Reference

• Biology • Earth science

• Chemistry • Space
• Physics • Who’s who
Biology
The science that focuses on the study of living microscopic organisms, such as green algae, to
things is broadly described as biology. The people the way large groups of animals behave. They also
who study biology are called biologists, and they investigate how living organisms survive, where they
examine every form of life—from the workings of originated, and how they interact with each other.

What does it consist of?

Biology covers a number of different elds. The two
main areas are zoology and botany, but there are many
other branches that focus on speci c areas of study.

Zoology Ecology
The study of animals is called zoology. The branch of biology that examines the
Zoologists look at the structure of animals relationship between living things and their
and examine how they live and behave. environment is called ecology.

Botany
The study of plants is called botany. Medicine
Botanists investigate all kinds of plant life, The science of the prevention, diagnosis,
from mosses and ferns to trees and cacti. and treatment of disease is called medicine.

Microbiology Paleontology
The study of microorganisms is called Paleontologists study the fossilized remains
microbiology. This includes cells that are of plants and animals in order to understand
too tiny to be seen without a microscope. how different species lived and evolved.

Requirements for life

Excretion
Excretion is the process of getting rid
Living things have certain life processes in common.
of waste. Humans, for example, excrete
They all share the same seven characteristics that set urine and carbon dioxide (the gas produced
them apart from nonliving things. during respiration).

Reproduction Movement
All living things reproduce and create new All living things can move in some way—
generations of a species (offspring). The plants can move their leaves and owers
process of reproduction enables a species to respond to light, and animals move to
to survive and spread. nd food, to mate, or to escape predators.

Growth
Respiration
Most living things grow by making extra
Chemical and physical processes where an
cells. As they grow, they also develop,
intake of oxygen is conveyed to tissues and
taking on new shapes or features that
cells, and carbon dioxide is exhaled.
enable them to function in new ways.

Sensitivity Nutrition
Most living things use their senses to detect Animals need nutrients to provide the
changes in their surroundings, such as light energy to make cells work. Not all living
levels or changes in the weather. Animals things get their energy from nutrients. Plants
depend on rapid responses for survival. get their energy direct from sunlight.

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Biomes Life on the land

Earth’s land biomes cover 29 percent of its
Biologists divide the world into regions, called biomes. surface. The other 71 percent is made up of
These regions share the same climate, and support water, which has its own variety of biomes.
Over time, the nature of a biome can change
similar types of vegetation and wildlife. Earth’s land is
due to climate change or human activity.
made up of 10 major biomes. The percentage of land
covered by each biome is shown in the pie chart below.
Temperate forest: 7%
Boreal forest: 8.5% Also known as deciduous Temperate grasslands: 6%
These forests, consisting mainly forests, temperate forests These vast areas of mostly
of conifer trees such as pines flourish in moderate climates grass-covered land have
and spruce, endure long, cold and have distinct seasons. cool winters and hot
winters and short summers. summers. They support
a rich variety of grazing
and burrowing animals.
Cultivated land: 9.5%
This biome is made up of areas that
have been cultivated by people to
grow crops or rear animals.
Mediterranean: 6%
This coastal biome has
very hot summers and
Savanna: 10%
cool, rainy winters. Shrubs
These vast grasslands remain
cover most of the dry,
warm all year. They are home
parched landscape.
to huge herds of grazing
animals and their predators.

Ice: 11% Tropical rainforest: 17% Tundra: 5.5% Desert: 19.5%

The icy polar regions and Warm and wet all year round, Consisting mainly of frozen, On average, deserts receive
snow-capped mountain tropical rainforests are home treeless plains, the Arctic less than 10 in (25 cm) of rain
peaks are cold, barren to at least half the world’s tundra supports a rich each year. Only a few plants
environments where few plant and animal species. variety of plants and wildlife. and animals can survive in
plants and animals thrive. this harsh environment.

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 Animal kingdom
All the different species of animals in the world belong (invertebrates), such as snails and worms. Animals
to a scienti c category called the animal kingdom. The with backbones (vertebrates), including mammals
main groups of the kingdom are known as phyla. Most and reptiles, are placed together in just one of these
of these groups consist of animals without backbones major divisions: the chordates.

Most animals are highly

mobile and use their senses to Animal kingdom
respond to their surroundings.

Parasitic
Invertebrates are animals that
roundworm
do not have backbones. Invertebrates
Squid

Segmented
Roundworms Sponges Molluscs Small phyla
worms
Round-bodied worms, Includes marine worms, Mainly aquatic animals Soft-bodied animals that Other animal groups
found in soil or living earthworms, ragworms, that absorb food through include snails, slugs, (phyla), including
as parasites. and leeches. their outer surface. squid, and shell sh. microscopic creatures.

Flatworms Cnidarians Echinoderms Bryozoans

Mostly parasitic Animals with tentacles, Sea-living creatures, Small lter-feeding
worms, including ukes including jelly sh, sea including star sh and animals that frequently
and tapeworms. anemones, and corals. sea urchins. grow in colonies.

Invertebrates with jointed

Arthropods limbs, a segmented body,
Crab
and an outer skeleton.
Ladybird

Millipedes Centipedes Crustaceans Arachnids Insects

Plant-eating Predatory arthropods Mainly aquatic Eight-legged The largest group
arthropods with two with many body arthropods, including arthropods, including of arthropods, most of
pairs of legs on each segments, each with crabs, prawns, but spiders, scorpions, which have two pairs
body segment. a single pair of legs. also pillbugs. mites, and ticks. of wings.

Chordates include all animals with

backbones, and others with a exible
Chordates
supporting rod called a notochord. (vertebrates)
Boa

Cartilaginous
Jawless fish Bony fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds
fish
Primitive sh that Sharks and rays that The largest group of Animals that usually A large group of land Egg-laying animals
have a spiral of teeth, have skeletons made sh, mostly with ns live in water when animals that includes with feathers, most
used to scrape of cartilage instead supported by thin young, such as frogs, snakes, turtles, of which are able
mouthfuls of food. of bone. rays of bone. toads, and newts. and crocodiles. to y.

Warm-blooded animals
Platypus with hair that feed their Mammals
young on milk. Tiger

Monotremes Marsupials Placentals

Primitive, egg-laying mammals from Pouched mammals from Australia and Mammals that carry developing young
Australia and New Guinea, including the Americas, including opossums, in the female’s body, nourishing them
the echidna and platypus. kangaroos, and wombats. with an organ called a placenta.

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Dinosaur evolution
For more than 160 million years, life on Earth was groups: the saurischians (lizard-hipped dinosaurs) and
dominated by dinosaurs—the largest, most varied group the ornithischians (bird-hipped dinosaurs). These can
of prehistoric reptiles. Dinosaurs can be split into two be split into further groups, as shown below.

Mesozoic era Cenozoic era

ERA
252 MYA–66 MYA 66 MYA–P RESENT DAY

Triassic period Jurassic period Cretaceous period

PERIOD
252 MYA–201 MYA 201 MYA–145 MYA 145 MYA–66 MYA

Birds
A group of small, feathered
Spinosaurus, dinosaurs with long tails and small
a theropod ight muscles. Early birds had teeth,
unlike modern birds. Iberomesornis,
an early bird
Theropods
A varied group including all
Saurischians the powerful hunters. They
all walked on their hind legs,
(lizard-hipped and many had feathers.
dinosaurs)

Plateosaurus,
Early plant-eating
Sauropodomorphs Prosauropods relatives of sauropods
a prosauropod
A group of long- that had a massive,
necked, long-tailed clawed thumb and
dinosaurs that long, slender jaws.
included the
prosauropods and
the sauropods. Sauropods
A group of gigantic, long-necked Argentinosaurus,
saurischians that had pillarlike legs a sauropod
and relatively small heads.

A group that Stegosaurs

included the
heavily-armored A group of plant-eating
ankylosaurs and ornithischians with rows
stegosaurs.
Thyreophorans of bony plates running down
Stegosaurus, a stegosaur their backs and tails.

Ankylosaurs
Ornithischians
A group of armored, plant-eating
(bird-hipped ornithischians with a bony club
dinosaurs) at the end of the tail.
Euoplocephalus,
an ankylosaur

Ornithopods
A group of plant-eating dinosaurs
with long hind limbs.

Pachycephalosaurs
A group of two-legged dinosaurs Pachycephalosaurus,
with thick, domed skulls. a pachycephalosaur
Corythosaurus, Marginocephalians
an ornithopod A group of ceratopsians
with a bony neck frill and
a strong, armored skull. Ceratopsians
A group of four-legged, horned,
plant-eating dinosaurs. Triceratops,
a ceratopsian

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 Early humans
Our earliest ancestors—the hominins—lived in Central species are related to each other. The chart below
and Eastern Africa millions of years ago. As fossil shows some of the hominin species that have
evidence is limited, scientists do not know exactly how been identi ed and the dates they ourished.
many human species have existed and how different

Sahelanthropus 7 MYA
tchadensis
7–6

Orrorin
tugenensis 6 MYA
6.2–5.8 Ardipithecus kadabba
5.8–5.2

5 MYA

Ardipithecus ramidus
4.4
Australopithecus
Australopithecus afarensis
anamensis
3.85–2.95 4 MYA
4.2–3.9

Australopithecus
Kenyanthropus
bahrelghazali
platyops
Australopithecus 3.6–3
3.5–3.2
africanus
3.3–2
Australopithecus 3 MYA
garhi
3–2 Paranthropus
aethiopicus
Paranthropus
2.7–2.3 boisei
2.3–1.2
Homo
habilis
2 MYA
2.2–1.4 Paranthropus robustus
1.8–1.2

Homo
rudolfensis
1.9–1.8

Homo erectus 1 MYA

1.89 –143,000
Homo
Possible
heidelbergensis
lineage
700,000–200,000 Homo neanderthalensis
400,000–40,000

Homo floresiensis Homo sapiens

200,000 –Present day Present
95,000–17,000
day

KEY
Sahelanthropus probably Ardipithecus was similar in Australopithecus had long Homo had a larger brain
walked on two legs. size to a modern chimpanzee. arms for climbing trees. and longer legs than
earlier ancestors.
Orrorin had teeth more like Kenyanthropus had a flat Paranthropus had teeth for
those of humans than apes. face, with high cheekbones. chewing tough plant foods. Probable line of descent

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Human body
The human body is divided into a number of systems: out a speci c task—such as processing food or
skin and related organs; skeletal; muscular; nervous; providing the body with oxygen. Groups of cells make
circulatory; lymphatic; respiratory; endocrine (glandular); up body tissues, and two or more tissues make up an
digestive; urinary; and reproductive. Each system organ such as the heart or lung. For a healthy body,
features a set of organs and tissues working to carry the systems need to work together.

Skeletal system Muscular system

This system is made of Muscles in the
The adult skeleton is
Pivot joint helps rotate three types of muscle. head control
made up of 206 bones. facial expressions.
head from side to side. Skeletal muscles move
These bones provide a
framework to support Ball-and-socket the skeleton. Smooth
the body, protect the joint in the muscle is found in the
shoulder Intercostal
internal organs, and walls of hollow organs muscles at
provide attachment such as the bladder, and the ribs help
points for the muscles. The elbow can contracts automatically. to control
move only in Cardiac muscle makes breathing.
one plane. the heart beat.
The wrist has
an oval bone
sitting in a socket.
Saddle joint Sartorius muscle
allows the turns the thigh
thumb to move outward and
in two planes. bends the knee.

Peroneus longus Hand muscles

muscle pulls the foot allow us to grip
Gliding joints occur up and outward. and use objects.
between bones
that are almost flat.
They allow the
bones to slide
past one another.

Nervous system The brain

The nervous system is the body’s
control center.
is made up of the
brain and spinal
cord, along with
a network of nerves Circulatory system
that carries signals This system consists The heart
around the body of the heart, the blood, pumps
The spinal cord is
as electric pulses. and the blood vessels. blood around
a bundle of nerve
the body.
fibers that send It transports nutrients,
signals between oxygen, and other
the brain and the vital materials around Veins (blue)
rest of the body. the body. carry blood
depleted
of oxygen
The sciatic nerve toward
controls the muscles the heart.
of the thigh, lower
leg, and foot. Arteries (red) carry
blood containing
oxygen from the heart.

The tibial nerve

controls the
muscles in the
calf and foot.

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 Plant kingdom
The plant kingdom contains around 400,000 species, ferns, have no specialized roots or water-carrying
ranging in size from microscopic algae to huge trees tissue, and reproduce by making spores. More
such as the giant sequoia. Plants have many cells advanced plants, such as conifers and owering plants,
and most make their own food in a process called have roots and stems, and reproduce by making seeds.
photosynthesis. Simple plants, such as mosses and
Plant kingdom

Most plants that carry

out photosynthesis
are included in the
Land-based plant kingdom. Water-based
plants plants
The majority of plant The most
species live on land. primitive plants
evolved in water.
Horsetail

Most plant species have

vascular tissue—tubelike Primitive plants with
vessels that carry water Vascular no vascular tissue, Non-vascular Seaweeds
and food around the plant. true roots, or leaves.
Green seaweeds,
such as sea lettuce,
are generally considered
to be plants.
Angiosperms Gymnosperms Ferns Mosses

Flowering Needle-leaf trees that Plants that do not Small plants

plants that produce cones, such produce seeds, that grow close Sphagnum
produce as pines and rs. including bracken. to the ground.
seeds in
a hard
coating and
held inside
a fruit.
Monocotyledons
produce seeds
Eudicots Monocotyledons that sprout with a
Military single leaf (cotyledon).
Eudicots produce orchid
seeds that sprout
with two leaves
(cotyledons).
Orchids Grasses Palms
A large group of small, Fast-growing Treelike plants
complex-shaped monocotyledons that found in all
owers. sprout from the base. tropical regions.
Carrots

Palm tree

Apiales Lamiales Vitales Dipsacales

Includes parsley, Includes several herbs, Includes climbing Includes honeysuckle,

carrots, ivy, ginseng, such as lavender, plants, such as grapes elder, viburnum,
and celery. mint, and basil. and other vines. and teasels.

Strawberry

Cacti and Heathers and

allies Asterales Legumes Rosids
succulents
Includes cacti, Includes heathers, Includes daisies, Includes peas, soybeans, Includes oaks, apples,
carnations, and many tea plants, kiwis, sun owers, lobelias, lentils, chickpeas, strawberries, roses,
carnivorous plants. cranberry, and azalea. and lettuce. alfalfa, and clover. beech, and cabbage.

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Photosynthesis How plants grow

Most plants carry out photosynthesis in their leaves. A plant seed contains a tiny embryo with its
In this process, green pigment called chlorophyll traps own supply of food. In spring, as the weather gets
the energy in sunlight, using it to turn water and warmer, the embryo starts to grow and the seed
carbon dioxide into a sugar called glucose. Plants use sprouts (germinates). Roots grow downward to
glucose for fuel and to make other substances needed take in water and nutrients from the soil, while
for growth. Oxygen is released as a waste product. shoots grow upward toward the light.

Outer seed coat

swells and splits.

A green pigment
in leaves, called 1. Germination
chlorophyll, In order to germinate, the
absorbs sunlight. seed needs water, oxygen,
and warmth. A small pore
Oxygen is released in the seed coat takes in
as a waste product water and the seed swells.
of photosynthesis. Eventually the seed coat
splits and the root and
shoot emerge.

Seed sprouts and

breaks through the
surface of the soil.
Leaves also absorb
carbon dioxide.

2. New plant
The plant starts to grow
beneath the ground. The
roots take in water and
nutrients from the soil, and
Roots draw help to anchor the plant in
up water
the ground. The shoot grows
from the soil.
upward and straightens
once above the ground.

Leaves are the

plant’s food source.
Leaf vein
Palisade cell
containing
transport vessels.
The xylem (blue)
carries water; the
phloem (orange)
transports sugars. Water loss—
leaves lose
Spongy cell water through
evaporation 3. Above ground
Pore (stoma) Once the leaves have
opened, the plant can start
to make its own food by
Inside a leaf photosynthesis. The stem
Leaves are made up of many cells. The tall palisade cells carries water and nutrients
contain structures called chloroplasts, which store chlorophyll. up from the roots, and
Beneath these are transport vessels that carry water and glucose away from the
glucose. The underside of the leaf has tiny pores (stomata), leaves to different parts
through which gases can enter and leave the leaf. of the plant.

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Chemistry States of matter
All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms. There are three main states of matter—solid, liquid,
and gas. The state of a substance depends on how
Chemistry is the branch of science that studies
its atoms and molecules (groups of atoms) are
the structure and properties of atoms. It also bonded together. This bonding is determined by
investigates how atoms change and interact factors such as temperature and pressure.
with each other during processes called
chemical reactions. Solid
A solid has a xed shape or volume.
Its molecules are tightly packed
together in regular patterns. Strong
bonds hold the solid rmly in place.
Types of chemistry
Molecules are
There are several different branches of chemistry compacted together
that investigate the composition, behavior, and
properties of different types of matter. Three of
the main areas of study are described below.

Liquid
A liquid has a xed volume but no
Organic chemistry xed shape—it takes the shape of
This branch of chemistry examines all its container. The bonds of a liquid
the compounds that contain carbon. are looser than those of a solid.
Most carbon compounds are derived
from organic sources (meaning it
Some bonds are broken,
comes from living things). which gives liquid
its fixed volume,
Electrochemistry but fluid shape.
Electrochemists examine the relationship
between electricity and chemical
substances, and investigate the chemical Gas
processes that cause electrons to move. A gas has no xed volume or
shape. There are no bonds holding
the molecules together, so they
Inorganic chemistry move freely around their container.
Most matter in the Universe is nonliving—
it does not grow, reproduce, or move. Without bonds, the
Inorganic chemistry is the study of all molecules are free
nonorganic substances (meaning they to move in any direction.
come from nonliving things).

Chemical properties Reactivity series

Common metals are often ordered by how reactive
All substances have their own unique set of chemical they are. This is called the reactivity series.
properties, which help to explain why they react in a The metals at the top of the series are the most
particular way when they are heated or combined with reactive; those at the bottom are the least reactive.
other substances.

78 79 47 29 82 50 26 30 13 12 20 11 19
Least
reactive Pt Au Ag Cu Pb Sn Fe Zn Al Mg Ca Na K Most
reactive
Silver
Platinum

Copper

Sodium
Zinc

Potassium
Lead

Magnesium
Tin

Aluminum

Calcium
Iron
Gold

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Metallic and nonmetallic minerals KEY

Luster Streak
The most common physical properties used to describe
minerals include hardness, streak (the color produced
Hardness Other
when the mineral is crushed into a powder), luster (the
properties
way in which it re ects light), and cleavage
(the way in which it splits apart). Cleavage Minerals
Metallic

Soft Hard

Cleavage No cleavage

Gray Gray to black Greenish black Black to dark grey

Writes on paper Feels heavy Looks like gold Magnetic

Galena Magnetite

Pyrite
Graphite

Nonmetallic

Soft Hard

Cleavage Cleavage No cleavage

Light Light No color

Dissolves in
Tastes salty Has a soapy feel Glows in the dark
hydrofluoric acid

Halite Fluorite

Talc Quartz

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 Elements KEY Hydrogen Metalloids
Alkali metals Other metals
The structure of the periodic table we use today was Alkaline earth metals Other nonmetals
devised by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. It arranges all H Transition metals Halogens He
the elements in rows in order of increasing atomic
Lanthanide series Noble
number—the number of protons each atom has Li Be B C N O F Ne
Actinide series gases
in its nucleus. Elements with similar properties
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
and atomic structures are grouped together.
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Periodic table La-
Every element is most easily identi ed by its symbol. Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Lu
The table has seven horizontal rows, called periods. The Ac-
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
vertical columns are called groups. Periods 6 and 7 are Lr
too long to t on the table, so the middle sections in La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Group 3 are shown at the bottom (see pp.188-189).
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

List of elements Atomic

Name/Symbol Discovery
No
Atomic
Name/Symbol Discovery 27 cobalt (Co) Georg Brandt (1739)
No
28 nickel (Ni) Axel Cronstedt (1751)
1 hydrogen (H) Henry Cavendish (1766)
29 copper (Cu) Prehistoric
2 helium (He) William Ramsay (1895)
30 zinc (Zn) Andreas Marggraf (1746)
3 lithium (Li) Johan Arfvedson (1817)
31 gallium (Ga) Paul-Émile Lecoq de
4 beryllium (Be) Nicholas Louis Vauquelin (1797) Boisbaudran (1875)
5 boron (B) Louis-Josef Guy-Lussac;
32 germanium (Ge) Clemens Winkler (1886)
Louis-Josef Thénard;
Humphry Davy (1808) 33 arsenic (As) Albertus Magnus (c 1250)
6 carbon (C) Prehistoric 34 selenium (Se) Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1817)
7 nitrogen (N) Daniel Rutherford (1772) 35 bromine (Br) Antoine-Jérôme Balard;
8 oxygen (O) Joseph Priestley; Carl Wilhelm Carl Löwig (1826)
Scheele (1774) 36 krypton (Kr) William Ramsay;
9 fluorine (F) Henri Moissan (1886) Morris Travers (1898)

10 neon (Ne) William Ramsay; Morris Travers 37 rubidium (Rb) Gustav Kirchhoff;
(1898) Robert Bunsen (1861)

11 sodium (Na) Humphry Davy (1807) 38 strontium (Sr) Adair Crawford (1790)

12 magnesium (Mg) Joseph Black (1755) 39 yttrium (Y) Johan Gadolin (1794)

13 aluminum (Al) Hans Øersted (1825) 40 zirconium (Zr) Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1789)

14 silicon (Si) Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1824) 41 niobium (Nb) Charles Hatchett (1801)

15 phosphorus (P) Hennig Brandt (1669) 42 molybdenum (Mo) Peter Jacob Hjelm (1781)

16 sulfur (S) Prehistoric 43 technetium (Tc) Carlo Perrier; Emilio Segrè (1937)

17 chlorine (Cl) Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1774) 44 ruthenium (Ru) Karl Karlovich Klaus (1844)

18 argon (Ar) John Strutt; William Ramsay 45 rhodium (Rh) William Hyde Wollaston (1803)
(1894)
46 palladium (Pd) William Hyde Wollaston (1803)
19 potassium (K) Humphry Davy (1807)
47 silver (Ag) Unknown (c 3000 BCE)
20 calcium (Ca) Humphry Davy (1808)
48 cadmium (Cd) Friedrich Stromeyer (1817)
21 scandium (Sc) Lars Frederik Nilson (1879)
49 indium (In) Ferdinand Reich; Hieronymous
22 titanium (Ti) William Gregor (1791) Richter (1863)
23 vanadium (V) Andrés Manuel del Rio (1801) 50 tin (Sn) Unknown (c 2100 BCE)
24 chromium (Cr) Nicholas Louis Vauquelin (1798) 51 antimony (Sb) Unknown (c 1600 BCE)
25 manganese (Mn) Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1774) 52 tellurium (Te) Franz-Joseph Müller von
26 iron (Fe) Unknown (c 3500 BCE) Reichenstein (1783)

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Atomic Atomic
Name/Symbol Discovery Name/Symbol Discovery
No No

53 iodine (I) Bernard Courtois (1811) 87 francium (Fr) Marguerite Perey (1939)
54 xenon (Xe) William Ramsay; 88 radium (Ra) Pierre and Marie Curie (1898)
Morris Travers (1898)
89 actinium (Ac) Andrew Debierne (1899)
55 cesium (Cs) Gustav Kirchhoff;
Robert Bunsen (1860) 90 thorium (Th) Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1829)

56 barium (Ba) Humphry Davy (1808) 91 protactinium (Pa) Kasimir Fajans;

Otto Göhring (1913)
57 lanthanum (La) Carl Gustav Mosander (1839)
92 uranium (U) Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1789)
58 cerium (Ce) Jöns Jacob Berzelius;
Wilhelm Hisinger (1803) 93 neptunium (Np) Edwin McMillan; Philip Abelson
(1940)
59 praseodymium (Pr) Carl Auer von Welsbach (1885)
94 plutonium (Pu) Glenn Seaborg and others (1940)
60 neodymium (Nd) Carl Auer von Welsbach (1885)
95 americium (Am) Glenn Seaborg and others (1944)
61 promethium (Pm) Jacob Marinsky; Lawrence
Glendenin; Charles Coryell 96 curium (Cm) Glenn Seaborg and others (1944)
(1945) 97 berkelium (Bk) Stanley Thompson; Albert
62 samarium (Sm) Paul-Émile Lecoq de Ghiorso; Glenn Seaborg (1949)
Boisbaudran (1879)
98 californium (Cf) Stanley Thompson; Kenneth
63 europium (Eu) Eugène-Anatole Demarçay (1901) Street; Albert Ghiorso;
Glenn Seaborg (1950)
64 gadolinium (Gd) Jean-Charles Galissard de
Marignac (1880) 99 einsteinium (Es) Albert Ghiorso and others (1952)

65 terbium (Tb) Carl Gustav Mosander (1843) 100 fermium (Fm) Albert Ghiorso and others (1953)
66 dysprosium (Dy) Paul-Émile Lecoq de
101 mendelevium (Md) Albert Ghiorso and others (1955)
Boisbaudran (1886)
67 holmium (Ho) Per Cleve; Marc Delafontaine; 102 nobelium (No) Georgy Flerov;
Louis Soret (1878) Albert Ghiorso (1963)

68 erbium (Er) Carl Gustav Mosander (1843) 103 lawrencium (Lr) Georgy Flerov;
Albert Ghiorso (1965)
69 thulium (Tm) Per Cleve (1879)
104 rutherfordium (Rf) Georgy Flerov; Albert Ghiorso
70 ytterbium (Yb) Jean-Charles Galissard (1964)
de Marignac (1878)
105 dubnium (Db) Scientists in US/Russia
71 lutetium (Lu) Georges Urbain; (1968–1970)
Charles James (1907)
106 seaborgium (Sg) Albert Ghiorso and others (1974)
72 hafnium (Hf) George de Hevesy;
Dirk Coster (1923) 107 bohrium (Bh) Peter Armbruster; Gottfried
Münzenberg (1981)
73 tantalum (Ta) Anders Gustav Ekeberg (1802)
108 hassium (Hs) Peter Armbruster; Gottfried
74 tungsten (W) Juan and Fausto Elhuyar (1783)
Münzenberg (1984)
75 rhenium (Re) Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke;
109 meitnerium (Mt) Peter Armbruster;
Otto Berg (1925)
GottfriedMünzenberg (1982)
76 osmium (Os) Smithson Tennant (1803)
110 darmstadtium (Ds) Peter Armbruster; Gottfried
77 iridium (Ir) Smithson Tennant (1803) Münzenberg (1981)

78 platinum (Pt) Unknown 111 roentgenium (Rg) Peter Armbruster; Gottfried

Münzenberg (1994)
79 gold (Au) Unknown (c 3000 BCE)
112 copernicium (Cn) Sigurd Hofmann and
80 mercury (Hg) Unknown (c 1500 BCE)
others (1996)
81 thallium (Tl) William Crookes (1861)
113 nihonium (Nh) Scientists in Japan (2004)
82 lead (Pb) Unknown
114 flerovium (Fl) Scientists in US/Russia (1999)
83 bismuth (Bi) Unknown (c 1500)
115 moscovium (Mc) Scientists in US/Russia (2004)
84 polonium (Po) Marie Curie (1898)
116 livermorium (Lv) Scientists in US/Russia (2000)
85 astatine (At) Dale Corson; Kenneth
MacKenzie, Emilio Segrè (1940) 117 tennessine (Ts) Scientists in US/Russia (2010)

86 radon (Rn) Friedrich Ernst Dorn (1900) 118 oganesson (Og) Scientists in US/Russia (2006)

261
Physics
The branch of science that is concerned with matter on the areas of electricity, magnetism, force, motion,
and energy is called physics. This branch is central to light, and waves. Today, it covers a wide range of
all other sciences because it attempts to discover the elds, from thermodynamics to nuclear reactions.
basic laws that govern how the Universe works.
Before the 20th century, physics concentrated mainly

What does it consist of? SI units

Physics examines the behavior of matter and energy, Scientists use seven basic units of measurement,
which make up the entire Universe. It can be used to known as the SI base units, listed below. “SI”
explain concepts in many areas of science such as stands for “Système International.” These units
meteorology, mechanics, and astronomy. of measurement enable scientists in different
countries to exchange the results of their
experiments and calculations.

SI units
Particle physics Thermodynamics Unit Symbol Quantity measured
Particle physicists study This area of physics
the hundreds of different investigates the relationship
types of particles that make between heat and other
up atoms. forms of energy. Meter m A unit of length

Kilogram kg A unit of mass

Mechanics Optics
Mechanics is the study of Optics is the study of the
the movement of objects behavior of beams of light
and the forces that act upon as they re ect off or shine Second s A unit of time
them to set them in motion. through different substances.

Ampere A A unit of electrical current

Wave theory Electromagnetism

Wave theory tries to explain Electromagnetism studies
how natural phenomena, the relationship between Kelvin K A unit of temperature
such as sound and light, electric currents and
are transmitted as waves. magnetic elds.

A unit of brightness
Candela cd
(luminous intensity)

A unit of quantity of a
Astronomy Meteorology substance (generally very
This is the branch of physics Meteorologists study Mole mol
small particles such as
that studies the planets, the weather, producing atoms and molecules)
stars, and galaxies that weather forecasts based
make up the Universe. on satelite and radar images.

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Formulas Types of energy

A formula is a type of equation that shows the Energy is the ability to make things happen, whether
relationship between different variables. A variable it is moving something, heating it up, or changing it
is a symbol such as “x” or “y” that stands in for an in some way. Energy exists in many forms, including
unknown number. Physicists calculate unknown sound, heat, and light. All types of energy are related,
quantities using formulas, in which known and can be converted from one form to another.
quantities are combined in speci c ways. Listed
below are some of the most common formulas.
Thermal energy
The energy that Earth receives from the
Sun is called thermal or heat energy.
Air blowing out from a hairdryer is hot
because electrical energy is converted
into thermal energy.
Physics formulas
Quantity Description Formula Chemical energy
This is the form of energy released when
voltage V a chemical reaction, such as burning
Current I =
resistance R fuel, takes place. When food is digested,
chemical compounds are broken down
Voltage current × resistance V = IR and energy is released into the body.

voltage V Nuclear energy

Resistance R =
current I
Nuclear energy is the potential energy
work W stored in the nucleus of an atom. When
Power P =
time t the nucleus of an atom is split or when
two nuclei fuse together, a tremendous
distance d amount of energy is released.
Time t =
velocity v
Potential energy
Distance velocity × time d = vt Potential energy is energy that is stored,
ready for use. For example a diver has
displacement (distance potential energy due to her or his height
d
Velocity in a given direction) v = above the water. This changes to kinetic
t
time energy as the diver falls.
final velocity – initial velocity v2–v1
Acceleration a =
time t Radiant energy
This is the form of energy carried by
Force mass × acceleration F = ma light and other types of electromagnetic
radiation. The Sun is Earth’s major
source of radiant energy because it
Momentum mass × velocity p = mv gives off vast amounts of heat and light.

force F
Pressure P = Sound energy
area A
Sound energy is produced when an
mass m object vibrates. The sound vibrations
Density p = cause waves that travel through a
volume V
medium such as air, water, wood,
mass m or metal.
Volume V =
density p
Kinetic energy
Mass volume × density m = Vp This is the energy of motion. All moving
objects—such as burning fuel atoms to
aircraft—possess kinetic energy. The
Area length × width A = lw higher an object’s speed and the greater
its mass, the more kinetic energy it has.

Kinetic energy 1
⁄2 mass × square of velocity Ek = 1⁄2 mv²
Electrical energy
Electrical energy is the movement of
mass × acceleration due
Weight W = mg electrons through a conductor. It is
to gravity
carried by an electric current to all kinds
force × distance moved of appliances. Lightning occurs when
Work done W = Fs electrons are discharged from a cloud.
in direction of force

263
 Reflection and refraction
Light rays usually travel in straight lines. When the through different materials, such as water, glass, or air,
rays strike a at, shiny surface, such as a mirror, at different speeds. When a light ray passes from one
they are re ected straight back to provide a clear, material to another, its speed changes, causing the ray
but reversed image. If the rays strike a rough to change direction. This effect is known as refraction.
surface, they bounce off in all directions and
there is no clear re ected image. Light rays travel

Incident ray Angle of incidence Light rays are Real depth

(incoming ray) bent when they Apparent
travel between depth
air and water.
Position of
the fish to the
observer

Mirror

Normal is at 90°
to the mirror

Actual position of
the fish is deeper
than it appears.
Reflected ray Angle of reflection
(outgoing ray)

Angles of incidence and reflection Real and apparent depth

The angle at which a light ray strikes a surface When light rays pass from water to the lighter
(angle of incidence) is equal to the angle at which medium of air, they bend (refract). This means that
the ray is re ected (angle of re ection). The angle is if you look at an object in the water from an angle,
measured from an imaginary line called the normal. it appears to be closer to the surface than it actually is.

Colored light spectrum Splitting light

A prism bends light by different amounts
Light is made up of electromagnetic according to its wavelength. There are seven
waves. “White light” is a mixture of main colors in the spectrum. Red has the
many different colors of light, each longest wavelength and violet the shortest.
with its own wavelength. When
white light is passed through a Red has
transparent triangular block of the longest
glass, called a prism, the light wavelength.
Red
refracts (bends). The prism
splits the light into different
wavelengths, forming a Orange
visible band of colors
called a spectrum.
Yellow

Green

Blue

Indigo

Violet
White light enters
the prism. Prism separates light of
different wavelengths. Violet has the
shortest wavelength.

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Electricity
Electricity is a type of energy that is produced by the electricity. Electric current can only ow through
movement of electrons—tiny particles found in atoms. materials called conductors. Many metals make
When the electrons ow through a material—such as good conductors as they contain free electrons
a copper wire—it is known as current electricity. If the that can move easily.
electricity builds up in one place, it is known as static
Metal (copper) ion
is held in place
Clouds build
up a static
electric charge.

Free electron
Electrons move moves randomly
quickly from
cloud to ground
in hot, bright
sparks.

The negatively Electrons flow

charged cloud along wire
induces a positive
Static discharge charge in Electric currents
In stormy weather, static electricity builds up inside the ground. Current electricity ows around a path called a circuit.
thunderclouds, and the base of the cloud becomes The electrons need a power source, such as a battery,
negatively charged. This induces a positive charge to provide them with the energy to ow through the
in the ground, and the attraction between the two circuit. If there is no connection to a battery, the free
creates a huge spark: a lightning bolt. electrons will move randomly in all directions.

Magnets
Magnetism is an invisible force produced South pole Force is greatest
by magnets and electric currents. Every where lines are
magnet has two ends (a north pole and closest together.
a south pole) where its magnetism is
strongest. The invisible eld of force
around a magnet is known as the
magnetic eld.

Magnetic attraction
between opposite
poles

Magnetic fields
will push apart
when between
similar poles.

Lines of force go
from north pole
to south pole.

Attraction Repulsion
Opposite poles (a north pole Similar poles (two north and two
and a south pole) attract each North pole south poles) repel each other.
other. The magnetic eld Lines of force When two similar poles meet,
reaches through space to always start and the lines of magnetic force veer
link the opposite poles. end at the poles. sharply away from each other.

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Earth science
Earth is a mixture of rock and metal. It consists
of three major parts—the crust, the mantle, and Continental crust
carries land
the core. Earth’s thin, rocky outer shell consists
of thick continental crust (land) and thinner
oceanic crust (sea oor). Beneath the crust is the
mantle—a thick layer of solid and semiliquid
rock. At the center is the core, consisting of
an outer layer of liquid metal wrapped
around a smaller, solid inner core
made of iron and nickel.

The inner core has

a radius of about
758 miles (1,220 km).

The outer core is

about 1,400 miles
(2,250 km) thick.

The mantle is
about 1,800 miles
(2,900 km) thick.

Inner heat
The intense heat at Earth’s core causes some of the Oceanic crust
rock in the mantle to melt. Although temperatures at carries water
the inner core reach 9,000–11,700°F (5,000–6,500°C), the
pressure is so great that the metal remains solid.

Earth statistics
Earth is the only place in the Universe known to most spectacular natural features in the world, from
support life. Over millions of years, various natural high mountains to vast oceans with deep trenches.
processes have combined to create some of the

Continents Living creatures

Earth is made up of seven continents— It is estimated that there are about 8.7 million
Asia, Africa, North America, South America, different species living on Earth—the majority
Europe, Australia, and Antarctica. of which are insects.

Oceans Highest point

The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world’s five The highest mountain in the world is
oceans, followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Mount Everest in the Himalayas at a
Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. height of 29,029 ft (8,848 m).

Coldest place Deepest point

The lowest temperature recorded in the The Mariana Trench in the Paci c Ocean
world is –128.6°F (–89.2°C) at Vostok is the world’s deepest place with a depth
Station, Antarctica, on July 21, 1983. of 36,070 ft (10,994 m).

Hottest place Wettest place

At Death Valley, California, the temperature Mawsynram in India is the wettest place
reached a record high of 134°F (56.7°C) on on Earth. It receives an average annual
July 10, 1913. rainfall of 467 in (1,186 cm).

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Rocks and minerals

Every part of Earth’s surface is made of rock. All rocks they were formed. Most minerals are crystals—their
are made from naturally occurring chemicals called atoms are arranged in regular patterns, giving them
minerals. There are hundreds of different kinds of rock, simple geometric shapes. Each mineral has its own
but they are grouped into three main types—igneous, crystal structure and chemical composition.
sedimentary, and metamorphic—depending on how

Rocks

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Igneous rocks are made from hot, These rocks are made from These rocks form when intense
molten rock that has cooled down and particles that have been worn away heat and pressure deep below
solidi ed. Some igneous rocks form from other rocks. Over time, these the ground change the mineral
deep underground. Others form when fragments are deposited in layers, content of existing igneous
volcanic lava cools at Earth’s surface. which eventually harden into rock. or sedimentary rocks.

Pumice Tourmaline Claystone Puddingstone Mylonite Eclogite

pegmatite

Pink granodiorite Rhyolite Flint Ironstone Serpentinite Skarn

Minerals

Native elements Compounds

These minerals each contain a single chemical These minerals contain two or more chemical
element, such as sulfur, carbon, or a metal elements. For example, uorite contains
such as copper. calcium and uorine.

Sulfur Copper Bornite Fluorite

267
 Plate tectonics Chain of extinct Volcano forms Tectonic Ocean ridge is
volcanoes over a “hot spot” plates created where new
of magma. move apart plate material rises.
Earth’s crust is made up of huge slabs
of rock called tectonic plates that
move constantly across the surface
of the planet. When two plates move
together, it causes Earth’s crust to
buckle, forming huge mountain
ranges. Where plates move apart,
it creates a rift (crack) in the crust.
Here, molten rock, called magma,
erupts from the mantle to form
new ocean oors and ridges.
Plates move apart

Violent Earth
Most earthquakes and volcanoes occur at
plate boundaries where the tectonic plates
collide, rub together, or move apart. When
plates grind against each other, earthquakes
occur as the rocks catch and then jerk free.
When the plates move apart, magma from the Oceanic crust forms Hot spot where magma
mantle rises through weak points in Earth’s when magma cools rises through a weak Rising magma
crust and erupts at the surface as a volcano. Mantle and solidifies. point in the crust. from mantle

Volcanoes Ash cloud Main opening

through which
Deep inside Earth, rocks melt into magma escapes.
a hot, thick liquid called magma
(molten rock). Now and again, this
magma surges up to Earth’s surface
and pours out in a volcanic eruption. Magma erupts Magma is called lava
from the when it escapes on
In some places, the molten rock surface crack. the surface.
(known as lava once it reaches the
surface) oozes out slowly. In others,
the eruption is a violent explosion
of lava, red-hot lumps of rock, and
clouds of scorching ash and steam.
Some volcanoes are very active,
while others erupt only rarely.

Bedrock

How volcanoes work

A volcano is a vent where magma
from the Earth’s hot interior emerges
onto the surface. Volcanoes erupt
violently when the build-up of magma
and gases in the chamber below the
vent creates enough pressure to blast
through to the surface. The lava cools
and sets, shaping the volcano. Chamber full
of magma

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Mountains form Rift valley forms Richter scale

when two plates where the crust
move together. pulls apart.
The best known method for measuring
the magnitude (size) of an earthquake
is the Richter scale. The amount of ground
motion caused by an earthquake is measured
using an increasing number scale, with
1 as the weakest.

Volcano

1.0 Almost undetectable

Tiny tremors are felt deep
underground. They can be
detected by seismographs,
but not usually by people.

2.0 Tremors felt

People may notice the shaking,
especially if they are sitting
still on the upper oors
of buildings.

3.0 Objects swing

Ocean plate Magma rises Movement of The shaking becomes more
melts and sinks through cracks continental plate obvious although it may not be
recognizable as an earthquake.
Hanging objects start to swing.

Types of volcano 4.0 Trees shake

Volcanoes are of different shapes and sizes, depending on the People indoors feel vibrations
kind of magma that erupts from them, how fast the lava cools, like the passing of a large truck
the shape of their vents, and the type of eruption (explosive or in front of the house. Trees
nonexplosive). There are four main types of volcano—shield sway and windows rattle.
volcano, stratovolcano, caldera volcano, and cinder cone.
5.0 Water spills
Liquid may spill from glasses.
Some windows may break and
doors swing open. People may
start to fall over outside.

6.0 Walls crack

It can be dif cult to stand up
during a 6.0 earthquake. Walls
may crack, and tiles may fall
Shield volcano Stratovolcano from roofs.
In a shield volcano, fast-moving, Stratovolcanoes are produced
runny lava ows steadily to form when the lava cools and hardens
a broad, gently sloping volcano. quickly, forming steep sides. 7.0 Houses shake
A size 7.0 earthquake may cause
considerable damage. Houses
may shake on their foundations
and roads crack.

8.0 Buildings collapse

Buildings and bridges start to
collapse. Other damage may
include burst pipes, twisted
railroads, and landslides.

Caldera Cinder cone

A caldera is a huge cauldron-shaped Cone-shaped volcanoes form when 9.0 and above Destruction
crater. It is created when the walls magma erupts from a single vent, Huge cracks appear in the
of a stratovolcano partly collapse. building up layers of lava and ash. ground causing the total
destruction of all buildings and
resulting in a large loss of life.

269
Space
The Universe is thought to have been created about were only able to study the celestial bodies they could
14 billion years ago in a colossal explosion known as the observe from Earth. Today, they can explore the Universe
Big Bang. Since then it has been evolving and expanding at large using a wide range of sophisticated instruments,
at an ever-increasing rate. For centuries, astronomers from powerful telescopes to robotic spacecraft.

What’s in space?
The most common objects in the Universe are the called the Milky Way. The Sun and the planets that
billions of stars that form the galaxies. Our local star, orbit it make up the solar system, together with other
the Sun, is just one of the millions of stars in a galaxy celestial bodies such as moons, comets, and asteroids.

Galaxies Planets
There are more than a hundred billion Planets are balls of matter that orbit the
galaxies in the Universe. Each one Sun. They were created more than 4.6
consists of a vast collection of stars, billion years ago from gas and dust left
gas, and dust, held together by gravity. over when the Sun was formed. Most
other stars also have planets.

Nebulas Moons
Named after the Latin word for “cloud,” A moon is a small, celestial body that
nebulas (singular nebula) are massive orbits a planet. All the planets in our
clouds of gas and dust. All the stars in solar system have moons except for
the Universe are created from nebulas. Mercury and Venus.

Stars Other celestial bodies

There are more stars than any other Smaller bodies in the solar system include
object in the Universe. Each is a spinning comets, which are frozen balls of gas and
ball of hot, luminous gas. Most stars are dust, and asteroids, which are pieces of
made entirely of hydrogen and helium. rock and metal that orbit the Sun.

Space exploration
The space age began in 1957, when the rst (unmanned) space probes are cheaper and safer
satellite was launched. Since then, hundreds of than manned spacecraft as they can travel in
astronauts and robotic spacecraft have traveled space without the need
from Earth to explore the Universe. Robotic for astronauts.

Telescopes Spacecraft Satellites Space stations Rockets

Space telescopes collect Robotic spacecraft have Satellites orbiting Earth Space stations provide A rocket is used to send a
light and other forms of been used since 1959 have many uses, such as a base for astronauts to satellite or spacecraft into
energy from stars and to make long-distance relaying telephone calls live and work in, and space. The rocket’s cargo
galaxies to give a better journeys to the planets or providing data for serve as a launch pad of equipment or crew is
view of the Universe. and their moons. weather forecasts. for space missions. called the payload.

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Missions to the Moon Successful missions

Many missions to the Moon have failed
The rst spacecraft to reach the Moon was the Soviet (Russian) due to technical reasons. The chart below
probe Luna 2, which deliberately smashed into the Moon’s lists the dates of some of the missions that
have been successful together with the
surface in 1959. Since then there have been dozens of
type of spacecraft used for each mission.
missions to the Moon, both manned and unmanned.

Serial
Name Launch year Place of origin Type of spacecraft
no.

1 Pioneer 4 1959 US Flyby

2 Luna 2 1959 USSR/Russia Lander

3 Luna 3 1959 USSR/Russia Flyby

4 Ranger 7 1964 US Lander

5 Ranger 9 1965 US Lander

6 Zond 3 1965 USSR/Russia Flyby

7 Luna 9 1966 USSR/Russia Lander

8 Luna 10 1966 USSR/Russia Orbiter

9 Surveyor 1 1966 US Lander

10 Lunar Orbiter 1 1966 US Orbiter

11 Lunar Orbiter 2 1966 US Orbiter

12 Lunar Orbiter 4 1967 US Orbiter

13 Explorer 35 1967 US Orbiter

14 Lunar Orbiter 5 1967 US Orbiter

15 Surveyor 7 1968 US Lander

16 Luna 14 1968 USSR/Russia Orbiter

17 Zond 6 1968 USSR/Russia Flyby

18 Apollo 8 1968 US Orbiter

19 Apollo 10 1969 US Orbiter

20 Apollo 11 1969 US Lander

21 Luna 16 1970 USSR/Russia Lander

22 Luna 17/Lunokhod 1 1970 USSR/Russia Lander

23 Apollo 15 1971 US Lander

24 Apollo 17 1972 US Lander

25 Luna 21/Lunokhod 2 1973 USSR/Russia Lander

26 Hiten (MUSES-A) 1990 Japan Orbiter/Lander

27 Clementine 1994 US Orbiter

28 SMART-1 2003 Europe Orbiter

29 Kaguya (SELENE) 2007 Japan Orbiter

30 Chang’e 1 2007 China Orbiter/Lander

31 Chandrayaan 1 2008 India Orbiter/Lander

32 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 2009 US Orbiter

33 Chang’e 2 2010 China Orbiter

34 GRAIL (Ebb and Flow) 2011 US Orbiter

35 Chang’e 3/YUTU 2013 China Lander

36 Manfred Memorial Moon Mission 2014 Luxembourg Flyby

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 Planets in order from the Sun
The Sun was created from a vast cloud of gas and closest to the Sun are spheres made of rock and
dust about 4.6 billion years ago. Parts of the cloud that metal. The four larger, outer planets (known as the
were left over gathered together and formed the eight gas planets) have a dense gas exterior surrounding
planets of the solar system. The planets, which all a layer of liquid. Beneath the liquid layer is a rocky
follow an elliptical (oval) orbit around the Sun, range core. All four have rings and many moons.
enormously in size and structure. The four planets

3. Earth
5. Jupiter
Diameter: 7,926 miles (12,756 km)
Diameter: 88,846 miles
Distance from Sun: 1 AU
(142,984 km)
Year: 365 days
Distance from Sun: 5.2 AU
Day: 24 hours
Year: 11.9 years
Number of moons: 1
Day: 10 hours
Average surface temperature:
Number of moons: 63
59°F (15°C)
Cloud-top temperature:
–162°F (–108°C)

4. Mars
Diameter: 4,220 miles (6,792 km)
The Sun Distance from Sun: 1.5 AU
Year: 687 days
Day: 24.5 hours
Number of moons: 2
Average surface temperature:
–81°F (–63°C)

1. Mercury 2. Venus
Diameter: 3,032 miles (4,879 km) Diameter: 7,521 miles (12,104 km)
Distance from Sun: 0.4 AU Distance from Sun: 0.7 AU
Year: 88 days Year: 225 days
Day: 58 days Day: 243 days
Number of moons: 0 Number of moons: 0
Average surface temperature: Average surface temperature:
Astronomical unit
333°F (167°C) 880°F (470°C) A useful measure for comparing
distances in the solar system is
the astronomical unit (AU). This is the
Venus
Mercury

Mars

Saturn
Earth

average distance between Earth and

the Sun. One astronomical unit equals
93 million miles (149.6 million km).

SUN

311 million miles Jupiter 621 million miles 1.2 billion miles
(500 million km) (1 billion km) (2 billion km)

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Beyond Neptune

Quaoar (possible dwarf planet)

Sedna (possible dwarf planet)

Orcus (possible dwarf planet)

Ixlon (possible dwarf planet)

The distant region of the solar system beyond

Diameter: 1,445 miles

Diameter: 1,433 miles

Diameter: 1,218 miles

Neptune is a cold, dark place containing an

Diameter: 895 miles

Diameter: 665 miles

Diameter: 618 miles

Diameter: 592 miles

Diameter: 570 miles

Diameter: 404 miles

unknown number of dwarf planets, comets,

Makemake
asteroids, and smaller objects.

(2,326 km)

(2,306 km)

(1,960 km)

(1,440 km)

(1,070 km)

(995 km)

(952 km)

(917 km)

(650 km)
Haumea
Earth for

Ceres
Pluto
comparison

Eris
Oort Cloud Solar
The Oort Cloud system
At the edge of the solar
system is a giant spherical Dwarf planets
cloud, known as the Oort Dwarf planets are small planets found mainly in
Cloud. Named after the the Kuiper Belt—a region of the solar system beyond
Dutch astronomer Jan Oort, Neptune. The asteroid Ceres, found in the Asteroid Belt
it is thought to contain between Jupiter and Mars, is also counted as a dwarf
trillions of comets. planet. Listed above are some of the main dwarf planets.

8. Neptune
Diameter: 30,775 miles (49,528 km)
Distance from Sun: 30 AU
Year: 165 years
Day: 16 hours
Number of moons: 14
Cloud-top temperature: –330°F (–201°C)

7. Uranus
Diameter: 31,763 miles (51,118 km)
Distance from Sun: 19.2 AU
Year: 84 years
6. Saturn Day: 17 hours
Diameter: 74,897 miles (120,536 km) Number of moons: 27
Distance from Sun: 9.6 AU Cloud-top temperature: –323°F (–197°C)
Year: 29.5 years
Day: 10.6 hours
Number of moons: 62
Uranus

Neptune

Cloud-top temperature:
–292°F (–180°C)

1.8 billion miles 2.7 billion miles

(3 billion km) (4.5 billion km)

273
 Stars
The Sun’s apparent
A star is a brilliant, shining ball of extremely hot gas surface is called
the photosphere.
that generates huge amounts of energy in its core. Stars
are created from clouds of gas and dust, known as
nebulas. Gravity pulls the dust and gas together to
form a developing star, called a protostar. As the
gases come together, they get hot. When it is
hot enough for nuclear reactions to start,
the star is born. Each star has a life cycle
of billions of years, which take it through
many changes until it eventually dies.

Gigantic loops of glowing gas

extend high above the Sun’s surface.

The Sun
The Sun is a star that is about
5 billion years old. It is a sphere
of hot, glowing gas with a dense
core that generates enough energy Nuclear fusion
to light and heat the solar system. takes place inside
the core.

Energy seeps out

from the core to
the outer layers.

DATA PROFILE (THE SUN)

Diameter: 864,000 miles (1,390,473 km)
Distance from Earth: 93 million miles
(150 million km)
Mass (Earth = 1): 333,000
Surface temperature: 10,000°F (5,500°C)
Core temperature: 27 million °F (15 million °C)

Sudden burst of energy,

known as a solar flare.

Brightest star
The brightness of a star is measured on a scale of
apparent magnitude. The scale describes how bright a
star is when viewed from Earth, with the brightest stars
having the lowest numbers. The Sun, with a magnitude Cooler, darker patches are
of –26.74, is the brightest object in our skies. known as sunspots.

Apparent magnitude
–30 –25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 +5 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30

Hubble Space
Telescope
The Sun Polaris Naked-
Full Moon detection limit
(Pole star) eye limit

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The Moon Heat from radioactive Fluid outer core

elements has partially
The Moon is Earth’s closest melted the inner mantle. Solid inner core Crust
neighbor in space. Its rocky,
lifeless surface is covered with
craters that formed about
4.5 billion years ago when
the Moon was bombarded
by asteroids. Below the crust
is the mantle—a deep layer
of partly melted, darker
rock. At the center of the
Moon is an iron core,
with a temperature of
about 2,600°F (1,400°C).

Outer mantle

Inner mantle

DATA PROFILE (THE MOON)

Diameter: 2,159 miles (3,476 km)
Average surface temperature: –67°F (–55°C)
Length of lunar day: 27 days
Time to orbit Earth: 27 days
Gravity (Earth = 1): 0.165 Crater

Eclipses
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon’s shadow A slight darkening of
crosses Earth’s surface. A lunar eclipse takes place the Moon occurs in the
when the Moon moves into Earth's shadow. Up to light outer shadow.
seven solar and lunar eclipses can fall in a year.
Penumbra (outer,
lighter shadow)

Moon Penumbra Area of totality

Earth
(outer, lighter
shadow) Earth

The Moon
Sunlight Sunlight is darkest
within the
umbra.

Umbra (inner, Full Moon

Umbra (inner,
darker shadow)
darker shadow)

Solar eclipse Lunar eclipse

A solar eclipse occurs when the new Moon crosses in front of Lunar eclipses take place only at full Moon when the Sun,
the Sun and casts a shadow on Earth’s surface. People in the Earth, and Moon are aligned. Lunar eclipses occur when
area where the inner shadow (umbra) falls see a total eclipse. the Moon moves into Earth’s shadow and no sunlight
Those in the outer area (penumbra) see only a partial eclipse. reaches the Moon—so it disappears from Earth’s view.

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 Nebulas
Stars are created deep inside dark clouds of gas is when viewed from Earth. Stars with a magnitude
and dust known as nebulas. Astronomers measure of up to 6 are visible with the naked eye. Those of
the brightness of a star using a scale of apparent 7 and above need binoculars or a telescope to be
magnitude. This scale describes how bright a star seen. Below are a few of the brightest nebulas.

Name: Carina Nebula Name: Dumbbell Nebula

Designation: NGC 3372 Designation: M27
Constellation: Carina Constellation: Vulpecula
Magnitude: 1 Magnitude: 7.5
Distance: 6,500 light years Distance: 1,360 light years
Visibility: Naked eye Visibility: Binoculars

Name: Orion Nebula Name: Helix Nebula

Designation: M42 Designation: NGC 7293
Constellation: Orion Constellation: Aquarius
Magnitude: 4 Magnitude: 7.6
Distance: 1,340 light years Distance: 700 light years
Visibility: Naked eye Visibility: Binoculars

Name: Lagoon Nebula Name: Rosette Nebula

Designation: M8 Designation: NGC 2237
Constellation: Sagittarius Constellation: Monoceros
Magnitude: 6 Magnitude: 9
Distance: 4,100 light years Distance: 5,200 light years
Visibility: Naked eye Visibility: Binoculars

Galaxies
Galaxies are huge collections of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. KEY
They started life billions of years ago, slowly forming into distinctive Irregular Barred spiral
shapes. There are four main types of galaxies—spirals, barred
spirals, elliptical, and irregular. Our star, the Sun, lives in a Spiral Elliptical
barred-spiral galaxy called the Milky Way. This table lists some
of the galaxies that can be seen with binoculars or the naked eye.

Apparent
Type Name Designation Constellation Distance Visibility
magnitude

Large Magellanic Cloud LMC Dorado/Mensa 0.9 160,000 light years Naked eye

Small Magellanic Cloud SMC Tucana 2.7 200,000 light years Naked eye

Andromeda Galaxy M32 Andromeda 3.4 2.5 million light years Naked eye

Triangulum Galaxy M33 Triangulum 5.7 2.9 million light years Binoculars

Centaurus A NGC 5128 Centaurus 6.8 13.7 million light years Binoculars
Bode’s Galaxy M81 Ursa Major 6.9 11.8 million light years Binoculars

Southern Pinwheel M83 Hydra 7.5 15.2 million light years Binoculars

Sculptor Galaxy NGC 253 Sculptor 8.0 11.4 million light years Binoculars

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Comets
Comets are fragile balls of snow and dust that live at Periodic comets
the edge of the solar system in a vast cloud known as the When a comet leaves the
Oort Cloud. At the center of the comet is the nucleus—a Oort Cloud, it can travel
dirty ball of snow that measures a few miles across. If on an orbit that brings it
a comet passes too close to the Sun, the snow turns close to the Sun at regular
intervals. Short-period
into gas, releasing dust and gas in the process. This comets, such as Halley’s
forms a vast cloud of material called a coma, consisting Comet, take less than
of a huge spherical head and one or two tails. 200 years to orbit the Sun.

Serial
Name Orbital period Sightings Next due
no.

1 1P/Halley 75 years 30 July 2061

2 2P/Encke 3 years, 3 months 62 March 2017

3 6P/d’Arrest 6 years, 5 months 20 September 2021

4 9P/Tempel 5 years, 5 months 12 January 2022

5 17P/Holmes 6 years, 8 months 10 February 2021

6 21P/Glacobini-Zinner 6 years, 6 months 15 September 2018

7 29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 15 years 7 March 2019

8 39P/Oterma 19 years 4 July 2023

9 46P/Wirtanen 5 years, 4 months 10 December 2018

10 50P/Arend 8 years, 2 months 8 April 2024

11 55P/Tempel-Tuttle 33 years 5 May 2031

12 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko 6 years, 4 months 7 December 2021

13 81P/Wild 6 years, 4 months 6 November 2022

14 109P/Swift-Tuttle 133 years 5 July 2126

Meteors
Meteor showers
As comets and asteroids travel through space, they shed
When Earth passes
lumps of rock and dust called meteoroids. The smallest through a concentration
meteoroids burn up as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere, of meteoroids, it produces
producing streaks of light known as meteors. Most meteors a shower of meteors, or
glow for only a few seconds before burning up. If the meteor “shooting stars”. Below is
a list of some of the major
does not burn up completely, the remaining piece lands on meteor showers with the
Earth's surface and is known as a meteorite. Most meteorites dates they are most likely
that land on Earth are no bigger than a small rock. to occur each year.

Serial
Name Peak date Most meteors Parent comet/asteroid
no.

1 Quadrantids January 4 120 per hour 2003 EH1

2 Lyrids April 22 10 per hour C/1861 G1 (Thatcher)

3 Eta Aquarids May 5 30 per hour 1P/Halley

4 Perseids August 12 100 per hour 109P/Swift-Tuttle

5 Geminids December 14 120 per hour 3200 Phaethon

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Who’s who
All the scienti c knowledge we have today is the minds. Listed below are some of the most
result of centuries of careful questioning, research, inspiring scientists, inventors, mathematicians,
and observation by the world’s most brilliant and philosophers throughout history.

Alhazen (965–1040) Barnard, Christiaan Neethling

Arab mathematician, astronomer,
(1922–2001)
and physicist who made a signi cant
South African surgeon who was a pioneer of open heart
contribution to the eld of optics (the
surgery and performed the rst successful human-to-human
study of light and vision). He devised
heart transplant in 1967. His patient, a grocer called Louis
the laws of re ection and refraction,
Washkansky, received the heart of a car accident
and described the anatomy of the
victim, but died from pneumonia 18 days later.
human eye.

Bassi, Laura (1711–1778)

Al-Khwarizmi (c 780–c 850) See p.98
Persian mathematician, geographer, and astronomer widely
known as the “Father of Algebra”. He was responsible for
introducing Arabic numbers to Europe. Working in Baghdad Bell, Alexander Graham (1847–1922)
(in present-day Iraq), he produced two mathematical See p.150
textbooks and important works on geography and astronomy.

Benz, Karl (1844–1929)

Al-Razi (c 854–c 925) German engineer and car manufacturer.
See p.35 Working with Gottlieb Daimler, he built
the rst successful internal combustion
motor car in 1885. In 1893, he produced
Anning, Mary (1799–1847) the rst four-wheel motor vehicle. The
See p.115
Benz company began producing the
world’s rst race cars in 1899.
Archimedes (c 287–c 212 BCE)
Greek inventor, philosopher, and
mathematician born in Syracuse on the
Biot, Jean-Baptiste (1774–1862)
French physicist, astronomer, and mathematician who
east coast of Sicily in Italy. He is known
established the existence of meteorites and developed a
for discovering the principles of otation
technique for analyzing sugar solutions. In 1804, he was
and invented the Archimedes Screw. He
one of the scientists on board the rst scienti c balloon ight.
also constructed siege machines to defend
Working with fellow physicist Félix Savart, he demonstrated
Syracuse against the Romans.
a connection between electricity and magnetism in 1820.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

See pp.30–31 Bohr, Niels (1885–1962)
See p.168

Babbage, Charles (1791–1871)

British mathematician and inventor, often referred to as Boole, George (1815–1864)
the “Father of Computing”. He spent his working life building British mathematician whose work
two mechanical computers that could store information. on logic laid many of the foundations
Although he never completed the machines, they are for modern computer science. He
regarded as the forerunners of the modern computer. devised a system of logic known
as Boolean logic—a form of algebra
that is basic to the design of modern
Bacon, Roger (c 1214–1292) digital computer circuits.
See pp.48–49

Bosch, Carl (1874–1940)

Baird, John Logie German industrial chemist who won the 1931 Nobel Prize in
(1888–1946) Chemistry. He developed a process called the Haber–Bosch
Scottish engineer, inventor, and process that combined hydrogen and nitrogen to produce
television pioneer. Baird succeeded ammonia. This process made it possible to produce enormous
in transmitting the outline of shapes quantities of fertilizers and explosives.
in 1924 and moving objects in 1926.
He produced the rst color television Brahe, Tycho (1546–1601)
pictures in 1928. See p.67

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Carson, Rachel (1907–1964) Falloppio, Gabriele

See pp.202–203 (1523–1562)
Italian anatomist, who contributed to
Cassini, Giovanni Domenico early knowledge of the structure of the
ear and the reproductive organs. His
(1625–1712)
ndings were published in the book
See p.87
Observationes anatomicae in 1561.

Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473–1543)

See p.57
Faraday, Michael (1791–1867)
See p.123

Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave de
(1792–1843) Fibonacci, Leonardo (1170–1250)
French engineer and mathematician who rst described See p.46
the Coriolis force—a force caused by Earth’s spin, which
makes moving bodies such as winds or currents follow a Fleming, Alexander (1881–1955)
curved path across the planet’s surface. Scottish bacteriologist and co-winner of the 1945 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine. He is most famous for the discovery of
Curie, Marie (1867–1934) the antibiotic penicillin. Fleming also discovered the antibacterial
See pp.180–181 enzyme lysozyme, found in body uids such as tears and saliva.

Cuvier, Georges (1769–1832) Florey, Howard Walter

French zoologist best known for his (1898–1968)
work on paleontology (the study of Australian pathologist who worked with
fossils) and anatomy. By comparing Ernst Chain to purify and produce the
fossils with the skeletons of living antibiotic penicillin ( rst discovered by
animals, he was able to prove that Alexander Fleming in 1928). All three
whole species of creatures had
scientists shared the 1945 Nobel Prize
become extinct.
in Physiology or Medicine.

Da Vinci, Leonardo (1452–1519)

See pp.58–59
Franklin, Benjamin (1706–1790)
American scientist, philosopher, and statesman, who
researched electricity and invented the lightning rod. He
Darwin, Charles (1809–1882) was also one of the founding fathers of the United States.
See pp.134–135

Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939)

Descartes, René (1596–1650) Austrian psychiatrist and founder of psychoanalysis. Working
French mathematician, scientist, and in Vienna, he became interested in hypnotism, exploring how
philosopher. He is often described as it could be used to help people with mental disorders. Later,
the “Father of Modern Philosophy” and he specialized in analyzing dreams, publishing his famous
is best known for his statement “I think, book The Interpretation of Dreams in 1899.
therefore I am.” He also contributed to
the elds of geometry and optics.
Galilei, Galileo (1564–1642)
See pp.68–69
Diesel, Rudolf (1858–1913)
German inventor and mechanical engineer, famous
for inventing the diesel engine that bears his name. Goddard, Robert H (1882–1945)
American physicist and inventor who pioneered
the technology of rockets. He invented the rst
Edison, Thomas (1847–1931) liquid-fueled rocket. His work on rocket science,
See p.149 A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, was
published in 1920 by the Smithsonian Institute.
Einstein, Albert (1879–1955)
See pp.172–173 Goodall, Jane (1934–)
British anthropologist best known for
Euclid (c 330–c 260 BCE) her observations on the chimpanzees
Greek mathematician, who is often referred to as the of Gombe Stream National Park,
“Father of Geometry”. A teacher at the mathematical Tanzania. She discovered that
school in Alexandria, Egypt, Euclid is best known for chimpanzees are capable tool-
his 13-volume work, Elements. It remained a standard makers and have highly complex
mathematical textbook in schools until the 19th century. social behaviors.

279
 Gutenberg, Johannes Jenner, Edward (1749–1823)
(c 1395–c 1468) British physician who developed a
German printer who invented the vaccine for smallpox. Jenner saw that
method of printing with movable metal people infected with the mild cowpox
type. He worked on his printing press in disease never contracted the deadly
the 1430s, and by 1455, he had produced smallpox virus. His ndings were
his masterpiece—the 42-line Bible, also published in 1798, and vaccination
known as the Gutenberg Bible. soon became widespread.

Hahn, Otto (1879–1968) Kepler, Johannes (1571–1630)

German chemist and physicist who discovered the radioactive German astronomer, famous for his study of the movement
element protactinium in 1917 with colleague Lise Meitner. of planets. In 1611, he constructed an improved version of
In 1938, he discovered nuclear ssion (splitting the atom) Galileo’s telescope, now known as the Keplerian telescope.
for which he won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Khayyam, Omar (c 1048–1131)
Harvey, William (1578–1657) See p.43
See p.75
Koch, Robert (1843–1910)
Hawking, Stephen (1942–) German physician and pioneer in microbiology and
See pp.224–225 bacteriology. He was awarded the 1905 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine for identifying the bacteria that cause
tuberculosis. He also discovered the bacteria responsible for
Hertz, Heinrich (1857–1894) anthrax and cholera.
See p.154

Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van

Hippocrates (c 460–c 377 BCE)
Greek physician widely regarded as the (1632–1723)
father of medicine. Hippocrates based Dutch microbiologist who became the
his medical practice on observing his rst scientist to observe single-celled
patients and their symptoms. He organisms, such as bacteria, through a
believed there was a rational microscope. He built and developed his
explanation for all illnesses. own microscopes and used them to
describe muscle bers and red blood cells.

Hodgkin, Dorothy (1910–1994)

British chemist best known for determining the molecular Lister, Joseph (1827–1912)
structure of penicillin, insulin, and Vitamin B12. Using X-ray British surgeon who pioneered antiseptic techniques in
crystallography, Hodgkin produced maps of the atoms and medicine. He introduced the use of carbolic acid to sterilize
bonds in each molecule. She won the 1964 Nobel Prize in surgical instruments and to keep wounds clean after surgery.
Chemistry for her work. His procedures became the standard practice in hospitals
throughout the world.

Hooke, Robert (1635–1703)

British inventor and physicist who made signi cant Lovelace, Ada (1815–1852)
contributions to the elds of architecture, astronomy, biology, See p.127
chemistry, and mapmaking. Famous for his work on springs,
he also invented a two-lens microscope and was the rst
Magnus, Albertus (c 1200–1280)
scientist to record biological cells.
See p.51

Hopper, Grace (1906–1992) Marconi, Guglielmo (1874–1937)

See p.205
Italian physicist, electroengineer, and inventor of radio
communication. Marconi sent the rst wireless signal across
Hubble, Edwin (1889–1953) the English Channel in 1896 and succeeded in transmitting
American astronomer who discovered that the Milky Way is radio waves across the Atlantic Ocean in 1902. He shared the
just one of many galaxies, and that the Universe is expanding. 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Ferdinand Braun, and helped
The Hubble Space Telescope is named after him. to develop shortwave wireless communication.

Huygens, Christiaan (1629–1695) Mendeleev, Dmitri (1834–1907)

See p.82 See p.145

Ibn Sina (c 980–1037) Newton, Isaac (1642–1727)

See p.38 See pp.88–89

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Nobel, Alfred (1833–1896) Röntgen, Wilhelm (1845–1923)

Swedish chemist who invented dynamite and smokeless German physicist who received the rst Nobel Prize in
gunpowder. In his will, he donated the majority of his Physics in 1901 for his discovery of X-rays in 1895. The
vast fortune to creating the Nobel Prize, an award for introduction of X-rays revolutionized both medicine
achievements in physics, chemistry, physiology or and modern physics. Röntgen is also known for his
medicine, literature, and peace. discoveries in mechanics, heat, and electricity.

Papin, Denis (1647–c 1712) Salk, Jonas Edward (1914–1995)

French-born British physicist and inventor whose work with American physician who discovered the rst effective vaccine for
steam led to the development of steam engines. Papin was polio. Salk began human trials of his polio vaccine in 1952. In
also responsible for inventing the pressure cooker, a steam 1955, the vaccine was released for widespread use in America.
safety valve, a condensing pump, and a paddle-wheel boat.

Shockley, William Bradford

Paracelsus (1493–1541)
Swiss–German physician, philosopher, (1910–1989)
botanist, and astrologer who established American physicist who shared the
the use of chemistry in treating disease. 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics with
Traveling and practicing medicine across John Bardeen and Walter Brattain for
Europe, Paracelsus introduced sulfur, inventing the transistor, considered
lead, and mercury as remedies one of the greatest breakthroughs in
for illness. technological history.

Pasteur, Louis (1822–1895) Sørensen, Søren Peder Lauritz (1868–1939)

See pp.142–143 Danish biochemist who introduced the pH scale as a measure
of acidity. The scale measures the acidity of a substance either
with pH meters or with indicator papers (or solutions) that
Plato (427 BCE–347 BCE) change color in acid or alkaline substances.
Greek philosopher and pupil of the philosopher Socrates. In 388
, Plato set up a school in Athens known as the Academy. He
set out his theories on how to rule a perfect society in his book Tesla, Nikola (1856–1943)
The Republic. Plato believed all substances were composed of See p.155
air, earth, re, and water. He also believed in a spherical Earth
and the movement of planets.
Thomson, Joseph John
Ptolemy (c 100–c 170 CE) (1856–1940)
British physicist who discovered the electron and developed the
Greek-Roman astronomer, mathematician,
mathematical theory of electricity and magnesium. He received
and geographer. He built a model of
the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his study of the conduction
the solar system that explained the
of electricity through gases.
movement of the planets and suggested
that Earth was at the center of the
Universe. He also made a map of the world Turing, Alan (1912–1954)
and wrote an encyclopedia called Almagest. British mathematician, widely regarded
as the father of computer science.
Pythagoras (580–500 BCE) During World War II he developed
Greek philosopher and mathematician who in uenced the a code-breaking machine known as
work of Plato and Aristotle. Pythagoras taught that nature the Bombe, a prototype for electronic
and the world could be interpreted through numbers. He computers, which enabled the British
is best known for his Pythagorean theorem of geometry to crack the Nazi code.
and his work on right-angled triangles.
Watt, James (1736–1819)
Ramsay, William (1852–1916) British engineer, whose improvements in steam engine
Scottish chemist awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize in technology contributed to the Industrial Revolution. While
Chemistry for discovering the gases argon, neon, repairing a model steam engine, he realized that the engine
xenon, and krypton. He also demonstrated that could be improved by having two cylinders, making them
these gases, along with helium and radon, formed much more powerful.
a family of new elements called the noble gases.
White, Gilbert (1720–1793)
Richter, Charles (1900–1985) British naturalist, clergyman, and author who became
American physicist who developed the Richter scale, which interested in the natural history around his home in
measures the magnitude of an earthquake at its epicenter. Hampshire, England. In 1789, he published The Natural History
Richter also devised a map showing the most earthquake- and Antiquities of Selborne, a collection of correspondence
prone areas in America. with other naturalists that is still widely read today.

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Glossary
Terms defined elsewhere in breeding conservation energy
the glossary are in italics. The mating of two animals to The preservation of any process, A property of an object that
produce offspring. object, or life. allows it to do something
alchemy now or in the future. Types
An ancient branch of chemistry, buoyancy continent of energy include kinetic
which aimed to change ordinary The upward force on an object One of Earth’s large land energy (movement energy) and
metals into gold. in a liquid, caused by the water masses, such as Africa. potential energy (stored energy).
pressure underneath it.
alloy crankshaft engine
A material made by mixing carbohydrate A rod in a car’s engine that A mechanical device that
a metal with small amounts A chemical compound, found in changes the up and down motion provides power.
of other metals or nonmetals. starchy foods such as rice and of a piston into a rotating motion
bread, which gives us energy. that turns the car’s wheels. enzyme
antibiotic A substance that living things
A medical drug that kills cell diode use to speed up chemical
or slows down the growth The basic unit from which all An electronic component that reactions inside them.
of bacteria. living organisms are made. allows an electric current to
flow through a circuit in only evaporation
antiseptic chemical one direction. The change of a liquid into a gas
A medical drug that kills A substance made from elements or vapor.
disease-causing microbes. or compounds. dissection
Antiseptics may be applied to Cutting open of a dead body to evolution
the skin to prevent infection. chemistry study its internal structure. The process by which species
A branch of science concerned change over many generations.
astronomy with the composition of DNA
The study of objects in space. chemicals and how they react Deoxyribonucleic acid. The extinct
An astronomer is a scientist with each other. A chemist is a chemical inside chromosomes A species that has completely
who studies objects in space. scientist who studies chemicals that lets parents pass genetic died out.
and their reactions. information on to their offspring.
atom filament
The smallest part of an element circuit electricity The part of a light bulb that
that has the characteristics A path along which electricity A type of energy caused by glows when an electric current
of that element. flows around. All electrical and electrons inside atoms. Static flows through it.
electronic things have circuits electricity is made by electrons
bacteria inside them. building up in one place, while food chain
A group of single-celled microbes, current electricity happens A series of organisms, each of
some of which cause disease. climate change when electrons move around. which are consumed by the next.
Long-term changes in Earth’s
battery weather patterns, resulting from electrode force
A portable electricity supply global environmental variations An electrical contact, made A pushing or pulling action
that stores electric charge or human activity. from a conductor, that connects that changes an object’s speed,
using chemicals. the main part of a circuit to direction of movement, or shape.
cloning something outside it, such as
biology The process of creating an the chemicals in a battery. fossil
A branch of science concerned organism from a body cell of Remains of plants and animals
with living organisms. A another organism, so they are electromagnet that have been preserved in
biologist is a scientist who genetically identical. A magnet that produces a Earth’s crust, or outer layer.
studies living things. magnetic field because
combustion of electricity. freezing point
black hole A chemical reaction in which a The temperature at which
An object in space with a fuel, such as wood or coal, burns electron a liquid turns into a solid.
gravity so strong that no with oxygen from the air to A subatomic particle with a
matter or light can escape it. release heat energy. negative charge found around frequency
an atom’s nucleus. A measurement of how
boiling point compound often a wave of energy moves
The temperature at which A chemical made by combining element up and down.
a liquid changes into gas. the atoms or molecules of two A basic building block of matter
or more different elements. made from identical atoms. friction
bonds The rubbing force between
The attraction between atoms condensation endangered two things that move past one
or groups of atoms that holds The change of gas or vapor A species of plant or animal that another. Friction slows things
them together in a molecule. into a liquid. is at risk of getting extinct. down and generates heat.

282
galaxy lens compound, consisting of two or proton
A large group of stars, dust, and A curved, transparent piece of more atoms bonded together. A subatomic particle with a
gas held together by the force plastic or glass that can bend positive charge found in an
of gravity. light rays to make something motor atom’s nucleus.
look bigger, smaller, closer, or A machine that uses electricity
gear further away. and magnetism to produce radiometric dating
One of a pair of wheels of spinning movement or Measuring the amount of
different sizes, with teeth lever movement in a straight line. radioactive substances in
cut into their edges, that turn A rod balanced on a pivot an object to find out its age.
together to increase the speed that can increase the size neutron
or force of a machine. of a pushing, pulling, or A subatomic particle with no radio waves
turning force. electric charge found in an A type of energy that travels in
genetics atom’s nucleus. waves, and can be used to send
The study of genes—the parts of light year information, especially sound.
a cell that control the growth The distance light travels in a nucleus
and appearance of living things. year. One light year is about The central part of an atom, reproduction
6 trillion miles (9.5 trillion km). made of protons and neutrons. The process of creating offspring.
geophysicist
A physicist who studies Earth longitude observatory solar system
and its environment. Measurement of how far east or A building from where The region of space that
west of the Prime Meridian an astronomers study space. includes the Sun, the planets
global warming object is. The Prime Meridian is and their moons, and other
The rise in Earth’s temperature an imaginary line that runs from patent bodies in space whose
that is affecting the world’s the North Pole, via Greenwich, A government document that movements are affected
weather, causing droughts and England, to the South Pole. grants sole rights to a person by the Sun’s gravity.
severe storms. Longitude lines run from north to make, use, and/or sell
to south. an invention. species
gravity A group of organisms that look
The force that attracts all objects. magnetic field pesticide alike and can breed mainly with
On Earth, it is responsible for The invisible patterns of force A substance used to destroy one another.
making objects fall downward that stretch around a magnet. insects and other pests of crop.
and for giving things weight. star
magnetism philosophy A celestial body that releases
habitat A force that can attract or repel The study of ideas such as energy from the nuclear
The place where a plant or an certain metals. knowledge, reality, nature and reactions in its core.
animal normally lives. existence of life, and mind.
mammals theory
heredity Warm-blooded vertebrates that photocell An explanation of facts
The passing of characteristics give birth to young who feed on An electronic device that or phenomena based on
through generations. their mother’s milk. generates electricity using light. observation or experiments.

hormone mass physics vaccine

A chemical in the bloodstream The amount of matter that an The study of science relating Precautionary medical treatment
that controls a function of object contains. primarily to energy and matter. that stops an individual from
the body. A physicist is a scientist who contracting a disease.
matter studies the relation between
insulator The material which everything matter and energy. vacuum
A substance that reduces the around us is made of. An empty space from where
flow of heat. piston air and all other substances
melting point A round metal part that fits have been removed.
Internet The temperature at which a tightly inside a cylinder and
A network that allows solid changes into a liquid. moves back and forward. viruses
computers across the world Microbes that multiply by
to exchange information. microbe pollution infecting living cells, often
A living thing that can be seen Damage caused to the causing disease.
latitude only through a microscope. environment by dirty or
Measurement of how far Bacteria are the most common poisonous substances vitamin
north or south an object is type of microbe. Also called or chemicals. A chemical compound that
from the equator. The equator microorganism. the body needs for growth
is an imaginary line that runs protein and development.
horizontally around the middle molecule A vital nutrient that helps
of Earth. The smallest amount of a the body build new cells.

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