UNIT III Dynamic Programming

Dynamic Programming(DP) :
Dynamic Programming is a technique where, if any problem can be divided into
subproblems, which in turn are divided into smaller subproblems, and if there are overlapping
among these subproblems, then the solutions to these subproblems can be saved for future
reference. In this way, efficiency of the CPU can be enhanced.

Dynamic Programming = Memorization/Memoization + Recursion

for better understanding of Dynamic Programming, let’s revisit the recursion and then try to
understand how DP works.
Recursion : Recursion is a process in which the function calls itself in order to solve the main
problem
Example : Fibonacci series

#include<stdio.h>

void main() {
printf("The Fibonacci number for index 6 = %d",fib(6));
}
int fib (int n) {
if (n < 2)
return 1;
return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2);
}

In the above problem of solving fib(6), it was divided into sub problems fib(5) and fib(4),
fib(5) is again divided into fib(4) and fib(3) and so on..
we can see that the same subproblem fib(4) is executed for more than one time making
inefficient utilization of CPU.

‘If the sub problems are being executed more than one time why don’t we store the result
somewhere on first computation itself and retrieve the same result when required’ this is how
the Dynamic programming works

DP is generally used to solve problems which involve the following steps

• Split the problem into multiple small subproblems and store results of the sub
problem.

• While solving each subproblem, check if the same problem was solved earlier. If
yes, then take the stored result instead of solving the same subproblem again.

• Merge the subproblem results into the final result.

As we are storing the answer of every subproblem for future use, it requires extra memory to
save the data. This process is called as memoization / memorization.

include<stdio.h>
void main() {
printf("The Fibonacci number for index 6 = %d",fib(6));
}
int fib (int n) {
arrFib[100] = {0};
arrFib[0] = 1;
arrFib[1] = 1;
for (int i = 2; i<n; i++)
arrFib[i] = arrFib[i-1] + arrFib[i-2];
return arrFib[n-1]
}

Instead of calling the functions recursively again and again, we are calculating the value of
the Fibonacci series and storing it in an array.

arrFib[0] arrFib[1] arrFib[2] arrFib[3] arrFib[4] arrFib[5] ……… arrFib[n]

Fib(5) Fib(6)
Single Source Shortest paths General Weights / Single Source Shortest path
using Dynamic Programming / Single Source Shortest path using Bellman
Ford Algorithm :
Like Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm, the Bellman-Ford algorithm is also used to find the
shortest path from given source vertex to all other vertices in the graph G,
with V vertices and E edges.. Though it is slower than Dijkstra's algorithm, Bellman-Ford
is capable of handling graphs that contain negative edge weights.
Note : if there exists a negative cycle in the graph, then there is no shortest path

The pseudo-code for the Bellman-Ford algorithm

for v in V:
distance[v]= infinity
[Link] = 0
for i from 1 to |V| - 1:
for (u, v) in E:
relax(u, v)

The first for loop sets the distance to each vertex in the graph to infinity. This is later
changed for the source vertex to equal zero.

The next for loop is used to relax each edge (u, v) in E. This process is done |V| -1 times

relax(u, v):
if distance[v]> distance[u]+ cost(u, v):
distance[v] = distance[u] + cost(u, v)

Relaxation – Relaxing an Edge (u,v), d[u],d[v] are distance from source vertex to u and v,
c(u,v) represents cost of edge between u and v
Step 1 : List all the edges
(1,2). (1,3), (2,4,), (3,2,), (3,4), (3,5), (4,5)
Step 2 : Initialize the distance for source vertex to 0 and other vertices to ∞ (infinite)

Step 3 : Relax all the edges for V-1 times

i) Relaxing edges for 1st time
Similarly relax all the edges then updated distances will be

ii) Relax all the edges for second time on previously updated distances
Edges (1,2). (1,3), (2,4,), (3,2,), (3,4), (3,5), (4,5)
For first edge (1,2)
d[1] = 0 and d[2] = 3
d[2] > d[1] + c(1,2)
3 > 0+6 is false so no need to update distance of d[2]
 Similarly in edge (1,3) d[3] will not be updated
Edge (2,4) d[2] = 3 and d[4] = 2
d[3] > d[2] + c(2.3)
5 >3–1
5 >2 is true so update d[3] = 2
In Edges (3,2) (3,4) and (3,5) distances will not be updated
In last edge (4,5) d[4] = 2 and d[5] =8
d[5] > d[4] + c(4,5)
8 >2+3
8 >5 is true so update d[5] = 5
All the edges were relaxed, updated graph and distances will be
 iii) Now Relaxing all the edges for third time

Edges (1,2). (1,3), (2,4,), (3,2,), (3,4), (3,5), (4,5)

No updates were found the distances will be same as previous iteration

iv) Now Relaxing all the edges for fourth time

Edges (1,2). (1,3), (2,4,), (3,2,), (3,4), (3,5), (4,5)

No updates were found the distances will be same as previous iteration

All the edges in Graph were relaxed for 4 time i.e., V-1 times where no of vertices V = 5 the
distances obtained in V-1th were the final shortest path distances from source vertex 0 to all
other vertices
Optimal Binary Search Trees(OBST) : An optimal binary search tree is a
BST, which has minimal cost of finding each node. A Binary Search Tree in which placing
the most frequently used data in the root and closer to the root element, while placing the
least frequently used data near leaves and in leaves to improve the search time is known to
be OBST.

Construct all possible Binary search trees for following elements

10, 20, 30
2𝑛𝑐𝑛
No of possible BST will be
𝑛+1

Here T5 will be optimal Binary Search Tree, when no of Search operations are almost same
for all the keys

Observe below searching scenario for keys

Element 10 20 30

Frequency 5 40 100
of search
For the above case, which tree will perform better
T1 = 1*5 + 2* 40 + 3*100 = 385
T2 = 1*5 + 2* 100 + 3*40 = 325
T3 = 1*100 + 2* 40 + 3*5 = 195

T4 = 1*100 + 2*5 + 3*40 = 230

T5 = 1*40 + 2* 5 + 2*100 = 290

2𝑛𝑐𝑛
Constructing All possible BST will be give us
𝑛+1
It will take huge time to construct all BST and then finding optimal one.
We can know the Optimal Binary Search Tree using the below procedure
➢ Here we assume, the probability of accessing a key Ki is pi.
➢ Some dummy keys (d0, d1, d2, ... dn) are added as some searches may be performed
for the values which are not present in the Key set K.
➢ We assume, for each dummy key di probability of access is qi.
➢ W(i, j) denotes weight which can be defined using the following formula:
W (i, j) = P (j) + Q (j) + w (i, j-1)
➢ C(i, j) denotes the cost matrix for OBST C(i, j) can be defined recursively, in the
following manner:
C (i, j) = min {C (i, K-1) + C (K, j)} + w (i, j)
i<k<=j
 ➢ R(i,j ) = k value chosen among C(i, j)
➢ Initially C (i, i) = 0 and w (i, i) = Q (i) for 0 < i < n.

EXAMPLE Let n = 4, and (a1, a2, a3, a4) = (do, if, need, while) Let P (1: 4) = (3, 3, 1, 1) and
Q (0: 4) = (2, 3, 1, 1, 1)

Solution:

Table for recording W (i, j), C (i, j) and R (i, j):

Column
0 1 2 3 4
Row
j-i = 0 0 W0,0 = 2 W1,1 = 3 W2,2 = 1 W3,3 = 1 W4,4 = 1
C0,0 = 0 C1,1 = 0 C2,2 = 0 C3,3 = 0 C4,4 = 0
R0,0 =0 R1,1 =0 R2,2 =0 R3,3 =0 R4,4 =0
j-i = 1 1 W0,1 = 8 W1,2 = 7 W2,3 = 3 W3,4 = 3
C0,1 = 8 C1,2 = 7 C2,3 = 3 C3,4 = 3
R0,1 =1 R1,2 =2 R2,3 =3 R3,4 =4
j-i = 2 2 W0,2 = 12 W1,3 = 9 W2,4 = 5
C0,2 = 19 C1,3 = 12 C2,4 = 8
R0,2 =1 R1,3 =2 R2,4 =3
j-i = 3 3 W0,3 = 14 W1,4 = 11
C0,3 = 25 C1,4 = 19
R0,3 =2 R1,4 =2
j-i = 4 4 W0,4 = 16
C0,4 = 32
R0,4 =2

This computation is carried out row-wise from row 0 to row 4.

Initially, W (i, i) = Q(i) and C (i, i) = 0 and R (i, i) = 0

W0,0 = 2 W1,1 = 3 W2,2 = 1 W3,3 = 1 W4,4 = 1

j-i = 0 C0,0 = 0 C1,1 = 0 C2,2 = 0 C3,3 = 0 C4,4 = 0
R0,0 =0 R1,1 =0 R2,2 =0 R3,3 =0 R4,4 =0

Solving for C (0, n):

FIRST ROW, computing all C (i, j) such that j - i = 1

Possible elements are (0,1), (1,2), (2,3) and (3,4)
 W0,1 = 8 W1,2 = 7 W2,3 = 3 W3,4 = 3
j-i = 1 C0,1 = 8 C1,2 = 7 C2,3 = 3 C3,4 = 3
R0,1 =1 R1,2 =2 R2,3 =3 R3,4 =4

Start with i = 0 and j = 1, Min i < k ≤ J.

the possible value for k = 1

W (0, 1) = P (1) + Q (1) + W (0, 0) = 3 + 3 + 2 = 8

C (0, 1) = W (0, 1) + min {C (0, 0) + C (1, 1)} = 8
R (0, 1) = 1 (value of 'K' that is minimum in the above equation).

with i = 1 and j = 2, Min i < k ≤ J the possible value for k = 2

W (1, 2) = P (2) + Q (2) + W (1, 1) = 3 + 1 + 3 = 7

C (1, 2) = W (1, 2) + min {C (1, 1) + C (2, 2)} = 7
R (1, 2) = 2

with i = 2 and j = 3, Min i < k ≤ J the possible value for k = 3

W (2, 3) = P (3) + Q (3) + W (2, 2) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
C (2, 3) = W (2, 3) + min {C (2, 2) + C (3, 3)} = 3 + [(0 + 0)] = 3
R (2, 3) = 3

with i = 3 and j = 4, Min i < k ≤ J the possible value for k = 4

(3, 4) = P (4) + Q (4) + W (3, 3) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3

C (3, 4) = W (3, 4) + min {[C (3, 3) + C (4, 4)]} = 3 + [(0 + 0)] = 3
R (3, 4) = 4

Second, Computing all C (i, j) such that j - i = 2

j-i = 2 W0,2 = 12 W1,3 = 9 W2,4 = 5

C0,2 = 19 C1,3 = 12 C2,4 = 8
R0,2 =1 R1,3 =2 R2,4 =3

Start with i = 0; so j = 2; as i < k ≤ J, so the possible values for k =1 and 2.

W (0, 2) = P (2) + Q (2) + W (0, 1) = 3 + 1 + 8 = 12

C (0, 2) = W (0, 2) + min {(C (0, 0) + C (1, 2)), (C (0, 1) + C (2, 2))}
= 12 + min {(0 + 7, 8 + 0)} = 19
R (0, 2) = 1

Next, with i = 1; so j = 3; as i < k ≤ j, so the possible value for k = 2 and 3.

W (1, 3) = P (3) + Q (3) + W (1, 2) = 1 + 1+ 7 = 9
C (1, 3) = W (1, 3) + min {[C (1, 1) + C (2, 3)], [C (1, 2) + C (3, 3)]}
= W (1, 3) + min {(0 + 3), (7 + 0)} = 9 + 3 = 12
R (1, 3) = 2

Next, with i = 2; so j = 4; as i < k ≤ j, so the possible value for k = 3 and 4.

W (2, 4) = P (4) + Q (4) + W (2, 3) = 1 + 1 + 3 = 5

C (2, 4) = W (2, 4) + min {[C (2, 2) + C (3, 4)], [C (2, 3) + C (4, 4)]
 = 5 + min {(0 + 3), (3 + 0)} = 5 + 3 = 8
R (2, 4) = 3

Third, Computing all C (i, j) such that J - i = 3; j = i + 3 and as 0 < i < 2; i = 0, 1;i
< k ≤ J.

W0,3 = 14 W1,4 = 11
j-i = 3 C0,3 = 25 C1,4 = 19
R0,3 =2 R1,4 =2

Start with i = 0; so j = 3; as i < k ≤ j, so the possible values for k = 1, 2 and 3.

W (0, 3) = P (3) + Q (3) + W (0, 2) = 1 + 1 + 12 = 14

C (0, 3) = W (0, 3) + min {[C (0, 0) + C (1, 3)], [C (0, 1) + C (2, 3)],
[C (0, 2) + C (3, 3)]}
= 14 + min {(0 + 12), (8 + 3), (19 + 0)} = 14 + 11 = 25
R (0, 3) = 2

Start with i = 1; so j = 4; as i < k ≤ j, so the possible values for k = 2, 3 and 4. W

(1, 4) = P (4) + Q (4) + W (1, 3) = 1 + 1 + 9 = 11

C (1, 4) = W (1, 4) + min {[C (1, 1) + C (2, 4)], [C (1, 2) + C (3, 4)],
[C (1, 3) + C (4, 4)]}
= 11 + min {(0 + 8), (7 + 3), (12 + 0)} = 11 + 8 = 19
R (1, 4) = 2

Fourth, Computing all C (i, j) such that j - i = 4; j = i + 4 and as 0 < i < 1; i = 0;i
< k ≤ J.

W0,4 = 16
j-i = 4 C0,4 = 32
R0,4 =2

Start with i = 0; so j = 4; as i < k ≤ j, so the possible values for k = 1, 2, 3 and 4.

W (0, 4) = P (4) + Q (4) + W (0, 3) = 1 + 1 + 14 = 16

C (0, 4) = W (0, 4) + min {[C (0, 0) + C (1, 4)], [C (0, 1) + C (2, 4)],
[C (0, 2) + C (3, 4)], [C (0, 3) + C (4, 4)]}
= 16 + min [0 + 19, 8 + 8, 19+3, 25+0] = 16 + 16 = 32
R (0, 4) = 2

From the table we see that C (0, 4) = 32 is the minimum cost of a binary search tree
for (a1, a2, a3, a4). The root of the tree 'T04' is 'a2'.

Hence the left sub tree is 'T01' and right sub tree is T24. The root of 'T01' is 'a1' and the
root of 'T24' is a3.

The left and right sub trees for 'T01' are 'T00' and 'T11' respectively. The root of T01 is
'a1'
 The left and right sub trees for T24 are T22 and T34 [Link] root of T24 is 'a3'.

The root of T22 is null The root of T34 is a4.

if

Example 2: Consider four elements a1, a2, a3 and a4 with Q0 = 1/8, Q1 = 3/16, Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = 1/16
and p1 = 1/4, p2 = 1/8, p3 = p4 =1/16. Construct an optimal binary search tree.

STRING EDITING
The minimum number of “character edit operations” needed to turn one sequence into the other is
known as String Edit Distance.

Consider the strings X= Amdrewz, Y= Andrew

To convert X to Y

1. substitute m to n

2. delete the z

Therefore Distance = 2

Given strings s and t

Distance is the shortest sequence of edit commands that transform s to t, (or equivalently s to t).

➢ Simple set of operations:

➢ Copy character from s over to t (cost 0)

➢ Delete a character in s (cost 1)

➢ Insert a character in t (cost 1)

➢ Replace one character for another (cost 1)

This is called to be “Levenshtein distance”

Algorithm stringEdit()
{
for(i=0; i<len(str1)+1; i++)
{
for (i=0; i<len(str1)+1; i ++)
{
if(i==0 && j==0)
T[i][j] = 0;
elseif (i==0)
T[i][j] = T[i][j-1] + 1
elseif (j==0)
T[i][j] = T[i-1][j] + 1
else {
T[i][j] = 1+ min { T[i][j-1], T[i-1][j-1], T[i-1][j]
}
} //end inner for
} //end outer for
} // End Algo
Example
Edit the string Sunday to Saturday
Null S A T U R D A Y

Null

String Edit distance = 3

1. Insert ‘A’ 2. Insert ‘T’ and 3. Replace ‘N’ with ‘R’
Remaining Letters ‘S’, ‘U’, ‘D’, ‘A’, ‘Y’ are copied
0/1 Knapsack
In 0/1 Knapsack Problem,
As the name suggests, We have to either take an item completely or leave it
completely. We cannot take the fraction of any item. It is solved using dynamic
programming approach.

Example
Let say there are 2 objects and Knapsack with weight M = 20

Object 1 Object 2
Weight 15 20
Profit 10 8
Here the weight of objects together is 35, whereas given knapsack weight is 20.
As object1 gives highest profit consider Object 1 into the knapsack, then knapsack size will
be reduced to 20-15 = 5. The available space of knapsack is now 5.
The weight of second object is 20, which is greater than the available space 5. so we can not
place second object into knapsack we have to leave it.
The total profit = 10 only
Note : If the above problem is fractional knapsack unlike 0/1 knapsack, we can consider the
fractional part of the second object which is 5/20 =0.25 which gives total profit of 10 +
0.25(8) = 12.

0/1 Knapsack Problem Using Dynamic Programming

Knapsack weight capacity = w
Number of objects = n
Draw a table say ‘T’ with (n+1) number of rows and (w+1) number of columns.
Fill the Table of 0th row and 0th column with zeroes as shown
0 1 2 ……… W
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0
2 0
… 0
N 0
 Here objects weights are represented row wise by wi where i runs from 1 to n

Like W2 represents weight of object2

W3 represents weight of object3
Wn represents weight of object last object N

1
2
…
N

Knapsack weight is represented column wise as Wsum, Wsum runs from 1 to

W(Kanpsack weight )

1 2 ……… W

Now fill the table row by row from left to right based the below conditions.

If (Wi > Wsum) ------> EQ1

T[i][Wsum] = T[i-1][Wsum]

elseif ( Wi<= Wsum) ------> EQ2

T[i][Wsum] = Max {
T[i-1][Wsum] ,
P[i] + T[i-1][Wsum - Wi]
}
Note – Pi represents the profit of the object i

Example
Solve the below 0/1 Knapsack problem
Weight of objects Wi = {2, 3, 5, 4}
 Profits of objects Pi = {3, 4, 6, 5}
Knapsack capacity W = 5
Solution :
Sort the Objects in ascending order w.r.t weights
Draw Table of size -- (no of objects + 1) * (Knapsack size + 1)
Fill first row as well as first column with zeros

Object Profit Weight 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 3 2 0
2 4 3 0
3 5 4 0
4 6 5 0

Now find the values for each cell

First Object W1 = 2, and i =1
Wsum = 1,
here W1 > Wsum so according to EQ1 copy the profit value from above cell
T[i][Wsum] = T[i-1][Wsum] = T[0][1] = 0

Wsum = 2
here W1 <= Wsum so according to EQ2
T[i][Wsum] = Max { T[i-1][Wsum], P[i] + T[i-1][Wsum-Wi] }
= Max { T[0][2] , 2 + T[0][2-2] }
= Max {0 , 2+ 0}
=2
Similarly when Wsum = 3, 4 and 5
 T[1][Wsum] = 2

Second Object W2 = 3 and i =2

Wsum = 1,
here W2 > Wsum so according to EQ1 copy the profit value from above cell
T[i][Wsum] = T[i-1][Wsum] = T[1][1] = 0

Wsum = 2,
W2 > Wsum,
T[i][Wsum] = T[i-1][Wsum] = T[1][2] = 3
Wsum = 3,
W3 <= Wsum,
T[i][Wsum] = Max { T[i-1][Wsum], P[i] + T[i-1][Wsum-Wi] }
= Max { T[1][3] , 4 + T[1][3-3] }
= Max {3 , 4+ 0}
=4
Wsum = 4,
W3 <= Wsum,
T[i][Wsum] = Max { T[i-1][Wsum], P[i] + T[i-1][Wsum-Wi] }
= Max { T[1][4] , 4 + T[1][4-3] }
= Max {3 , 4+ 0}
=4
Wsum = 3,
W3 <= Wsum,
T[i][Wsum] = Max { T[i-1][Wsum], P[i] + T[i-1][Wsum-Wi] }
= Max { T[1][5] , 4 + T[1][5-3] }
= Max {3 , 4+ 3}
=7
Similarly calculate values for all the cells

Object Profit Weight 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 3 2 0 0 3 3 3 3
2 4 3 0 0 3 4 4 7
3 5 4 0 0 3 4 5 7
4 6 5 0 0 3 4 5 7

Objects included = O1 and O2

So profits = 3 + 4 =7

Reliability Design
Reliability Design aims to build a system with high reliability, Where the devices are
connected in series.

D1 D2 D3 ………………. DN

N Devices connected in Series

In the above figure only one copy of each device is used to define the system. If any
one the devices fail the entire system will fail. In this system the reliability and cost of
system both are less.
The Reliability of the system can be increased by increasing the no of copies of each
device. For example, in case one copy fails the other copies of same device can used that
leads to improved reliability of the system as shown below

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage n

D1 D2 D3 DN
……………….
D1 D2 D3 DN
D1 D2 D3 DN
So, if we duplicate the devices at each stage then the reliability of the system can be
increased.

It can be said that multiple copies of the same device type are connected in
parallel through the use of switching circuits. Here, switching circuit determines which
devices in any given group are functioning properly. Then they make use of such
devices at each stage, that result is increase in reliability at each stage. If at each stage,
there are mi similar types of devices Di, then the probability that all mi have a
malfunction is (1 - ri)^mi, which is very less, and the reliability of the
stage i becomes (1 – (1 - ri) ^mi).

Thus, if ri = 0.99 and mi = 2, then the stage reliability becomes

1 – ( 1 – 0.99 )2 = 0.9999

which is almost equal to 1. Which is much better than that of the previous case.

In reliability design, we try to use device duplication to maximize reliability. But this
maximization should be considered along with the cost.

Let c is the maximum allowable cost and ci be the cost of each unit of device i. Then
the maximization problem can be given as follows:

Maximize π Øi (mi) for 1 <= I <= n Subject to ∑𝒏

𝒊=𝟏 𝒄𝒊 𝒎𝒊 < = C

Dominance Rule : Consider two set of pairs (R1, C1) and (R2, C2)

If R1 > R2 and C1 < C2 then we can discard the pair having less reliability and high cost

Example – (R1,C1) = (0.9, 20) and (R2, C2) = (0.5, 60)

Here 0.9 > 0.5 and 20 < 60 so discard the pair (0.5, 60)

Example

we need to design 3 stage systems with devices D1, D2, and D3 and costs of
devices are $30, $15, and $20, respectively. The cost of this system is to be
no more than $105. The reliability of each device type is 0.9, 0.8, and 0.5.
Find the optimal reliability for the entire system in given cost.

Cost Reliability
D1 30 0.9
D2 15 0.8
D3 20 0.5
Solution :

Given allowable cost C = 105,

Let UBi be the upper bound(Maximum) no of copies for Device i

𝒏
𝑪−∑ 𝑪𝒋
+1
𝒋=𝟏
𝑼𝑩𝒊 = 𝑪𝒊

𝑛
∑ 𝐶𝑗 = The cost for one copy of each device = C1 + C2 + C3
𝑗=1
= 30 + 15 + 20
= 65
𝑛
C -∑ 𝐶𝑗 = 105 – 65 = 40
𝑗=1

Maximum number of additional D1 devices we can purchase

= 40/30 + 1 = 2

Maximum number of additional D2 devices we can purchase

= 40/15 + 1 = 3

Maximum number of additional D3 devices we can purchase

= 40/20 + 1 = 3

Cost Reliability UBi

D1 30 0.9 2
D2 15 0.8 3
D3 20 0.5 3

No of Devices D1 can be purchased = 2

No of Copies Reliability Cost

D1 – 1 copy 0.9 30 (0.9,30)
D1 – 2 copies 0.99 60 (0.99,60)
D1 – 2 copies reliability = 1 – (1 – 0.9) 2

= 0.99

D1 – 2 copies cost = 30 + 30 = 60

No of Devices D2 can be purchased = 3

No of Copies Reliability Cost

D2 – 1 copy 0.8 15 (0.9,15)
D2 – 2 copies 0.96 30 (0.96,30)
D2 – 3 copies 0.992 45 (0.992,45)

D2 – 2 copies reliability = 1 – (1 – 0.8) 2

= 0.96

D2 – 2 copies cost = 15 + 15 = 30

D2 – 3 copies reliability = 1 – (1 – 0.8) 3

= 0.992

D2 – 3 copies cost = 15 + 15 + 15 = 45

No of Devices D3 can be purchased = 3

No of Copies Reliability Cost

D2 – 1 copy 0.5 20 (0.5,20)
D2 – 2 copies 0.75 40 (0.75,40)
D2 – 3 copies 0.875 60 (0.875,60)

D2 – 2 copies reliability = 1 – (1 – 0.8) 2

= 0.96

D2 – 2 copies cost = 15 + 15 = 30

D2 – 3 copies reliability = 1 – (1 – 0.8) 3

= 0.992

D2 – 3 copies cost = 15 + 15 + 15 = 45