Chapter 18
Variation: differences between individuals of the same species
Continuous Discontinuous
Results in a range of phenotypes between two Results in a limited number of distinct
extremes phenotypes and no intermediates
Caused by genes and environment Caused by genes only
Phenotypic variation Genotypic variation
-seen when different characteristics within a Seen where there are obvious, distinct
population categories for a feature
No limit on the value No in-between categories
Ex: height, weight Ex: tongue roll, eye color, blood group
Causes of variation
1) Meiosis
-maternal and paternal chromosomes crossover and exchange genes before separating. Hence
resulting in new combinations, that makes the gametes genetically different
2) Fertilization
- any 2 gametes of the opposite sex fuse together. This leads to many combinations of genes in
the zygote, leading to variation
3) Mutation
-due to changes in the base sequence of DNA
-caused by fault in copying when DNA is replicated, deletion, inversion during cell division or
exposure to ionizing radiation or chemicals
Sickle cell anaemia
-mutation in the blood pigment haemoglobin
-causes the cell to deform and become sickle-shaped, especially when oxygen levels in the
blood become low
-less efficient in transporting oxygen and more likely to stuck in a capillary, preventing blood
flow
-people inherit this allele for sickle cell anaemia, which is either in homozygous recessive
combination (HbS HbS) or heterozygous combination (HbSHbA)
-the alleles for this disease are co-dominant
-symptoms:
a)less haemoglobin in blood/ fewer normal RBCs
b) less efficiency in transporting oxygen
c) fatigue, pain, exhaustion
d) can lead damage/failure of certain organs
e) shortness of breath
-Malaria and sickle cell anaemia
-malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by a parasite that invades red blood cells
-it acts as an agent for natural selection for individuals who have the heterozygous genotype of
sickle cell anaemia
Genotype Result
HbAHbA (normal) -individuals are highly susceptible to malaria, which is fatal
HbAHbS (heterozygous) -These individuals are less likely to suffer from a fatal attack of malaria
and are resistant. They are not seriously affected by sickle cell anaemia.
-Have selective advantage
-able to survive and pass on this allele to the next generation
HbSHbS (homozygous) -individuals are not susceptible to malaria, but seriously affected by sickle
cell anaemia leading to death
Adaptive feature
-as the inherited functional features of an organism that increase its fitness
Fitness
-the probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in which it is
found
Ex: polar bear, camel, cactus,
Natural selection
-Process by which plants and animals that can adapt to changes in their environment are able to
survive and reproduce while those that cannot adapt do not survive.
-It gives a greater chance of passing on of genes by the best adapted organisms
-Variation within population
-struggle for survival
Artificial selection
-method used by humans to produce varieties of animals and plants which have an increased
economic importance
-to produce new varieties of a species, so that certain desirable traits are represents in
successive generations
Example
a) Animals- increase in cow milk production, meat, wool (artificial insemination/ embryo
implantation)
b) Plants- size of crop, amount of crop, disease resistant, drought resistant (manual
pollination)
Supposed you wanted a variety of cow that produced a lot of milk. This is what you could do:
a)choose or select the cows in your herd that produce the most milk
b)allow only these cows to reproduce
c)select the offspring that produce the most milk
d) allow these offspring reproduce
e)repeat the process of selection and breeding until you can achieve your goals
Evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria
-arise due to mutation
-these mutation results in variants that are stronger, have less permeable cell walls, and are
therefore not destroyed by antibiotics such as penicillin
-some variants produce an enzyme that breaks down the antibiotic
-the antibiotic kills all variants that are not resistant, which is struggle for survival
-antibiotic acts as an agent for natural selection
-the resistant bacteria reproduced and pass on the mutated allele to the next generation,
resulting in the development of an antibiotic resistant variety
-increased use of antibiotics results in the creation of selective pressure, which favours the
development of resistant form of bacteria
-evolution is the change in adaptive features of a population over time as the result of natural
selection
-process of adaptation as the process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations
becomes more suited to their environment over many generations