0.002).

Composite materials are used increasingly in vehicles and aircraft structures, and
to some extent in other structures. They are increasingly used in bridges.
Composites are often anisotropic (they have different material properties in
different directions) as they can be laminar materials. They most often behave
non-linearly and will fail in a brittle manner when overloaded. They provide
extremely good strength to weight ratios, but are also very expensive. The
manufacturing processes, which are often extrusion, do not currently provide the
economical flexibility that concrete or steel provide. The most commonly used in
structural applications are glass-reinforced plastics. Light composite aircraft

Masonry

Masonry has been used in structures for hundreds of years, and can take the
form of stone, brick or blockwork. Masonry is very strong in compression but
cannot carry tension (because the mortar between bricks or blocks is unable to
carry tension). Because it cannot carry tension, it also cannot carry bending, so
masonry walls become unstable at relatively small heights. High masonry
structures require stabilisation against lateral loads from buttresses (as with the
flying buttresses seen in many European medieval churches) or from windposts.
Historically masonry was constructed with no mortar or with lime mortar. In
modern times cement based mortars are used. Since the widespread use of A brick wall built using
concrete, stone is rarely used as a primary structural material, often only Flemish Bond
appearing as a cladding, because of its cost and the high skills needed to
produce it. Brick and concrete blockwork have taken its place. Masonry, like concrete, has good sound insulation
properties and high thermal mass, but is generally less energy intensive to produce. It is just as energy intensive
as concrete to transport.

Timber

Timber is the oldest of structural materials, and though mainly supplanted by

steel, masonry and concrete, it is still used in a significant number of buildings. The properties of timber are non-
linear and very variable, depending on the quality, treatment of wood and type of wood supplied. The design of

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wooden structures is based almost entirely on empirical evidence. Wood is strong

in tension and compression, but can be weak in bending due to its fibrous
structure. Wood is relatively good in fire as it chars, which provides the wood in
the centre of the element with some protection and allows the structure to retain
some strength for a reasonable length of time.

Other structural materials

The reconstructed Globe

Theatre, London, by Buro
Happold

z Adobe
z Bamboo
z Mud bricks
z Roofing materials

See also

z Structural Engineer
z List of structural engineers Bamboo scaffolding can reach
z Architects great heights.
z Architectural Engineering
z Civil Engineering
z Mechanical Engineering

References

z Leonhardt, A. (1964). "Vom Caementum zum Spannbeton, Band III (From Cement to Prestressed
Concrete)". Bauverlag GmbH.
z Mörsch, E. (Stuttgart, 1908). "Der Eisenbetonbau, seine Theorie und Anwendun, (Reinforced Concrete
Construction, its Theory an Application)". Konrad Wittwer, 3th edition.
z Hognestad, E. "A Study of Combined Bending and Axial Load in Reinforced Concrete Members".
University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin Series N. 399.
z Dr P.C.J. Hoogenboom. "Historical Overview of Concrete Modelling".
z Schlaich, J., K. Schäfer, M. Jennewein (1987). "Toward a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete". PCI
Journal, Special Report, Vol. 32, No. 3.

Notes

See above for references to publications and academic papers.

1. ^ History of Structural Engineering. University of San Diego. Retrieved on 2007-12-02.

2. ^ a b What is a structural engineer. Institution of Structural Engineers. Retrieved on 2007-12-02.
3. ^ Etymology of the word structure. [Link]. Retrieved on 2007-12-25.
4. ^ Etymology of engine, engineer. [Link]. Retrieved on 2007-12-25.
5. ^ a b Routes to membership. Institution of Structural Engineers. Retrieved on 2007-12-25.
6. ^ a b Victor E. Saouma. Lecture notes in Structural Engineering. University of Colorado. Retrieved on 2007-11-02.
7. ^ Heath,T.L.. The Works of Archimedes (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB). [Link]. Retrieved on 2007-
10-14.
8. ^ Renaissance Man. Museum of Science, Boston. Retrieved on 07-12-05.
9. ^ Galilei, Galileo. Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences. ISBN 0486600998.
10. ^ Allan Chapman (2005). England's Leornardo: Robert Hooke and the Seventeenth Century's Scientific
Revolution. CRC Press. ISBN 0750309873.
11. ^ Newton, Isaac;Leseur, Thomas; Jacquier, François (1822). Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Oxford
University.
12. ^ Stillwell, John (2002). Mathematics and its History. Springer, p.159. ISBN 0387953361.
13. ^ a b c Heyman, Jacques (1999). The Science of Structural Engineering. Imperial College Press, 69. ISBN
1860941893.
14. ^ a b Bradley, Robert E.; Sandifer, Charles Edward (2007). Leonhard Euler: Life, Work and Legacy. Elsevier. ISBN
0444527281.
15. ^ Dugas, René (1988). A History of Mechanics. Courier Dover Publications, 231. ISBN 0486656322.
16. ^ Hosford, William F. (2005). Mechanical Behavior of Materials. Cambridge University Press, p.35. ISBN
0521846706.
17. ^ Castigliano, Carlo Alberto (translator: Andrews, Ewart S.) (1966). The Theory of Equilibrium of Elastic Systems and
Its Applications. Dover Publications.

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18. ^ Prentice, John E. (1990). Geology of Construction Materials. Springer, p.171. ISBN 041229740X.
19. ^ Nedwell,P.J.; Swamy,R.N.(ed) (1994). Ferrocement:Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium.
Taylor & Francis, p.27. ISBN 0419197001.
20. ^ Swank, James Moore (1965). History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages. Ayer Publishing, p.395.
ISBN 0833734636.
21. ^ Kirby, Richard Shelton (1990). Engineering in History. Courier Dover Publications, p.476. ISBN
0486264122.
22. ^ Blank, Alan; McEvoy, Michael; Plank, Roger (1993). Architecture and Construction in Steel. Taylor &
Francis, p.2. ISBN 0419176608.
23. ^ Labrum, E.A. (1994). Civil Engineering Heritage. Thomas Telford, p.23. ISBN 072771970X.
24. ^ Leonhardt. p.41
25. ^ Mörsch, E. p.83
26. ^ Hognestad, E.
27. ^ Hoogenboom, P.C.J.
28. ^ Hewson, Nigel R. (2003). Prestressed Concrete Bridges: Design and Construction. Thomas Telford.
ISBN 0727727745.
29. ^ a b c Heyman, Jacques (1998). Structural Analysis: A Historical Approach. Cambridge University Press,
p.101. ISBN 0521622492.
30. ^ Turner, J.; Clough, R.W.; Martin, H.C.; Topp, L.J. (1956). "Stiffness and Deflection of Complex
Structures". Journal of Aeronautical Science (Issue 23).
31. ^ Schlaich, J., K. Schäfer, M. Jennewein
32. ^ MacNeal, Richard H. (1994). Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance. Marcel Dekker. ISBN
0824791622.
33. ^ Petroski, Henry (1994). Design Paradigms: Case Histories of Error and Judgment in Engineering.
Cambridge University Press, p.81. ISBN 0521466490.
34. ^ a b Scott, Richard (2001). In the Wake of Tacoma: Suspension Bridges and the Quest for Aerodynamic
Stabilitya. ASCE Publications, p.139. ISBN 0784405425.
35. ^ a b Feld, Jacob; Carper, Kenneth L. (1997). Construction Failure. John Wiley & Sons, p.8. ISBN
0471574775.
36. ^ Whitbeck, Caroline (1998). Ethics in Engineering Practice and Research. Cambridge University Press,
p.115. ISBN 0521479444.
37. ^ Virdi, K.S. (2000). Abnormal Loading on Structures: Experimental and Numerical Modelling. Taylor &
Francis, p.108. ISBN 0419259600.
38. ^ Dym, Clive L. (1997). Structural Modeling and Analysis. Cambridge University Press, p.98. ISBN
0521495369.
39. ^ Nilson, Arthur H.; Darwin, David; Dolan, Charles W. (2004). Design of Concrete Structures. McGraw-Hill
Professional, p.486. ISBN 0072483059.

External links

z Institution of Structural Engineers (IStructE)

z Structural Engineering Association - International

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