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How do organisms Reproduce

Reproduction is a process of production of new organisms from pre-existing organisms. This process gives rise to
organisms with same basic characteristics as that of their parents . This process ensures the continuity of species on earth.
Reproduction is of two types :

1. Sexual reproduction
2. Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction : The process by which new organisms are produced by a single parent without the involvement of
sex cells or gametes is called as sexual reproduction. E.g. amoeba, paramecium, hydra and most of the plants reproduce by
asexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction : The process by which a new organisms is produced by two parents with the involvement of their sex
cells or gametes is known as sexual reproduction.

Modes of Asexual Reproduction

1. Fission : The process by which a single organism divides to form

two or more organisms is known as fission.
a. Binary fission : The process by which a single celled
organism divides to form two daughter cells is known as
binary fission. Amoeba reproduces by the process of binary
fission. After maturing amoeba starts dividing into two
parts, firstly the division of nucleus takes place then the
division of cytoplasm takes place. In this way a single
celled amoeba divides to form two daughter cells.
b. Multiple fission : The process in which a unicellular
organisms divides to form more than two daughter cells is
called as multiple fission. Protozoa Plasmodium which
causes malaria in humans reproduces by this method of
multiple fission. A cyst wall is formed over the plasmodium
cell, within which plasmodium divides to form several
organism. When this cyst wall breaks due to conditions then
the cells formed spread and causes new infection.
2. Budding : In this process a small outgrowth is developed over the
organisms which is then grows to form full organism. This
outgrowth is then detaches to form new organism. E.g. hydra and
yeast reproduces by this method. In hydra a small outgrowth
develops which grows and then detaches to form a new full
organism. In case of yeast sometimes the outgrowth remains with
the parent organisms and sometimes it detaches to form colonies of
yeast and also spread in air to form new plant.
3. Spore formation : In this method of reproduction a organism
produces hundreds of microscopic reproductive units called as spores. When the
spore case burst then the microscopic spores spread in air and land on soil and
food to form new organism. Rhizopus fungus reproduces by this method.

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4. Regeneration : The process in which a parent organism breaks somehow to

form two or more parts and each part then grows to form new organism is
called as regeneration. As seen in hydra, if somehow hydra cuts into two parts
and then each part grows to form new hydra. This process of regeneration is
seen in simple multicellular organisms as their body organization is very
simple. The body organization of complex multicellular organisms is very
complex and therefore they are not able to reproduce by this method. The
process of regeneration takes place by growth and development. The cells of
the cut body parts divides to form a ball of cells. The cells present in this ball
of cells then reaches to respective places and form tissues and organs of the
organism. In this way a complete organism is produced from
a part.
5. Fragmentation : The process in which a simple multi-
cellular organism splits on maturing into two or more parts
and then each part grows to form a new organism is called as
fragmentation. E.g. spirogyra and sea anemone reproduces by
this method.
6. Vegetative propagation : The production of new plants by
using parts of old plants is known as vegetative propagation.
We have seen that during summer season all the
grass in the grounds near us becomes dry and after rains the
green grass is grown again this is due to vegetative
propagation. The stems of dry grass has buds in them which
grows because of the water and then form new grass.
Buds are also present on the leaves of bryophyllum
plant. When these buds grows to form new plantlets. These plantlets then detaches and fall on ground to form new
plant.
Money plant also reproduces by
the method of vegetative propagation. We
cut the stem of old money plant having
some leaves on it. This stem is then
buried in the soil or pot to produce new
plant.
A tuber is a underground
stem or root which is swollen
because of food stored in it. Potato
is a stem tuber whereas sweet
potato is a root tuber. As seen
potato has some buds, when we
burry the potato having buds on it
in the soil then the buds grow to
form new potato plants. Even if we
burry the piece of potato having
buds on it in the soil then the piece also grows to form a new potato plant.
The method of vegetative propagation is a very fast method of growing plants from the old parts of the old
plants.

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Artificial vegetative propagation

The method of producing new plants from old parts of plants by using man made methods is called as artificial
vegetative propagation.

1. Layering : In this method a soft branch of the plant is pulled and buried in the soil. Care is taken to see that the tip
of the stem should be open in air. After some time roots develop from the buried part and a new plant is formed.
After that the stem is cutted from the old plant. In this way we can produce various plants like jamine, guava, lemon
etc.
2. Cutting: A part of the stem is cut and then the cutted part is sown in the soil. The buds present in the cutted stem
develops and a new plant is formed. Plants like rose, grapes, sugarcane, banana etc can be grown by this method.
3. Grafting : In this method cutted stems of two plants, one with root and one without root are taken and the tied with
each other. The tissues join after some time and the plants is developed showing the characterstics of both the
plants. The stem with root is called as stock and the stem without root is called as scion. We can use various scions
of same stock to produce variety of plants having different characterstics.

Advantages of artificial vegetative propagation

1. New plants produced by this method are exactly same as that of parent plant. Any desirable features of the parent
plant can be replicated in the new plant.
2. The fruit trees grown from seeds take many years to bear fruits but if we grow fruit trees by grafting method then
they bear fruits in very short time.
3. The plants grown by artificial propagation usually needs less attention during their early days of growing period.
4. Many plants can be grown from just one parent plant by this method.
5. We can also get seedless plants by this method.

Tissue culture (Micropropagation)

The production of new plants by a small piece of tissue taken from the growing tip of stem or root of the plants in a
suitable medium is called as tissue culture.

1. In this method a small piece of tissue is taken from the growing tip of stem or leaf and put it into a sterile medium
containing nutrients and plant hormones. This makes the cells of the plant divide rapidly producing many cells to
form a lump of cells called as callus.
2. The callus is then transferred to another jelly containing suitable medium which promotes the growth of roots in
them.
3. The callus containing roots is then transferred to other medium which promotes the growth of stems in them.
4. The callus having roots and stems separated into tiny plantlets which then buried in different pots or soils to form
new plants. In this way thousands of plants can be produced by single piece of tissue.

Advantages of tissue culture

1. It is a very fast technique. Thousands of plants can be produced from a single piece of tissue in very short time.
2. The new plants produced are generally disease free.
3. Tissue culture can grow plants round the year, irrespective of the weather or season.
4. Very little space is needed to grow plants using tissue culture.

The organisms which produce by asexual methods of reproduction are called as clones. Clones are exact copies of
their parents. Small amount of variations arises due to inaccuracies in DNA coping. The coping of DNA is done by

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biochemical reactions and no biochemical reaction produces 100% sure result due to which some variations arises in the
organism. Variations are important for the survival of species under hostile environmental conditions.

Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants

Flowering plants reproduce by the method of sexual reproduction. The flowering plants produce male and female
gametes which fuses to form a new seed which ultimately develops to produce a new plant. Flower contain the male and
female reproductive organs of plants. Some parts of the flower and their functions are as follows :

Receptacle : The base of the flower is called as receptacle.

It holds all the parts of the flower on it.

Sepals : The green leaf like structure of the plant is

called as sepal. All the sepals together form a structure called as
calyx. It protect the plant during initial stages of life when it was
in the form of bud.

Petals : Colorful scented part of flower which attracts the

insects for pollination. They also protect the reproductive organs of the flower. All the petals together form a structure
called as corolla.

Stamen : The male reproductive

part of the flower is called as stamen. It has
two parts filament and anther. Filament is
the stalk like structure of the stamen and
anther is the swollen part of the stamen at
the top of filament that store pollen grains.
Pollen grain contain male gametes in them.

Carpel or pistil : The female reproductive part of the flower is called as carpel or pistil. It has three parts namely
stigma, style and ovary. Stigma receives pollen grains after pollination, style is a long tube that connects stigma with ovary,
and ovary is that part which contains female gametes.

The flowers which contain only one sex organ called as unisexual flower and the flowers that contain both sex
organs in them are called as bisexual flowers. Papaya and watermelon are unisexual flowers and hibiscus and mustard are
bisexual flowers.

Pollination : The process of transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of carpel is
called as pollination. There are of two types of pollination self pollination and cross
pollination.

Self pollination : The transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to the
stigma of carpel of same flower or other flower of same plant is called as self pollination.
(i.e. pollination within same plant).

Cross pollination : the transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to the
stigma of carpel of other flower of other plant is called as cross pollination.(i.e. within
different plants).

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Fertilization : The process of fusion of male and female gamete to form zygote is called as fertilization. After pollination
when pollen grains fall on the stigma then in the presence of a sugar like chemical it converts into pollen tube
that reaches to the ovary. Male gametes travel through the pollen tube reaches the ovary. One male gamete
fuses with two polar nuclei to form endosperm nucleus which is the food storage tissue of seed and other
male gamete fuses which female gamete of form zygote which divides and grows to form seed. After the
formation of the seed the ovary ripen to form the fruit and other parts of flower like sepal. Petals and stamen
etc falls off.

The fruit contain seed which is a reproductive unit of the plant and
can grow to form new plant. The part of seed which ultimately grows to
form root is called as radical and the part of seed which grows to form stem
is called as plumule.

Sexual reproduction in Human Beings

Humans reproduce by the method of sexual reproduction. They

have specialized cells called as sex cells or gametes in their body. Male
produces sex cells called as sperms and female produces sex cells called as ovum. Sperm and ovum fuse during fertilization
to produce zygote which ultimately develops to produce a new young organism.

Fertilization : The fusion of male and female gamete during sexual reproduction to produce zygote is called as fertilization.
The zygote is called as fertilized egg or fertilized ovum which grows and develops in the body of mother to produce a new
baby. Fertilization is of two types :

1. External fertilization : The fertilization in which the fusion of male and female gamete takes place outside the
female body is called as external fertilization. This type of fertilization takes place in frogs toads or in fishes etc.
fishes secrete their sperms and ovum in the pond or river water where the fusion of male and female gamete takes
place and zygote is formed.
2. Internal fertilization : The fertilization in which the fusion of male and female gamete takes place inside the female
body is called as internal fertilization. Humans, cats, dogs, rats etc show this method of reproduction.

The advantage of sexual reproduction is that it helps in increasing the variety of organisms i.e. helps in producing
variations among the organism of same species.

Gametes are Haploid : The sex cells of the sexually reproducing animals contain half no. of chromosomes that
their ordinary cells (therefore they are called as haploid). So when the sperm and ovum containing half no. of chromosome
fusion to form zygote it contain full set of chromosome (called as diploid).

Puberty : The age at which the sex hormones or gametes begin to produce in boy or girl and they become sexually
mature and are able to reproduce is called as puberty. Puberty tends to start early in girls (10 to 12 year) than in boys (13-14)
years. Puberty is the age at which the reproductive organs reach maturity and the secondary sexual characteristics develop.

The various changes in boys at puberty are : Hair grows under the armpits and the pubic region between thighs.
Hairs also grow on other parts of the body like chest and face. Body becomes muscular, shoulders widen, voice
cracks(deepens). The testes and penis become larger. Testes began to produce male sex cells called as sperms. Testes also
start producing male sex hormone called as testosterone

The various changes in girls during puberty are : Hair grows under the armpits and the pubic region between
thighs. Mammary glands develop and enlarge. The hips broaden. Extra fat is deposited over the parts of body like hips and

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thighs. Fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina enlarges. Ovaries start to produce eggs or ovum. Ovaries start producing female
sex hormone called as oestrogen and Progesterone.

Male Reproductive system

Human male reproductive system consists of testes, scrotum,

epididymis, Vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and penis. Testes are
the oval shaped organs which lie outside the abdominal cavity in a muscular
pouch called as scrotum. Scrotum lies outside the abdominal cavity to provide
optimal temperature for the production of sperms which is 3 less than the body
temperature. Extra abdominal cavity provides that temperature to the testes. The
sperms produced by the testes temporarily stored in a coiled shaped tube called as
epididymis. From there sperms are carried by long tube called as vas deferens to
urethra. During its path two glands namely prostate gland and seminal vesicle
give their secretions to the sperm and provide nourishment to them also gives
them liquid medium, due to this their further transport become easier. Sperms
become motile there and then travels to urethra from where they are carried to penis to be secreted into females vagina.
There is a single passage in human males to excrete out sperms as well as urine out of the body, therefore it is called as
urino-genital system.

Female Reproductive system

Human female reproductive system consists of Ovaries, Oviducts (also

called as fallopian tubes), Uterus and Vagina. Ovaries are primary reproductive
organs in human females that are oval in shape. They produces female sex cells
called as ovum or egg. They also produce female sex hormone called as
Oestrogen and progesterone. There are several thousand follicles present in
ovary which after puberty becomes mature form eggs or ovum. Just above each
ovary there are funnel shaped opening which leads to a tube like structure called
as oviduct (fallopian tube). The fusion of male and female gamete takes place in
oviduct. Each oviduct opens into a bag shaped structure called as uterus. The
growth and development of the baby takes place uterus. The uterus is connected
through a narrow opening called as cervix to another tube called as vagina which opens outside the body. Vagina receives
penis during sexual reproduction. Vagina also called as birth canal because the birth of the baby takes place through vagina.
In human female there is different opening to pass out urine and for the birth of the baby therefore it is more complex in
nature than human male reproductive system.

Process of fertilization

During sexual reproduction sperms enters into female vagina. They travel to the fallopian tube where one sperm
fuses with the ovum to form zygote. Size of sperm is much smaller than ovum. The zygote is single celled. After fusion
zygote travels downward to the uterus. The walls of uterus prepares themselves for receiving the zygote. Zygote cells divides
continuously to form embryo. Embryo then embedded in the thick lining of blood vessels present in the walls of uterus. This
embedding of embryo into the thick lining of uterus is called as implantation. Embryo is connected to the uterus walls by
disc like structure called as placenta. Umbilical cord connects the embryo with placenta. It helps in the exchange of nutrients

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and waste material between mother’s body and baby. The embryo develops in uterus and forms foetus. Foetus is the stage in
which all the organs are developed completely and identified. The time period of the development of the baby inside the
mother’s uterus is called as gestation period. In humans it is about 9 months or 38 weeks. After that the walls of uterus
contract rhythmically to push the baby out of the body. The act of giving birth to baby is called as parturition. The baby then
comes out of the body of mother through vagina.

Sexual cycle in females

The sexual cycle in females is called as menstruation menstrual cycle. This is described as follows :

1. When a girl reaches puberty at the age of 10 to 12 years, the sex hormones released into her blood cause some of
the ova (or egg cells) in her ovaries to become mature.
2. Usually one mature egg is released from the ovary into the oviduct once every 28 days. This is called as ovulation.
3. Before ovulation, the inner lining of uterus becomes thick and spongy and full of tiny blood vessels and prepares
itself to receive the fertilized ovum or egg.
4. If the ovum does not get fertilized due to non availability of sperm then thick lining of uterus breaks comes out with
lot of blood and ovum from vagina in the form of bleeding called as menstruation.
5. Menstruation usually occurs 14 days after ovulation and usually lasts for 3-5 days.
6. After the menstruation is over, the inner lining of the uterus walls starts building up again so that it may get ready
for receiving another ovum after fertilization. This cycle is then repeated after 28 days again and again (till the
ovum becomes fertilized by the sperm). The menstrual cycle is controlled by the hormones.

Menarche and Menopause : The first occurrence of the menstruation on puberty is called as menarche. It is the beginning
of the sexual cycle in females. Menstruation stops permanently when a woman reaches the age of 45 to 50 years. The
permanent stoppage of menstruation in a woman is called as menopause. After that a woman is not able to give birth to a
baby. It marks the end of the sexual cycle in female.

Birth control methods

As the population of our country is increasing rapidly, it will become very difficult for the govt. of provide healthy food
and life to the citizens of the country. If population is not controlled then it will become difficult to give education and other
facilities to all the children. So a people must adopt some of the methods to control the rapidly increasing population,
because a small family is a healthy family. If a couple has 1 or 2 children then they can give good food and good education
to them. Some of the methods used for birth control are as follows :

1. Barrier methods : In this methods physical devices such as condoms, diaphragms are used during sexual
intercourse so that sperms can’t enter the females body and fertilization doesn’t occur. Use of physical device also
prevents the occurring of sexually transmitted diseases.
2. Chemical methods: In this method chemical pills are used to prevent pregnancies in human females. There are two
types of pills : oral contraceptive (OC’s) and Vaginal pills. Oral contraceptives contain hormones that stops
ovulation and the Vaginal pills contain spermicides that kill sperms.
3. Intra-Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) : In this method a device called as Copper T is implanted inside the
uterus of the female body so that implantation of the embryo doesn’t takes place. It is placed inside the uterus by a
trained nurse or doctor.
4. Surgical methods : There are two types of surgical methods to prevent pregnancy in human males and females
namely : Vasectomy and Tubectomy. The surgical procedure in males in which a part of vas deferens is cut and tide
from both ends to prevent the entry of sperms is called as vasectomy. They surgical procedure in females in which a
part of fallopian tube is cut and tide from both ends to prevent the entry of egg or ovum is called as tubectomy.

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Sexually transmitted diseases

The diseases that are transmitted from a diseased person to a healthy person through sexual contact are called as
sexually transmitted diseases. (STD’s). Some of the STD’s are :

1. Gonorrhoea (bacterial)
2. Syphilis (bacterial)
3. AIDS ( Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) (viral)
4. WARTS (viral)

Out of these AIDS is the only disease which doesn’t have any cure. It is a very dangerous disease which leads to the
death of a person.

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