Created by Turbolearn AI

INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

Overview of India's Foreign Policy

Defining Foreign Policy

Foreign policy, or foreign relations policy, involves strategies a nation adopts to
protect its national interests and achieve its goals internationally.
These strategies dictate how a country interacts with others, including both
state and non-state actors.

Foreign policy can be defined as a set of self-interest strategies adopted

by a state to protect its national interests and achieve its goals in the
international scenario.

Core Tenets of India's Foreign Policy

Promoting cordial relations.
Ensuring equality among all states.
Adhering to non-alignment principles.
Conducting international relations with equality.

Factors Influencing Foreign Policy

Page 1
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Factor
Description
Category

Internal elements within a country, such as its economic conditions,

Domestic political system, public opinion, and historical context, that shape its
foreign policy decisions.
External forces and factors, including the actions and policies of other
countries, international organizations, global events, and geopolitical
International
considerations, that influence a country's foreign policy orientation
and choices.
Dynamic Aspects that change over time, influencing adjustments in foreign
Factors policy.
Elements with a long-term impact, providing continuity in shaping
Basic Factors
foreign policy.

The Rationality of Foreign Policy

Rationality: Foreign policy is a rational response to external conditions,
formulated through a step-by-step planning process.
Explanation of International Behaviors: Essential for understanding inter-state
relations.
Adjustment of Behaviors: Aims to adjust the behavior of other states in one's
favor.

Meaning and Objectives of Foreign Policy

Defining Foreign Policy in Detail

Involves relations among countries on international issues such as
disarmament, peace, and climate change.
Aims to pursue national interests in global affairs.
Seeks to control the behavior of other states, guided by national interest.

The Spectrum of National Interest

Page 2
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Extreme Realists: Equate national interest with national power.

Extreme Idealists: Define national interest as universal moral aspirations like
eternal peace.
Stateman's View: Considers security, national development, and world order
as components of national interest.

National Interest in Different Countries

Country
National Interest Focus
Type

Developed Preserving the current state and seeking further improvement.

Preserving political sovereignty and accelerating economic
Developing
development to improve the standard of living.

The Interconnectedness of National Interest

In the era of globalization, national interest is intertwined with a country's geo-
political and geo-strategic location and international environment.
A country's foreign policy includes its commitments, interests, objectives, and
principles of right conduct.

The Importance of Studying Foreign Policy

Foreign policy deals with a country's external environment.
Its object is to influence events beyond the state boundary.
The primary purpose is to seek adjustments in the behavior of other states in
favor of oneself.

Perspectives on Foreign Policy

Page 3
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Scholar Definition

Mahendra Emphasizes regulating the behavior of other states to suit one’s own
Kumar interest as best as possible.
Defines it as the system of activities evolved by communities for
George
changing the behavior of other states and adjusting their own
Modelski
activities.
Joseph National interest is the key concept in foreign policy, amounting to the
Frankel sum total of all the national values.
A well-rounded, comprehensive plan, based on knowledge and
Hugh Gibson
experience, for promoting and protecting the interests of the nation.
An interaction between forces originating outside the country’s border
Northedge
and those working within them.
Hartman A systematic statement of deliberately selected national interest.
Involves the formulation and implementation of principles shaping a
C. C. Rodee state’s behavior while negotiating with other states to protect its
interests.

Key Components of Foreign Policy (Prof. Mahendra Kumar)

The policy-makers
Interests and objectives
Principles of foreign policy
Means of foreign policy

Objectives of Foreign Policy

Five Main Objectives

1. Protecting the territorial integrity and the interests of its citizens.
2. Maintaining links with the international community, adopting policies of
conflict or cooperation.
3. Promoting and furthering national interests.
4. Promoting the economic interests of the country.
5. Enhancing the influence of the state.

Goals of Foreign Policy

Page 4
 Created by Turbolearn AI

National Interest as the Overarching Goal

National interest can be defined as what foreign policy-makers say it is.
Essential components include security, national development, and world
order.
Objectives are derived from national interest and are more specific in nature.

Wolfers' Goals
Possession Goals: Preserve possessions like territory or organizational
membership.
Milieu Goals: Shape favorable conditions beyond national boundaries, like
peace and international law.

Contrasting Goals
Ideological or Revolutionary Goals vs. Traditional Goals.

Three Categories of Objectives

Category Description Examples

Goals for which people

Core values are willing to make Self-preservation, defense of vital areas,
and ultimate sacrifices; ethnic/religious unity, protection of
interests related to the existence cultural/political institutions.
of a state.
Trade, foreign aid, access to communication
Middle facilities, foreign markets, increasing state
Necessary for increasing
range prestige (military capacity, diplomatic
social welfare.
objectives ceremonies), ideological self-extension
(promoting socio-economic/political values).
Promotion of international law, peaceful
Universal Plans and visions related
settlement of disputes, arms control, creation
long range to the world community.
of international or regional organizations.

Long-Range Objectives

Page 5
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Dreams, visions, and grand designs concerning the ultimate political or ideological
organization of the international system. These objectives aim at restructuring the
international system.

Examples:

Hitler’s concept of a Thousand Year Reich

The European New Order
Japan’s dream of Greater East Asia
The Soviet Union’s idea of a World Soviet Federation
The American dream of making the world safe for democracy
De Gaulle’s image of a Federation of Fatherlands

The first and second categories of India’s Foreign Policy require immediate pursuit,
but the third category goals are meant for long-term pursuit.

Foreign Policy Orientation

The general policies, strategies, and obligations of a state. Foreign policy can be
observed to have three types of orientation.

Approaches to the Study of India’s Foreign

Policy
International relations is a study of international behavior in the model of states,
analyzing the action and interaction of states in relation to one another. The foreign
policy of a state describes collectively with these ends, means, and methods. The
study of foreign policy, therefore, has naturally emerged as the core study of
international relations everywhere.

Most studies of foreign policy concentrate on understanding the kinds of processes

used in various states to implement foreign policies, probing the effects of these
processes on the resulting outcomes.

Historical Approach

Page 6
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Reconstructs the diplomacy of a particular period with accuracy, precision, and due
attention to the major events. It does not lead to any formulation of a general law or
a theory or a conceptual framework. The object consists of a detailed and systematic
study of selected powers, mainly great, at a given time. It seeks to enlighten the
present by a reference to the past.

Legalistic Approach
Seeks to analyze the legal background and framework of international relations,
focusing on the present background. This approach has led to an extensive study of
international law. It also analyzes the external relations of states and internal
problems of government, including constitutional provisions, laws, treaties, and
regulations. An investigation into techniques and procedures for the improvement of
the stability of the world order has also been led by this approach.

Descriptive Approach
Also known as the general approach, it describes in some detail the foreign policy of
selected powers, sometimes in the background of some current events or institutions.
Attempts to formulate theories and establish a conceptual framework have been led
by this study.

Ideological Approach
Analyzes foreign policy as expressions of prevailing political, social, and religious
beliefs. It classifies foreign policies as democratic or totalitarian, libertarian or
socialist, and peace-loving or aggressive. Ideological justification for their policies is
used by all states. In this view, a foreign policy is appreciated or condemned in terms
of its consistency or inconsistency with the declared ideology.

Ideology does not always present a correct criterion of actions of a state and is often
used as a mask to serve other interests.

Analytical Approach

Page 7
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Seeks to meet the inadequacies of the ideological approach and construct a realistic
picture of the situation. Policy rests on multiple determinants, including the state’s
historic tradition, geographical location, national interest and purposes, and security
needs.

Each state has certain permanent interests or obligations that dominate its foreign
policy. The ‘national interest’ of a state can be described by these approaches. The
analytical approach is particularly designed to analyze and interpret such interests,
exploring the basic determinants of foreign policy together with the multiple factors
usually considered by every foreign policy-maker. It focuses on various dimensions as
well as pays attention on the concept which competes interests, the power of nations
to achieve their interest, the process through which polices are adopted and
implemented and the international environment within which such policies interact
with one another. This modern approach in history has particularly widened the
appreciation and knowledge of foreign policies of state.

Psychological Approach
According to the psychological approach, the dimension of cognition affects the
foreign policy of a country.

Cognition: 'The process by which knowledge and understanding is

developed in the mind.’ It is the process by which humans select and
process information from the world around them.

A policy-maker’s decision is influenced by cognition, formulating the foreign policy

based on his understanding and perception of the world. When looking at the
cognitive approach of foreign policy the belief system of the decision makers has to
be understood.

Psycho-Analytic Approach
An individual’s personality is influenced by childhood experiences. Individual
decision-makers not only have differing values and beliefs but also have unique
personalities.

Decision-Making Approach

Page 8
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The explanatory focal point must be the foreign policy decision-makers themselves
and not larger structural or systematic phenomena. Explanatory variables from all
levels of analysis, from macro to micro, are of interest to the analyst to some extent
that they affect the decision-making process. The actions of the state are seen
through the actions of decision-makers.

The setting in which foreign policy decisions are made is the one which is perceived
by the decision-maker, consisting of internal and external parts. The internal setting
includes personalities, roles, the governmental structures within which the decision-
maker functions, organizations in the decisional units, the physical and technological
conditions, the basic values and goals and the various influences operating in the
society. The external setting includes all the relevant factors in the total situation of
the international system existing at a particular time.

Idealist vs. Realist Approaches

Foreign policy approaches generally fall into two categories:

Idealist: Based on values and norms, collaborative in nature.

Realist: Based on state security, extends its national interest through pragmatic
and rational means, security-oriented.

The realist approach emphasizes the concept of power, where the fundamentally
anarchic condition of the international system is the most important guide to
decision-making in foreign policy making.

The idealist approach regards power politics as a passing phase of history and
presents the picture of a future international society based on the nation of reformed
international system, free from power politics, immorality and violence.

Domestic and International Determinants of

India’s Foreign Policy

Types of National Interests

Thomas W. Robinson classifies national interest into the following six categories:

Page 9
 Created by Turbolearn AI

1. Primary interests
2. Secondary interests
3. Permanent interests
4. Variable interests
5. General interests
6. Specific interests

Robinson also refers to three other types which are collectively called international
interest. A state also needs to promote its international interest, taking coercive
measures, making alliances or diplomatic negotiations.

Factors Essential in the Making of Foreign Policy

Formulating a foreign policy is a dynamic process and determined by a number of
factors, many of which remain static or unchanged.

Geo-strategic (geographic strategic) situations

Population potential
Economic endowments
Ideological environment

Key Determinants of Foreign Policy

Geography
Economic development
Political traditions
Domestic milieu
International milieu
Military strength
National character

Historical Factors
History determines the boundaries of states and also a legacy which furnishes the
guidelines for the foreign policy at the present time. It determines the prevailing
tradition and the self-image of a society and therefore, the specific national style. The
cultural and historical traditions of a country also deeply influence the foreign policy.

Page 10
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Population
The foreign policy of a country regarding political, economic and military phases is
also conditioned by the size, character and distribution of its population.

Quality of Government
One of the major influences on the foreign policy of a state is the quality of
government and leadership.

Economic Development
The basis for many principles of a foreign policy is also provided by the economic
condition of a particular state.

Natural Resources
National resources, including food, minerals, metal and water resources, constitute a
vital element of national power and consequently of foreign policy.

Industrial Development
Industrial development plays a vital role in determining a state’s foreign policy.

Ideological Factor
The foreign policy of a nation is mostly influenced by its ideology, which subscribes
to certain fundamental beliefs relating to the distribution of power in society.

Military Strength or Capacity

The military strength or capacity of a country has a direct impact on its foreign policy.

Military Strength in Foreign Policy

Page 11
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Military strength is vital for a state's power and its effectiveness in global affairs. A
state with a strong military can pursue its foreign policy goals more assertively, while
a weaker state may face disadvantages, even in negotiations.

A militarily superior state tends to adopt a bold policy to maximize gains.

A weaker state often focuses on minimizing disadvantages.

Geo-Strategic Factors
Geo-strategy is a foreign policy approach guided by geographical factors that
influence political and military planning. It involves aligning a country's resources
with its geopolitical objectives.

Geo-strategy: a type of foreign policy guided principally by geographical

factors as they constrict or affect political and military planning.

Key Geographical Characteristics

Size: A large area to support a substantial population.
Climate: A climate conducive to physical vigor, such as temperate or tropical
highland regions.
Topography: Natural defense barriers like mountains, forests, swamps, rivers,
deserts, and oceans.
Shape: A compact shape that is easy to defend.

Historical Significance
America's isolationism: Possible due to its location between the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans.
Egypt's protection: The African deserts protected Egypt for centuries.
France and Italy: The Alps served as a protective barrier.
India: The Himalayan mountain range provided protection.

Impact of Technological Advancements

The traditional view of geo-strategy has been affected by advancements in air power
and nuclear weapons. The importance of land and sea distances has diminished due
to air travel capabilities.

Page 12
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Public Opinion in Foreign Policy

Public opinion plays a significant role in shaping foreign policy. It can influence policy
formulation and implementation.

Examples of Public Opinion Impact

American forces in South Vietnam: Public opinion forced the government to
withdraw.
Suez Crisis: Public opinion against the British led to the Eden Government's
resignation in 1957.
India and Israel: Fear of annoying a minority community prevented diplomatic
ties with Israel for decades.

National Interest as a Determinant of Foreign

Policy
National interest is a fundamental concept in foreign policy-making. It serves as the
starting point and guiding principle for a country's actions in international politics.

National Interest: the ‘key concept’ in a foreign policy.

Core Concepts
Self-interest: A fundamental cause for national policy.
Struggle for power: All types of politics involve a struggle for power.
Preservation: Protecting physical, political, and cultural identity against
encroachments.

Definitions of National Interest

Page 13
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Theorist Definition

Aspirational, operational, explanatory, and polemical

Joseph Frankel
uses.
Centered on core values of society, including welfare,
Authors of The Dynamics
security, political belief, national way of life, territorial
of International Politics
integrity, and self-preservation.
Determined by political traditions and cultural contexts;
Morgenthau
protecting identity against encroachments.
Bandopadhyaya Preserving political independence and territorial integrity.
Defending control over territory and fighting for
Spykman
independent status.

Examples of Actions Justified by National Interest

Napoleon's campaign against Russia and battle at Waterloo: Justified as
acting in France's interest.
Hitler's expansionist policies: Annexation of Austria and break of
Czechoslovakia (1938) in Germany’s national interest.
Chamberlain's appeasement: Appeasing dictators of Germany and Italy
because he assumed that it was in Britain’s national interest.
Pakistan's destabilization attempts: Destabilizing the Indian state of Jammu
and Kashmir in its national interest.

Challenges to National Interest

National interest is challenged by competing interests such as regional, global, and
sub-regional interests.

Contrasting Views on National Interest

Jawaharlal Nehru: Foreign policy should prioritize the country's advantages,
regardless of ideology.
Woodrow Wilson: Morality, not expediency, should guide foreign policy.
Mahatma Gandhi: Emphasized morality even at the cost of national interest.

Kinds of National Interest

Page 14
 Created by Turbolearn AI

There are various types of national interests, including:

Primary interests: Preservation of physical, political, and cultural identity.

Secondary interests: Protection of citizens abroad and diplomatic immunities.
Permanent interests: Long-term interests with slow change.
Variable interests: Interests essential for national good in specific
circumstances.
General interests: Positive conditions applying to many nations.
Specific interests: Logical outgrowth of general interests.
Identical interests: Interests common to several states.
Complementary interests: Interests that can form the basis of agreements.
Conflicting interests: Interests that change with events and diplomacy.

Methods for the Promotion of National

Interest

Coercive Measures
Using violent actions or the display of force to advance national interest.

Coercive measures: These measures, if adopted by the state, can help in

the advancement and enforcement of its national interest.

Example: George Bush Jr.'s declaration of war against Afghanistan after the
9/11 attacks.

Alliances
Forming partnerships with other countries to protect and promote common interests.

Alliances: Two or more countries form alliances to protect and promote

common interests.

Diplomatic Negotiations
Reconciling divergent interests through mutual give and take.

Page 15
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Diplomatic negotiations: These negotiations generally help to reconcile

the divergent interests of the state through a process of ‘mutual give and
take’.

Power as a Determinant of Foreign Policy

Power is a crucial concept in international politics and foreign policy. It is the ability to
control others and influence their actions.

Power: as the ability or capacity to control others and get them to do

what one wants them to do and also to see that they do not do what one
does not want them to do.

Key Definitions
Kautilya: Possession of strength derived from knowledge, military might, and
valor.
Hans Morgenthau: One man’s control over the minds and actions of other men.
Professor Mahendra Kumar: Ability to get things done as Actor A wants Actor
B to do.
Robert Dahl: 'A' has power over 'B' to the extent that it can get 'B' to do
something that 'B' would not otherwise do.
Couloumbis and Wolfe: Authority, influence, and force.

Ingredients of Power
1. Authority: Voluntary compliance.
2. Influence: Compliance by persuasion.
3. Force: Coercion.

Power Dynamics
Power enables states to formulate and implement foreign policies successfully.
States use power to attain national objectives.

Domestic Determinants of India’s Foreign

Policy

Page 16
 Created by Turbolearn AI

India's foreign policy is an extension of its domestic policy, reflecting internal

concerns and shaped by its political, economic, social structure, history, culture, and
traditions.

Geography
India's geographical features influence its foreign policy.

Border Details

Bordering Length
Key Features
Country (km)

Red-Cliffe Line, Thar Desert, Rann of Kutch, Line of

Pakistan 3,323
Control (LOC)
Claimed border in north-western Kashmir (controlled by
Afghanistan 106
Pakistan)
92 enclaves on Indian soil, 106 enclaves on Bangladesh
Bangladesh 4,096.70
soil, Teen Bigha Corridor
China 4,057 Line of Actual Control (LAC), Aksai Chin area
Burma
1,643 Southern periphery of India’s north-eastern states
(Myanmar)
Bhutan 699 Located amidst the Himalayas
Nepal 1,751 Himalayan foothills of North India, Siliguri Corridor

Significance of the Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean is crucial for trade, transport, and defense. India aims to keep the
region free from superpower rivalry.

Naval Considerations
India's vast coastline requires a powerful navy and friendly relations with other naval
powers, such as the United States and Britain, which have a naval base at Diego
Garcia.

Page 17
 Created by Turbolearn AI

India's Foreign Policy: Shaping Factors

Neighboring Countries
India aims to resolve disputes peacefully and foster friendly relations with
neighboring countries such as:

Iran
Afghanistan
Sri Lanka
Vietnam
Cambodia
Laos
Malaysia
Indonesia

Despite this, the hostile attitude of Pakistan remains a significant obstacle to India's
foreign policy.

History and Tradition

India's foreign policy is deeply rooted in its long legacy of peace and internationalism,
avoiding aggression and embracing tolerance, devotion, mediation, assimilation, and
compromise.

Core Philosophies
India's philosophical foundation revolves around principles such as:

Truth
Non-violence
Internationalism
Peaceful settlement of disputes
Justice
Mutual love
Peaceful co-existence
**Respect for one another

Page 18
 Created by Turbolearn AI

These values are derived from scriptures like the Vedas and Dharmashastra, as well
as the teachings of influential figures such as:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Swami Vivekanand
Rabindranath Tagore
Mahatma Gandhi
Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Shaping Values
The three values that have helped in shaping India’s foreign policy are:

Tolerance
The equation of means and ends
Non-violence

Tolerance
Tolerance is respecting others' views, even when they differ from one's
own, is a fundamental virtue.

Mahatma Gandhi, drawing from the Rig Veda, emphasized that Hinduism encourages
everyone to worship God according to their own faith, promoting peaceful
coexistence among religions.

Ashoka the Great also advocated for tolerance in inscriptions on his rock pillars.

India's commitment to secularism in its domestic policy reflects this philosophy of

tolerance. This was demonstrated in the 1954 Panchsheel declaration signed by
Jawaharlal Nehru and his Chinese counterpart, emphasizing mutual non-interference
and peaceful co-existence.

Equation of Means and Ends

Mahatma Gandhi insisted on the purity of means to achieve noble ends, influenced by
Manu’s Dharmashastra, which states that one should not do a good thing by
following a bad path.

Page 19
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Indian tradition dictates that seeking welfare through fraud and falsehood
is as futile as storing water in an unburnt pot.

While prioritizing the purity of means, Indian philosophy also acknowledges a realist
approach. Kautilya, in Arthashastra, viewed diplomacy as an art focused on achieving
practical results for the state, even if it meant compromising on ideals. This is why
Nehru admitted that moral principles could only be followed to a certain limit in
statecraft.

Actions such as those taken in Goa in 1961 and during the Bangladesh crisis in 1971
reflected the leadership's perception of national interest, even at the expense of the
principle of purity of means.

Non-Violence (Ahimsa)
Ahimsa means harmlessness in thought, word, and deed.

Rooted in Indian tradition, non-violence extends beyond just not killing or causing
harm. Gandhi believed that a democratic state using force was immoral, advocating
for non-violence in international relations to ensure lasting world peace.

While Jawaharlal Nehru was inspired by Gandhi, he followed him only to a certain
extent. Appadorai described the application of non-violence in India’s foreign policy
as the deliberate acceptance of reconciliation and peace over revenge and hatred.

The Indian government is committed to world peace, enshrined in Part IV of the

Constitution, directing the state to seek peaceful settlements of international
disputes.

Impact of British Rule and National Movement

Appadorai noted that British rule in India had a three-fold impact on India’s foreign
policy:

1. It stimulated the national movement for freedom, leading India to support the
freedom of dependent people.
2. Racial inequality during British rule made India realize the evils of racial
discrimination, leading to an emphasis on racial equality in its foreign policy.
3. India voluntarily remained a member of the Commonwealth even after
becoming a Republic.

Page 20
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Gandhi's principle of hating the sin but not the sinner also influenced Indian leaders.
Educated in Britain, many freedom movement leaders valued liberty, equality, and
democracy, which shaped India's foreign policy.

India cooperated with liberal democratic countries while also engaging with socialist
countries, viewing non-alignment as a result of adhering to the goals and ideals of
the freedom struggle. The Indian National Congress, through its foreign policy
department led by Jawaharlal Nehru, opposed dictatorship and racial discrimination.

In 1946, Nehru rejected the Nazi doctrine of racialism and declared in 1949 that
fighting against racial discrimination was a pillar of India's foreign policy.

Culture
Culture plays a vital role in foreign policy, and India has historically enjoyed a
favorable position due to its cultural links with countries like Iran, Rome, and South
East Asia.

Cultural Presence

Region/Country Evidence of Indian Influence

Temples and pagodas in Thailand and Myanmar; Angkor Wat

South-east Asia
Temple in Cambodia
Indonesia Sanskrit words in Bahasa
Revival of Nalanda University in partnership with China, Japan,
Asia-Pacific
South Korea, and Singapore
Singapore and Islamic preachers from India spreading religious and cultural
Malaysia values of Islam
Yoga practiced worldwide as a stress-buster and cultural
phenomenon; Indian cuisine popular in the West (e.g., Indian
Global
restaurants in the UK employing more people than
steel/shipbuilding)

Positive Global Image

Page 21
 Created by Turbolearn AI

When the world thinks of India, it is not the image of a starving peasant that comes
to mind any more. Indians are associated with educated and enterprising people such
as:

Skilful professionals
Talented scientists
IT specialists

Companies like Infosys, Wipro Technologies, Tata, and Reliance groups have boosted
this image. IIMs and IITs are recognized as centers of excellence for higher training,
research, and development. Indians played a key role in the Silicon Valley revolution.

Spirituality and Secularism

India’s spirituality is also much in demand these days due to a lot of conflict and strife
happening in the world. India is tolerant towards different religions and cultures. This
is the land which has preached Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (the whole world is one
family) and L Loka Samastha Sukhino Bhavanthu (let there be peace in the whole
world). India’s message of secularism is a valuable lesson for the world today.

Secularism refers to harmonious co-existence of different religions with

each other.

Diplomats
Indian diplomats strengthen India’s foreign policy through:

Training in India’s culture and values

Excellent communication skills
Experience in the media and the Indian Parliament

This helps them connect with governments and people of other countries.

Military and Economic Factors

Initially, India had a weak economic base, lacking technology and sufficient military
strength. Trade and economic ties were limited to Britain and the Commonwealth
countries, fostering friendly ties with western liberal countries both economically and
militarily.

Page 22
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Objectives
India's primary aim was economic development through industrialization and
modernization, requiring peace at home and economic/technical assistance from
developed nations. Nehru recognized economic progress as the foundation of foreign
policy.

Economic Policy

Aspect Description

India sought foreign aid without aligning with either capitalist or

Foreign Aid
socialist blocs, keeping doors open to all sources of assistance.
India adopted a middle path of democratic socialism, combining
Economic
liberal democracy and evolutionary socialism, without Soviet-type
Growth
governance.
International India desired a peaceful world order to facilitate rapid development,
Relations seeking experts and specialized training from developed countries.

Military Policy
After the Indo-China war of 1962, India decided to strengthen its defense
independently, broadening the market for weapons and training personnel to handle
any situation. The country successfully handled the Pakistani attack in 1965 using
domestically made tanks and planes.

India developed nuclear energy, conducting a test in 1971, and later conducted five
nuclear tests in 1998, declaring itself a nuclear weapon state. This decision, though
surprising, was an exercise of sovereign right.

Ideological Factor
Jawaharlal Nehru, deeply impressed by the liberal democratic ideology of the West
and influenced by the economic policies of the Soviet Union, sought a synthesis of
western liberal democracy and Soviet socialism.

Synthesis of Ideologies

Page 23
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Nehru tried to follow the ideology of H. J. Laski, who believed in a synthesis of

Liberalism and Marxism. The policy of non-alignment was an indirect result of this
synthesis. Indian philosophy of humanism and universal brotherhood also influenced
India's policy.

During the Cold War, India was credited for its ideology and attempts at friendship
with both power blocs. Nehru also incorporated Gandhi’s ideals of truth and non-
violence.

Pluralistic Nature of Indian Society

India is a pluralistic society with diverse castes, classes, ideologies, languages,
religions, and races. To consolidate the integrity of the state, India adopted policies
that could satisfy different nationalities and sub-nationalities.

Impact on Foreign Policy

Factor Impact on Policy

Social Internationally, India pursued reconciliation and consensus among

Diversity nations, keeping its national interest in mind.
India adopted a middle path of liberal democratic socialism,
Ideological
appreciating both the liberal democratic tradition of the West and the
Diversity
achievements of Marxist socialism.

International Determinants of India’s Foreign

Policy

Cold War and Decolonization

India gained independence as the Cold War began, dividing the world into two
hostile power blocs, directly impacting its policy of non-alignment. Simultaneously,
the process of decolonization began, focusing international efforts on anti-
colonialism and anti-imperialism, which India supported.

Economic Development

Page 24
 Created by Turbolearn AI

India sought rapid economic development, taking advantage of post-World War II

reconstruction efforts and seeking help from institutions like the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund.

Ideological Conflicts
India opted to remain outside the ideological conflicts between liberal democracy and
Marxism.

Post-Cold War Era

After the Cold War, a new international environment emerged, emphasizing
liberalization in economies, inspiring India to shift from the public sector to:

Liberalization
Reduction of state control
Encouragement to foreign investments in private and joint sectors

The reconciliation processes that began after the Cold War opened doors for
negotiating bilateral disputes, leading India to attempt resolving disputes with China,
Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

Impact of the 1990s

The disintegration of the Soviet Union, the fall of socialist governments in Eastern
Europe, the reunification of Germany, and the emergence of the United States as the
sole superpower all influenced India’s foreign policy. One major development was
India’s veto on CTBT at the Conference on Disarmament and its refusal to sign the
CTBT as adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.

Evolution of India’s Foreign Policy

India, becoming the world’s largest democratic state after the United States, adopted
a foreign policy based on non-alignment, enabling it to pursue peace and
independent action.

Page 25
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Key Factors
The foreign policy of a country is determined by a number of historical and domestic
factors such as:

geographical conditions
economic compulsions
cultural norms
political traditions and ideals
domestic and international milieu

Nehru's Influence
Jawaharlal Nehru's extensive tenure as both Prime Minister and Foreign Minister
significantly shaped India's foreign policy.

Foundation of India’s Foreign Policy

After the Partition of British India in 1947, leaders of India tried to build a secular
state in which national identity would be above regional, religious or cultural
identities.

Geo-Strategic Considerations
British colonial rulers regarded South Asia as a strategic unit, excluding external
powers and establishing buffer states. After Independence, India adopted this policy,
affecting its foreign relations in three ways:

1. India sought to deter any moves by its neighbors that were judged harmful to
its security interests.
2. India opposed any attempts by external powers to establish a presence in the
region.
3. India built up its military strength to defend its territory and security interests.

India's Foreign Policy

Historical Context

Page 26
 Created by Turbolearn AI

India's foreign policy has been influenced by its nuclear program and ballistic
missile development, which strained relationships with Pakistan, China, and
the United States.

India's refusal to sign the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear

Weapons was due to:

Pakistan's similar stance.

The belief that the treaty discriminated against non-nuclear weapons
states regarding peaceful nuclear technology development.
The treaty's failure to prevent the vertical proliferation of nuclear
weapons among existing nuclear powers.

Despite 174 states approving an indefinite extension of the treaty in 1995, India
refused to sign, condemning it as perpetuating nuclear discrimination.

Before independence, British India had semi-autonomous diplomatic relations.

After gaining independence in 1947, India joined the Commonwealth of

Nations and supported independence movements like the Indonesian National
Revolution.

The Partition and disputes over territories like Kashmir strained relations with
Pakistan.

During the Cold War, India followed a policy of non-alignment, remaining

unaligned with major power blocs while maintaining ties and receiving military
support from the Soviet Union.

After the Cold War, India sought to strengthen diplomatic and economic
relations with the US, China, the European Union, Israel, Japan, Mexico, and
Brazil.

India maintains close ties with ASEAN, the African Union, the Arab League,
and Iran.

India has military ties with Russia and a strategic partnership with the US.

The Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement in 2008 demonstrated positive

progress in Indo-American relations.

Page 27
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Formulation of India's Foreign Policy

Jawaharlal Nehru outlined that India's foreign policy should aim for peace,
emancipation of oppressed nations, elimination of racial discrimination, and
non-intervention in other countries' internal affairs.

Nehru emphasized peace as the primary goal of India's foreign policy.

A key feature of India's foreign policy is the principle of non-alignment, which

means:

Refusing to join any power bloc and judging each issue on its merits,
pursuing an independent policy without committing to support any
power bloc nation on every issue. It is a positive and dynamic
neutrality.

Role of the Prime Minister

Jawaharlal Nehru established a pattern where the Prime Minister played a
strong personal role, even though the institutional structure was weak.
Successive Prime Ministers continued to exercise control over international
dealings.
During 1964-66, Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri increased the powers of
the PM's office.
By 1970, the PM's office became the de facto coordinator of the Indian
government, enhancing its control over foreign policy decisions.
The Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) expanded information available to
the Prime Minister by conducting secret operations abroad.
Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi strongly controlled the Prime Minister’s Office
(PMO) during their tenures.
Coalition governments after Congress (I)'s loss in the general elections saw
lesser control of the PMO.
The Prime Minister retained dominance in the conduct of foreign relations in the
1990s.

Ministry of External Affairs

Page 28
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The Ministry of External Affairs is responsible for:

Foreign policy-making and implementation.

Conducting international relations.
Providing timely information and evaluation to the Prime Minister and the
Minister of External Affairs.
Maintaining communications with foreign missions in New Delhi.
Charting policy plans and recommending specific measures.

In 1994, the ministry had missions in nearly 149 countries, staffed by the Indian
Foreign Service.

Headed by the Minister of External Affairs, the ministry includes territorial

divisions covering various global regions and functional divisions dealing with
external publicity, consular affairs, protocol, the UN, and international
organizations.

The ministry established the economic coordination unit in 1990 to assess the
impact of international events, such as the Persian Gulf crisis, on India.

The ministry runs the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), which
organizes cultural exchanges and oversees foreign cultural centers in India.

Other Government Organizations

Besides the PMO and the Ministry of External Affairs, other government
agencies also influence foreign policy-making.
Ministers of defence, commerce, and finance participate in cabinet meetings
regarding foreign policy decisions.
The Parliament of India plays a limited role in foreign policy-making, primarily
through approving treaties and international agreements.
Government representatives and diplomats in High Commissions and
Embassies abroad are appointed by the Foreign Ministry.
The Committee on External Affairs of the Lok Sabha served as an important
link between Parliament and the Executive.

Role of Political Parties and Interest Groups

Page 29
 Created by Turbolearn AI

In the mid-1990s, connections between public opinion and foreign policy-

making were weak.
Interest groups concerned with foreign relations exist both inside and outside
Parliament.
Some opposition parties played a role in foreign policy-making, but their
opinions often differed from the ruling party.
Parties like the Communist Parties, the Janata Party, and the Jana Sang
influenced foreign policy-making.
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) developed consistent platforms on foreign
policy, criticized non-alignment, and advocated for a more dynamic use of
India's power.

Foreign Policy and National Interest

Foreign policy, also known as international relations policy or diplomacy, is
essential for states to interact.
The interaction between national goals and resources is crucial in statecraft.
Foreign policy-makers identify national goals to be achieved.
National interest is defined as the survival and security of the state.
India's national interest lies in the well-being and development of its people.
Self-interest is a fundamental cause for national policy.

Foreign Policy and Power

Power is a complex concept and difficult to define universally.
The United States is generally considered more powerful than India due to the
sum total of its power.
Power operates differently in domestic affairs and international politics.
In international relations, states protect their rights through the use of force due
to a lack of commonly agreed-upon rules.
Democratic regimes are generally more effective in the long run than despotic
systems.
Domestic policies influence foreign policies.
A country's military strength directly impacts its foreign policy.

Principles and Objectives of India's Foreign Policy

Page 30
 Created by Turbolearn AI

India's foreign policy objectives in 1947 were to achieve a peaceful

environment, strategic space, and autonomy, while focusing on domestic
integration and nation-building.
Non-alignment was adopted to judge issues based on their merits and effect
on India's interests.
Indian nationalism is based on pluralism, democracy, secularism, and tolerance.

Objectives of India’s Foreign Policy

Page 31
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The primary goal of India’s foreign policy is the maintenance and promotion of
international peace and security.
A former Foreign Secretary of India, Muchkund Dubey, stated the purpose of
any country's foreign policy is to promote its national interest, ensure its
security, safeguard its sovereignty, contribute to its growth and prosperity,
enhance its stature, influence, and role in the comity of nations, promote peace,
disarmament and development and of establishing a stable, fair and equitable
global order.
After Independence, India had to determine its foreign policy objectives under
difficult circumstances.
The Partition of British India led to deep hatred and economic problems.
India faced problems related to internal consolidation, such as integrating
French and Portuguese possessions.
India advocated for peaceful methods to solve problems and supported the
United Nations.
India pursued an independent foreign policy without following any big power
camp.
Another objective was to eliminate wants, diseases, and illiteracy, cooperating
with international agencies to fight these issues.
India voluntarily remained a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
India’s objective is to maintain friendly relations with all, avoid military
alliances, pursue non-alignment as a moral principle, seek peaceful settlement
of international disputes and promote universal brotherhood and humanism by
pursuing and advocating the five principles contained in Panchsheel.
India has remained committed to peaceful settlement of disputes, although
wars were imposed upon India by Pakistan as well as China.
India has always tried to pursue friendly relations with all the countries,
particularly with its neighbours.
India still wishes to work in pursuit of world peace and therefore for this reason
it has been insisting on complete elimination of nuclear weapons and
strengthening of the United Nations.

Principles of India’s Foreign Policy

Page 32
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The basic principles of Indian foreign policy are based on the Non-Aligned
Movement and Panchsheel.
The term Non-Alignment was coined by Jawaharlal Nehru.
Non-Alignment refers to not aligning with any of the two power blocs during
the era of the Cold War. It means that India is independent to pursue its own
foreign policy.
Panchsheel, the second most important principle of Indian foreign policy, was
signed on 29 April 1954 between India and China.

Non-alignment

Page 33
 Created by Turbolearn AI

India played an important role in the multilateral movements of colonies and

newly independent countries that developed into the Non-Aligned Movement.
The chief architects of the policy of Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) were
Jawaharlal Nehru, Joseph Broz Tito of Yugoslavia and President Nasser of
Egypt.
Most of the countries in Asia and Africa were impressed by this policy and
therefore joined the non-aligned movement.
Today, almost all the countries of Asia and Africa are its members.
The first non-aligned conference was held in Belgrade in 1961.
The Non-Aligned Movement stands for peace, independence and disarmament.
It condemns imperialism, colonialism and racial discrimination.
The Non-Aligned Movement succeeded in following its programme of support
to countries struggling for their independence, cooperating and providing
financial assistance to countries for their economic development and
condemning any form of discrimination.
India had always taken an active part in world affairs. Even before gaining
independence, India had involved itself in international affairs.
India had condemned fascist aggression by Germany, Italy and Japan which led
to the Second World War.
India took a strong stand against the white minority regime that practised
apartheid in South Africa.
As a peace-loving nation, India supported the cause of disarmament at various
international forums.
The term ‘Non-Alignment’ itself was coined by the Indian Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
It is important to understand that the concept of non-alignment of Nehru is
neither non-involvement in world affairs nor neutralism. It is, in fact, an activist
policy that demands taking up specific sides based on the merit of each case.
This implies that issue-bound tilts in non-alignment are legitimate and the
concept therefore, does not imply equidistant from both the super powers.
Non-alignment is the soul and substance of India’s foreign policy. It is a policy
of avoiding alignment with any power bloc.
Nehru claimed that non-alignment implied no political or military commitment
to any bloc. It signifies a deliberate detachment from either bloc or
determination to judge every issue of international concern on its own merit.
According to Nehru, non-alignment is freedom of action, which is part of
independence. It is a means of safeguarding national independence and
contributing to world peace.

Page 34
 Created by Turbolearn AI

On the other side, India’s geographical situation— its location at the junction of
South East Asia and Middle East and its strategic position in the Indian Ocean
and as a neighbour of communist China in the North—made it imperative to
keep away from military alliances.
The policy of non-alignment is in accordance with Indian philosophy and
tradition.

Panchsheel and Peaceful Co-existence

Page 35
 Created by Turbolearn AI

With the end of the Second World War, movements of national independence
and liberation blossomed in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Newly independent countries demanded the establishment of new patterns of

international relations based on equality to maintain their national sovereignty
and develop their economies.

The five principles of peaceful co-existence were produced in response to this

strong and common demand of newly independent nations.

India and China, being two giants of Asia, established diplomatic ties on 1 April
1950.

On 29 April 1954, the two nations signed an agreement on trade and

communications between the Chinese region of Tibet and India. This was the
first time the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence was introduced into the
preface of the agreement.

The then Chinese Premier Zhou En-Lai visited India and Myanmar in 1954, at
the invitation of the two countries and held talks with the then Indian and
Myanmese counterparts, Jawaharlal Nehru and U Nu.

In the ‘Joint Declaration of Chinese and Indian Premiers’ issued on 28 June 1954
and the ‘Joint Declaration of Chinese and Myanmese Premiers’ issued the next
day, the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence were officially announced as
the basic norms guiding the Sino-Indian and Sino- Myanmese relations.

The Sino-Indian joint declaration proposed that ‘these principles are not only
applicable to relations between nations, but also to the general international
relationship’, while the Sino-Myanmese joint declaration expressed the hope
that ‘these principles will be observed by all nations’.

After one year, in April 1955, China, India and Myanmar initiated the five
Principles of Peaceful Co-existence.

29 newly independent countries from Asia and Africa held the historic ‘Asian-
African Conference’ in Bandung, Indonesia.

As a result of the common efforts of the participants, the conference adopted

the ‘Declaration on Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation’ and formulated
the ten principles of the Bandung Conference.

Page 36
 Created by Turbolearn AI

These ten principles, which contained points relating to the five principles of
peaceful co-existence, were an extension and development of the latter.

Since then, the five principles of peaceful co-existence have been recognized
and accepted by more and more countries and international organizations.

Several international meetings have been incorporated into a series of major

international documents, including declarations adopted by the UN General
Assembly.

The five principles were reaffirmed not only in the documents on China’s
establishment of diplomatic ties with more than 160 states, but also in treaties
as well as communiqués signed by China with other countries. The five
principles mentioned in the preamble of the agreement are as follows:

Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty

Mutual non-aggression
Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
Equality and mutual benefits
Peaceful co-existence

The term Panchsheel is found in ancient Buddhist literature and refers to the
five principles of good conduct of individuals:

Truth
Non-violence
Celibacy
Refrain from drinking
Vow not to steal

The term Panchsheel soon became so popular that Nehru called it an

‘international coin’.

By the end of 1956, many countries of the world including Afghanistan,

Myanmar, Indonesia, Egypt, Nepal, Poland, USSR, Saudi Arabia and Yugoslavia
had endorsed Panchsheel.

In 1959, the UN General Assembly also resolved to adopt the five principles.

In 1955, the Indonesian President Sukarno also announced five principles of

Indonesian National Policy. These five principles called Panchashila were:

Page 37
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Faith in nationalism
Faith in humanity
Faith in independence
Faith in social justice
Faith in God

However, the five principles of Panchsheel declared in 1954 were neither

principles of good conduct of the individual nor of nationalism. These were the
principles of behaviour of sovereign states in their foreign relations.

These are normal expectations from civilized nations in their behaviour with
each other. To respect the territorial integrity of others and not to commit
aggression are vital objectives of friendly international relations.

Freedom of dependent people

Anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism has been a matter of faith with India’s
foreign policy-makers.
Having been a victim of British imperialism for a long time, India decided to
oppose all forms of colonialism and imperialism.
Therefore, for this reason, India decided to extend full support to the cause of
freedom of dependent people of

India's Foreign Policy: An Overview

Support for Decolonization and Self-Determination

India actively supported the independence movements in Asia and Africa following
World War II:

Opposed the re-establishment of Dutch rule in Indonesia, cooperating with the

country's efforts for independence.
Supported freedom struggles in countries like Malaya, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia,
and Ghana (Gold Coast).
Advocated for the independence of Namibia from South Africa's colonial rule.

Promotion of self-determination for colonial people was a core principle of India's

foreign policy.

Page 38
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Foreign Economic Aid and Non-Alignment

India's economic development required resources and technical expertise, but the
nation was committed to non-alignment:

Faced the challenge of securing financial and technological assistance without

compromising its independence.
Initially, the US was seen as the primary potential source of aid, but India
remained wary of conditions attached to it.
The success of Communist China highlighted the need for economic
development in India to prevent similar outcomes.
Eventually, economic assistance began flowing from the US, the World Bank,
and other countries.
India later accepted aid from the Eastern bloc as well, removing Soviet
suspicions of being pro-West.
Germany and Japan emerged as new economic powers and provided aid.
Western states were often reluctant to transfer technology.

Despite challenges, India maintained independence in decision-making, sometimes

being perceived as leaning towards the West or the Soviet Union.

Under Indira Gandhi, large-scale nationalization led to Western nations doubting

India's non-alignment. The liberalization of the economy in 1991 and the
disintegration of the Soviet Union shifted India closer to the capitalist world.

Opposition to Racial Discrimination

India staunchly opposed all forms of racial discrimination:

South Africa's Apartheid was a prime example of discrimination against

colored peoples, including those of Indian origin.
India severed diplomatic ties with South Africa in 1949 and advocated for
comprehensive sanctions.
Supported the victims of social discrimination within and outside the United
Nations.
After the dismantling of Apartheid in 1994, India re-established ties with South
Africa.

India consistently supports egalitarian societies free from discrimination based on

color, race, and class.

Page 39
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Support for the United Nations

India is a founding member of the United Nations (UN) and its specialized agencies,
with a strong belief in international peace and security:

Advocates for the elimination of weapons and the reduction of armed forces
through the UN.
An important member of the non-aligned group and a prominent Afro-Asian
member of the UN.
Sponsored and supported various progressive measures within the UN system.
Vijay Laxmi Pandit was elected President of the United Nations General
Assembly in 1953.
India has served multiple terms as a non-permanent member of the UN
Security Council.
Actively participates in collective security and peacekeeping efforts, sending
assistance to conflicts in Korea, Egypt, Congo, and Yugoslavia.

Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes

India's foreign policy prioritizes the peaceful settlement of disputes over war:

Article 51 of the Indian Constitution directs the state to seek peaceful

resolutions to international conflicts.
Rejects "negotiation through strength" as a means of settling disputes.
Despite facing imposed wars, India maintains its commitment to peaceful
methods.

Basic principles of foreign policy remain consistent across changes in government.

The Gujral Doctrine

The Gujral Doctrine outlines five principles for managing foreign relations with
India's neighbors:

Page 40
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Non-reciprocity: India gives and accommodates neighbors like Bangladesh,

Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka without expecting the same in return.
Non-interference: No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used
against another in the region.
Internal affairs: No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
Territorial integrity: All South Asian countries must respect each other's
territorial integrity and sovereignty.
Peaceful negotiations: All disputes should be settled through peaceful
bilateral negotiations.

The doctrine emphasizes people-to-people contacts to foster amicable relations and

presents India as a large country willing to assist its smaller neighbors unilaterally.

India's Nuclear Option

India's nuclear program began with peaceful intentions but evolved due to security
concerns:

Early atomic energy research was initiated by Jawaharlal Nehru and Dr. Homi
Bhabha.
The Bangladesh Crisis of 1971 and China's support for Pakistan's nuclear
ambitions led India to develop nuclear weapons.
India conducted its first nuclear test in May 1974, declaring it a "Peaceful
Nuclear Explosion."
Refuses to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) due to its discriminatory
nature.
In May 1998, under Atal Behari Vajpayee, India conducted five nuclear tests,
declaring itself a nuclear weapon state.
India continues to refuse signing the NPT and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-
Ban Treaty (CTBT).

Nehru and India's Foreign Policy

Jawaharlal Nehru is considered the architect of India's foreign policy:

Page 41
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Advocated for India's independence from both the US and the USSR power
blocs.
Maintained faith in goodwill and honesty in international affairs.
His policies led to the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) with
allies like Tito, Nasser, Sukarno, U Nu, and Nkrumah.
NAM aimed to decolonize countries through peaceful agreement.

Nehru and the China Crisis

Nehru's foreign policy toward China has faced criticism:

Sought a friendly relationship, resulting in the Panchsheel Agreement in 1954.

China violated the agreement, leading to the 1962 Sino-Indian War.
Despite the military defeat, Nehru turned it into a moral victory.
The attack forced Nehru to acknowledge that absolute goodwill wasn't
sufficient in international relations.

Although an idealist, Nehru prioritized India's national interest while incorporating

moral principles from Mahatma Gandhi.

Nehru and the Kashmir Problem

The Kashmir issue remained unresolved during Nehru's tenure:

Nehru believed in honest negotiations and involved the United Nations.

Pakistan rejected peaceful agreements and a plebiscite offer.
Kashmir remains a contentious issue between India and Pakistan.

Key Terms

Page 42
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Term Definition

Foreign > Relations among countries concerning international issues like

Policy disarmament, peace, climate change, etc.
> Foreign policy guided by geographical factors affecting political and
Geo-strategy
military planning.
Non- > Not aligning with any of the two power blocs during the Cold War
alignment era.
> Association of groups, especially nations, having a common interest
Power Bloc
and acting as a single political force.
Panchsheel > Five principles governing relations between states.

Unit 2: India's Foreign Policy Towards Various

Nations

2.0 Introduction
India's strategic position in the global scenario significantly impacts its policy
formulation, both internationally and domestically. India aims to project itself as an
upcoming global superpower by establishing, maintaining, and strengthening
relations with countries in its geographical proximity and beyond.

Since gaining independence, India has focused on creating a foreign policy conducive
to its image as a promising power. International events and issues, especially in the
1990s, such as the end of the Cold War, the disintegration of the Soviet Union,
nuclear warfare concerns, economic crises, and border disputes, have influenced
India's foreign policy.

India has strategically maneuvered and diplomatically handled its position in the
international arena, addressing territorial issues with neighboring countries like
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and China, as well as fostering ties with superpowers like the
US and Russia. India seeks to strengthen cultural, regional, economic, and political
ties with these countries.

Page 43
 Created by Turbolearn AI

India has maintained a firm stance against past encroachments, whether

geographical, political, or otherwise. Its involvement with groups like ASEAN and
SAARC demonstrates its approach to resolving issues and strengthening relations
with other countries. India has close and cooperative bilateral relations with
Afghanistan, Maldives, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. While relations with Nepal have
been strained, efforts are being made to improve ties.

2.1 Unit Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Assess India's policy towards great powers such as the US, UK, China, and
Russia.
Evaluate the idea of trilateral cooperation between Russia, India, and China.
Analyze the relationship between India and the SAARC countries.
Describe the importance of India's ties with Bangladesh.
Discuss the issues causing a strain in relations between India and Nepal.
Explain India's policies with respect to the 'Look East Policy.'

2.2 India’s Policy Towards Great Powers: USA,

Russia, UK, China
India, as one of the largest democracies and fastest-growing economies, is
increasingly recognized for its potential. Countries worldwide seek partnerships with
India to ensure mutual prosperity. India's relations with most countries are generally
formal and diplomatic, with some neighbors being friendly and others less so. India
understands the importance of maintaining cordial ties with its neighbors to become
a global power.

2.2.1 India's Relations with the United States

Initially, the two largest democracies on earth had limited interaction. During the Cold
War, South Asia was not a major strategic focus for the US. India's non-aligned
status was not appreciated by the US.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): A group of states that are not formally

aligned with or against any major power bloc.

Page 44
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The US perceived India as part of the Soviet camp due to its ties with the Soviet
Union. US-Indian policies often ran parallel or indirectly diverged through relations
with Third World countries like Pakistan.

The US provided some support during the 1962 India-China conflict.

During the 1965 Indo-Pak conflict, the US took a pro-Pakistan stance.
In the 1971 India-Pakistan war, the US supported Pakistan and warned India
against intervention, even sending the US 7th Fleet to the Bay of Bengal.

Factors hindering closer ties between India and the US included:

The Kashmir issue.

The US' pro-Pakistan stance.
India's non-alignment policy.
Friendly relations with the USSR.
India's refusal to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and Comprehensive
Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT).

Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): An international treaty whose objective

is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to
promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further
the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete
disarmament.

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT): A multilateral treaty

that bans all nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in
all environments.

In January 1981, the Reagan administration focused on South Asia, providing military
aid to anti-Afghan guerrillas and economic and military support to Pakistan, straining
Indo-US ties. Despite this, the US planned to build a strong military base at Diego
Garcia in the Indian Ocean. India's nuclear policy and recognition of Kampuchea
further deteriorated the relationship.

Indira Gandhi sought closer ties with Washington for two reasons:

1. India could not rely solely on the Soviet Union for defense materials.
2. India did not welcome Soviet forces near Pakistan and Afghanistan due to
security and strategic concerns.

Page 45
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Indira Gandhi met with President Ronald Reagan in 1981 and 1982, leading to an
agreement to expand scientific and technological cooperation. However, strategic and
political differences remained.

Rajiv Gandhi visited the US in 1985 to improve relations. The US agreed to transfer
high technology and offered advanced military technology and weaponry. While the
visit did not yield concrete results, it improved understanding between the two
countries.

During the 1980s, both countries were content to extend their relationship without
affecting long-term national interests. Despite efforts, relations remained strained.

With the end of the Cold War and the emergence of the National Front government
in India, expectations for a new relationship with the US arose. In 1989, Soviet troops
withdrew from Afghanistan. During the Gulf War of 1990-91, India cooperated with
the US by providing refuelling facilities. The Bush administration responded
favorably, warning Pakistan and imposing sanctions on its nuclear weapons program.

India's economic liberalization made it an attractive economic partner for the US.
With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, India developed closer ties with the US.

In 1993, President Bill Clinton emphasized peace and stability in South Asia, focusing
on the Kashmir issue and nuclear non-proliferation. This touched India's core national
security interests, including territorial integrity and the nuclear option. Economic
cooperation did not meet expectations, and Indo-US ties became severely strained in
the early and mid-1990s.

The US aimed to remain the sole superpower, checking emerging major powers like
India. India opposed the US' objective of a unipolar world order and pursued
becoming a nuclear weapons state.

In May 1998, India conducted nuclear tests, drawing condemnation from the US and
major powers. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests. The Clinton administration
imposed economic sanctions on both countries and lobbied the UN Security Council
to pass a resolution (SC1172) with conditions, including mandatory signing of the
NPT.

Efforts were made to seek a new basis for the relationship. Strobe Talbott (US) and
Jaswant Singh (India) began negotiations. By the end of 2000, President Bill Clinton
visited India, leading to stable ties and deeper understanding.

Page 46
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The Clinton administration established strong ties with India, focusing on economic
interests, counter-terrorism, and democracy promotion. The George W. Bush
administration further strengthened the relationship, signing a nuclear deal with
India.

The disintegration of the Soviet Union was a key factor in improving Indo-US
relations. Over time, both countries grew closer and understood each other better,
addressing differences and deepening their relationship.

During the George W. Bush administration, Indo-US relations improved due to

shared concerns about terrorism, climate change, and energy security. After the 9/11
attack in 2001, George Bush collaborated with India to monitor and control Indian
Ocean sea lanes. In December 2004, Indian and US navies cooperated in search and
rescue operations after the Tsunami.

In April 2005, India and the US signed an Open Skies Agreement to improve
business, trade, and tourism through increased flights.

The Obama visit to India further strengthened the US-India relationship. High-level
visits and exchanges have significantly increased.

Prime Minister Modi visited the US in September 2014 and 2015, meeting with
President Obama, members of Congress, and business leaders.
President Obama visited India in January 2015 as the Chief Guest at India’s
Republic Day.

A hotline has been established between the Prime Minister’s Office and the US
White House.

India-US Dialogue Architecture

There are over 50 bilateral dialogue mechanisms between the two governments. The
Strategic and Commercial Dialogue includes:

Strategic Cooperation
Energy and Climate Change
Education and Development
Economy, Trade and Agriculture
Science and Technology
Health and Innovation

Page 47
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Ministerial-level dialogues include:

Home (Homeland Security Dialogue)

Finance (Financial and Economic Partnership)
Commerce (Trade Policy Forum)
HRD (Higher Education Dialogue)
Science and Technology (Joint Commission Meeting on S&T)
Energy (Energy Dialogue)

Civil Nuclear Cooperation

The bilateral civil nuclear cooperation agreement was finalized in July 2007 and
signed in October 2008. A Contact Group was established to advance the
implementation of the agreement and resolve pending issues. Company-level
discussions are ongoing with US companies regarding the viability of their reactors in
Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

2.2.2 India’s Relations with Russia

Great powers have always sought influence in the Indian subcontinent due to its
large population and strategic location. After India's independence, Jawaharlal Nehru
adopted a policy of non-alignment to avoid the growing tension between the US and
USSR.

The Cold War dynamics were brought to South Asia as both superpowers sought
influence. India and Pakistan utilized the rivalry between the superpowers to their
advantage.

Pakistan's decision to align with the US brought the superpower to the subcontinent
and reaffirmed its anti-India stance, leading India to seek help from the USSR.

Differences between India and Pakistan over Kashmir led Pakistan to maintain
relations with great powers. In 1954, Pakistan joined SEATO, led by the US, altering
Indo-Pak ties.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO): An international

organization for collective defense primarily created to block further
communist expansion into Southeast Asia.

Page 48
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Pakistan provided military bases to the US and received military and economic
assistance. Jawaharlal Nehru opposed external power involvement in regional issues.
Indo-Pak relations deteriorated with US arms assistance to Pakistan, leading India to
purchase arms from non-American sources.

The presence of US bases in Pakistan encouraged the USSR to take a keen interest in
South Asia, though India initially did not seek arms from the Soviet Union.

After Stalin's death, the new Soviet leadership recognized the advantage of non-
alignment and presented themselves as champions of non-aligned nations.
Jawaharlal Nehru visited the USSR and appreciated their policy of peaceful co-
existence. Both nations agreed to cooperate for mutual benefit.

Soviet leaders Khrushchev and Bulganin visited India and declared that bilateral
trade, economic cooperation, and development would be based on equality and
mutual benefit. The USSR also supported India's position on Kashmir and protected
Indian interests in the UN Security Council. Both countries adopted a common
position on the Suez crisis.

The Indo-Soviet relationship coincided with deteriorating Sino-Soviet and Sino-Indian

relations. The Tibetan uprising in 1959 led India to buy transport planes and
helicopters from the USSR. In October 1960, an Indian delegation finalized a deal for
aircraft and communication equipment in Moscow.

The Chinese attack in 1962 placed the USSR in a delicate position, leading it to adopt
a neutral stance. The US provided some military help to India. Pakistan gradually
moved towards China to avoid dependence on one supplier for its military
requirements.

In March 1965, Ayub Khan visited China and secured political support and military
supplies for Pakistan. During the 1965 war, the Soviet Union adopted a neutral
stance but offered to peacefully settle the dispute.

Indo-Soviet relations strengthened during the 1960s, while relations between

Pakistan and China became warm and friendly. The Sino-Soviet conflict widened,
with China describing the USSR as a revisionist power.

The situation in the subcontinent worsened with millions of refugees pouring into
India due to the revolt in East Pakistan. Pakistan waged war against India, alleging
Indian involvement in the unrest.

Page 49
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Pakistan had support from the US and China. India needed a strong partner to
counterbalance US-Pakistan and Chinese-Pakistan relations. Despite its non-
alignment policy, India entered into an Indo-Soviet Friendship Treaty in 1971, which
provided:

Military technology
Economic assistance
Political support during the Indo-Pak war

The treaty marked a change in India's foreign policy, being the first political treaty
with a major power. Although it faced allegations of violating non-alignment, Indian
leaders asserted it did not affect India's non-aligned character.

In the wake of the Afghanistan crisis, handling Indo-Soviet ties became more difficult.
The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979 led to the New Cold War. India's
policy towards Afghanistan was criticized.

Indira Gandhi's soft-line policy was condemned for compromising non-alignment and
shifting towards the Soviet Union. India opposed foreign invasion into Afghanistan
but hesitated to criticize Moscow publicly due to economic and technological support.

Indira Gandhi adopted a policy with three elements:

1. Not publicly opposing the Soviet intervention.

2. Discussing the intervention during bilateral meetings.
3. Not intervening in Afghanistan's internal affairs.

After Indira Gandhi's death in 1984, her son Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister.
In the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party in
1985. Indo-Soviet ties were further consolidated.

Gorbachev's policies of Perestroika and Glasnost influenced Indo-Soviet ties.

Perestroika: A political movement for reformation within the Communist

Party of the Soviet Union during the late 1980s widely associated with
Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost policy reform.

Glasnost: A Soviet policy permitting open discussion of political and

social issues and freer dissemination of news and information.

Page 50
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Rajiv Gandhi visited Moscow in May 1985 and was assured of Soviet awareness of
India's anxiety over Pakistan's nuclear weapon program. Agreements for economic
and technical cooperation were signed.

A significant Delhi Declaration was issued, signed by Rajiv Gandhi and Gorbachev.
Gorbachev warned that unresolved Indo-Pak disputes could lead to serious
consequences.

Friendly ties with Moscow were maintained for four reasons:

1. Political counterbalance with China, Pakistan, and the US.

2. Acquiring Soviet inputs in the high-technological sector.
3. Obtaining Soviet defence supplies.
4. Keeping up economic trade.

India also had the freedom to develop ties with Western states due to Soviet détente
with the West.

During the late 1980s, India pursued a policy of sustained Indo-Soviet ties while
opening lines with the West. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, P. V.
Narasimha Rao became the Prime Minister of India, adopting a policy of liberalization
and privatization.

Both countries had to rethink their foreign policy priorities. Russian foreign policy
focused on:

1. The West
2. The immediate neighborhood, including former Soviet republics.
3. The rest of the world

The new elite of Moscow were not inclined towards India as a preferential partner.
India also did not feel obligated to maintain the traditional friendship with Moscow.

In 1993, Russian President Boris Yeltsin visited India and tried to remove doubts in
Indo-Russian ties, reiterating Russia's support on the Kashmir issue. The two states
grew closer again.

After the end of the Cold War, the G-7 highly industrialized states favored Russia,
which was later admitted to the G-8. Disappointed with the West, Russia diverted its
focus towards India and China.

Page 51
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The renewal of the 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty affirmed Soviet commitment in 1993 to
respect India’s territorial integrity and security. A military cooperation agreement was
signed a year later.

Both countries welcomed the revitalization of Indo-Soviet ties and needed a strategic
partner to provide arms and technology. They also reached an agreement for
continued supply of spares for Indian defence equipment and promotion of bilateral
trade. In January 1993, the two countries resolved the rupee-rouble exchange rate
issue and signed a new treaty of friendship.

India's Foreign Relations

Relations with Russia

After the Cold War, India had to re-establish ties not only with the Russian
Federation (the successor state to the Soviet Union) but also with former Soviet
republics and Eastern European countries. Although Indo-Russia ties weakened in
the early 1990s, they were later renewed, with both countries playing important
roles in each other’s foreign policy agendas.

Nuclear Energy Cooperation

Russia is a key partner in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, recognizing India's
advanced nuclear technology and non-proliferation record.

Page 52
 Created by Turbolearn AI

In December 2014, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and Russia’s

Rosatom signed a Strategic Vision for strengthening cooperation in the
peaceful uses of atomic energy.

The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KKNPP) is being built in India with
Russian cooperation.

KKNPP Unit 1 became operational in July 2013 and reached full capacity
in June 2014.
Unit 2 is in the process of commissioning.
Agreements have been signed for KKNPP Units 3 and 4, with contracts
under preparation.

An agreement on the localization of nuclear equipment in India was concluded

in December 2015.

Science and Technology

The main mechanisms for bilateral cooperation in science and technology include:

The Working Group on Science and Technology under IRIGC-TEC

The Integrated Long Term Programme (ILTP)
The Basic Science Cooperation Programme

Science academies of both countries also promote exchanges.

Page 53
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The ILTP has supported over 500 joint R&D projects over 25 years, establishing
thematic centers and generating numerous publications, products, and research
centers.
The India-Russia Science and Technology Centre, with branches in Delhi-NCR
and Moscow, was established in 2011-12 to promote technology transfer and
commercialization.
New Programs of Cooperation in Science, Technology and Innovation and in
Biotechnology have supported joint R&D projects since 2014.
MoUs have been signed between the Indian Council of Medical Research and
the Russian Foundation of Basic Research for cooperation in health research
(December 2014) and between the Department of Science and Technology
(DST) and the Russian Science Foundation to support basic and exploratory
research (May 2015).
Agreements on cooperation in high-performance computing were signed
between CDAC, IISc (Bangalore), and Moscow State University during the 16th
Annual Summit.

Relations with China

Relations with China began improving after the establishment of the People’s
Republic of China in 1949. India supported China’s entry into the United Nations.

In 1954, India concluded a treaty with China regarding Tibet, recognizing it as a

region of China, and expressed the determination to conduct ties on the basis of
Panchsheel (peaceful co-existence).

Panchsheel: Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.

However, relations deteriorated after the 1962 border war.

Diplomatic ties were restored in 1976, but the relationship did not improve
significantly until 1988.

Restoration of Ties
In December 1988, Rajiv Gandhi visited China, leading to bilateral discussions and
an agreement to expand ties in all spheres. A Joint Working Group was established
to discuss the border dispute.

Page 54
 Created by Turbolearn AI

This visit led to positive relations from 1989 onwards.

When Indo-Soviet relations became unfriendly, China stepped in as an
important partner in the early 1990s.

Agreements and Disputes

In 1993, the Sino-Indian agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquillity
along the Line of Actual Control was signed.

Despite improving ties, the border dispute remained unresolved.

China's support for Pakistan and its military and economic ties with India’s
neighbors also caused friction.
India recognized Tibet as an autonomous part of China and pursued a policy of
improving relations with Taiwan, Japan, and Southeast Asian nations.

Nuclear Tests and Kargil Crisis

India's nuclear tests in May 1998 strained relations, with China criticizing the tests.

During the Kargil crisis, China surprisingly did not support Pakistan and
advocated for a bilateral, non-violent solution.

Improvement in Relations
By mid-1999, relations began to improve.

China pressured Pakistan to pull back its forces from the Line of Control in
Kargil.
Visits by Indian and Chinese leaders, including President K. R. Narayanan in
2000 and Chinese President Jiang Zamin, opened up a new environment of
trust.
In June 2003, A. B. Vajpayee's visit to China marked a new chapter of
cooperation.
China recognized Sikkim as part of India, and India recognized Tibet as part of
China.

Recent Developments

Page 55
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Chinese President Hu Jintao's visit to India in November 2006 further

strengthened relations.
In 2005, a strategic and cooperative partnership was established.
By 2004, bilateral trade had crossed 13billionandwasexpectedtoreach20 billion
by 2008.
In 2007, relations were strained again when China claimed Arunachal Pradesh
as its territory and denied visa to an IAS officer of Arunachal Pradesh.

Economic Cooperation
In 2006, ONGC Videsh Ltd. and China National Petroleum Corporation formed
joint bids for projects.
In 2008, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited China for bilateral discussions
on trade, commerce, defense, and military issues.

Nathula Pass
On July 6, 2006, China and India re-opened Nathula, an ancient trade route which
was part of the Silk Road.

Nathula: A pass through the Himalayas.

It had been closed for forty-four years since the 1962 Sino-Indian border war.

Education Relations
India and China signed an Education Exchange Programme (EEP) in 2006, which
enhances educational cooperation between the two countries.

Under this agreement, government scholarships are awarded to 25 students by

both sides.
A revised EEP was signed during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to China
in May 2015, enhancing cooperation in vocational education and collaboration
between higher learning institutes.

Language Education

Page 56
 Created by Turbolearn AI

In 2010, Mandarin Chinese was introduced as a foreign language in the Central

Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) syllabus.
A Memorandum of Understanding was signed in August 2012 between CBSE
and the Confucius Institute to exchange academic staff, teachers, and
information on teaching Mandarin Chinese.

Student Exchange
The cooperation in the education sector has led to an increase in the number of
Indian students in China.

As of the academic year 2014-2015, there were 12,998 Indian students

studying in various universities in China.
Approximately 2,000 Chinese students are studying in educational institutions
in India.

Trilateral Cooperation
In the 1990s, trilateral cooperation between Russia, India, and China began to take
shape.

Meetings of the foreign ministers led to track one and a half dialogues.

Track One and a Half Dialogue: A non-official meeting of official

authorities serving in an unofficial capacity to negotiate or support
agreements.

Since 2001, diplomats and scholars have cooperated in sectors such as energy
security, trade, and economics.
The three nations focus on non-proliferation, disarmament, and addressing
climate change and natural resource depletion.
They support a multi-polar world order and the democratization of international
relations.
They share identical views on terrorism.

BRIC and Shanghai Cooperation Organization

Page 57
 Created by Turbolearn AI

BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) is an acronym recognizing these countries as
large economies contributing to the world economy.

These countries are considered potential consumer markets.

South Africa has since been added to the group (BRICS).
Together, these countries encompass 40% of the world population and
approximately 25% of the total GDP in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP).
BRICS members have made significant achievements in agriculture through the
use of superior technologies, ensuring food security.

Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) was founded in 2001 by China,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan in Shanghai.

Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO): An inter-governmental

mutual security organization.

It was initially founded in 1996 as the Shanghai Five to resolve border disputes
and ensure peace.
Currently, Afghanistan, India, Iran, Mongolia, and Pakistan have observer status.
The SCO has initiated projects in energy, telecommunications, and
transportation and has established relations with the United Nations.
It has worked towards mutual trust, equality, and mutual benefit, promoting
peace and stability in the region.

India–United Kingdom Relations

India and the United Kingdom share close and friendly ties, with a strategic
partnership established in 2004.

Page 58
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Prime Minister Cameron visited India thrice to reinforce the UK Government’s

commitment to further relations.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to the UK in November 2015 strengthened
the relationship further.
Both Prime Ministers endorsed a Vision Statement and agreed on a new
Defence and International Security Partnership.
They also endorsed a Joint Statement on Energy and Climate Change and
issued a Statement of Intent to scale up bilateral cooperation in third countries.
Commercial deals worth over £9.3 billion between Indian and British
companies were announced.
A fast-track mechanism was established to facilitate UK’s investments into
India, and an India-UK Partnership fund was set up under the National
Infrastructure Investment Fund (NIIF).
The UK has announced its interest in partnering with India in the development
of Smart Cities in Indore, Pune, and Amravati.

High-Level Visits
Both sides have had numerous high-level bilateral visits and interactions, including
visits by:

Finance Minister Arun Jaitley

UK NSA
UK Immigration Minister James Brokenshire
UK Economic Secretary to the Treasury, Harriet Baldwin, and UK PM’s Special
Envoy for Infrastructure Alok Sharma
UK MoS for Defence Procurement Philip Dunne

Institutionalized Dialogues
India and the UK have several bilateral dialogue mechanisms in place, including:

Economic and Financial Dialogue at Finance Minister-level

Joint Economic and Trade Committee at Commerce Minister-level
Strategic Dialogue at NSA-level
Foreign Office Consultations at Foreign Secretary-level
Defence Consultative Group at Defence Secretary-level
Cyber and Counter-Terrorism Dialogues at Senior Officials-level
Thematic dialogues between the two Foreign Offices

Page 59
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Inter-Parliamentary Contacts
The Parliaments of India and the UK have close relations.

There are Friends of India Groups in the Labour and Conservative parties.
There is an All-Party Parliamentary Group on relations with India.
Parliamentary exchanges have taken place under the Commonwealth
Parliamentary Association.

Trade
The UK is among India’s major trading partners.

2013-14 (USD Billion) 2014-15 (USD Billion)

Two-way merchandise trade 15.81 14.33

UK’s share in India’s global trade (%) 2.07 1.89

India’s main exports to the UK include:

Garments and textiles

Machinery and instruments
Petroleum products
Footwear and leather
Manufactures of metals
Gems and jewelry
Engineering goods
Transport equipment and parts
Spices
Drugs and pharmaceuticals
Marine products

The main imports from the UK to India include:

Page 60
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Machinery and equipment

Ores and metal scraps
Precious and semiprecious stones
Silver
Metals
Aircrafts parts
Beverages and spirits
Machinery
Engineering goods
Other professional instruments (non-electronics)
Non-ferrous metals
Chemicals

Services
India-UK bilateral trade in services (excluding travel, transport, and banking) in 2014
amounted to approximately £2.5 billion.

India’s exports to the UK in services (excluding travel, transport, and banking) in

2013 amounted to £1.5 billion.
India’s imports from the UK in services (excluding travel, transport, and
banking) in 2014 amounted to £975 million.

Investment
The UK is the 3rd largest inward investor in India, with a cumulative equity
investment of US $22.56 billion (April 2000- September 2015).

The UK ranks first among the G20 countries and accounts for around 9% of all
foreign direct investment into India for the period April 2000–September 2015.
India continues to be one of the largest source markets for FDI projects in the
UK.

Economic Dialogue
Bilateral mechanisms like the India-UK Economic and Financial Dialogue (EFD) and
the India-UK Joint Economic and Trade Committee (JETCO) form the basis of
institutional engagements.

Page 61
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The 8th India-UK EFD explored new areas of cooperation in the financial
services sector and covered discussions on Global Economic Challenges,
Macroeconomic Risks and Policy Responses, Infrastructure Finance and
Financial Services.
The UK Government agreed to support major infrastructure projects in India
across key sectors, including smart cities, renewable energy, and railways.
Both countries welcomed the prospect of Rupee Bond issuance in London by
Indian companies.

India-UK Relations

Financial Partnership

Page 62
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The India-UK Financial Partnership (IUKFP) meeting in London on November

2, 2015, focused on:

Development of the Corporate Bond Market

Mutual sharing of expertise on Financial Sectors and Market
Regulations, focusing on India’s Insolvency Regulation
Pensions
Infrastructure Funding
Financial Inclusion
Internationalization of the Rupee
Cross-border Provision of Financial and Insurance Services, focusing on
Re-insurance
Enhancing financial training and qualification
Divestments

The India-UK Joint Economic and Trade Committee (JETCO) was established
on January 13, 2005, to foster a strategic economic relationship.

JETCO delegations meet annually, led by the Minister of Commerce and

Industry (CIM) and the Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills
(BIS), alternating between Delhi and London.

The 10th JETCO meeting on January 19, 2015, in London, involved industry
and government stakeholders in discussions across three Working Groups:

Education and Skill Development

Smart Cities and Technological Collaboration
Advanced Manufacturing and Engineering

Education

Page 63
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Education is a vital component of the India-UK bilateral relationship,

strengthened by initiatives like:

India-UK Education Forum

UK-India Education and Research Initiative (UKIERI)
Joint Working Group on Education
Newton-Bhabha Fund
Scholarship schemes

Announcements during the Prime Minister's visit to the UK in November 2015:

2016 was declared the UK-India Year of Education, Research, and

Innovation.
Initiation of virtual partnerships at the school level to foster cultural and
systemic understanding.
The UK aimed to send 25,000 UK students to India by 2020 through the
Generation UK India program, including 1000 UK interns with Tata
Consultancy Services.
Launch of the 3rd phase of the UK India Education and Research Initiative.
Commitment to mutual recognition of UK and Indian qualifications.

Visits from UK officials in December 2015, accompanied by an academic

delegation, highlighted the launch of the 2016 UK-India Year of Education,
Research, and Innovation in Delhi.

Cultural Linkages

Page 64
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Cultural connections are extensive due to shared history.

Indian culture has been integrated into the UK, including:

Cuisine
Cinema
Languages
Religion
Philosophy
Performing arts

Indian cultural organizations in the UK actively promote Indian culture.

The Nehru Centre, established in 1992, serves as the cultural wing of the High
Commission of India in the UK.

A Memorandum of Understanding on Cultural Cooperation between India

and the UK is effective until October 2019.

The UK-India Year of Culture in 2017 celebrated deep cultural ties and marked
the 70th anniversary of Indian Independence.

Support was committed to the digitization of shared archival collections in the

British Library and the National Archives of India.

Indian Diaspora
The Indian Diaspora in the UK is a significant ethnic minority, with
approximately 1.5 million people of Indian origin recorded in the 2011 census,
representing almost 1.8% of the population and contributing 6% of the
country’s GDP.
A community reception at Wembley Stadium on November 13, 2015, during
the Prime Minister's visit to the UK, was attended by over 60,000 people of
Indian origin.
Independence Day celebrations on August 16, 2015, saw a record attendance
of over 12,000 people.
The Pravasi Bharatiya Divas-2016 was organized on January 9, 2016, with live
video interaction with the External Affairs Minister.
The Mission seeks advice from the Indian Diaspora to advance the India-UK
relationship.

Page 65
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Check Your Progress

1. What policy did the Reagan administration emphasize in 1981?
2. Why was India against the US underlying objectives as well as its aim for a
unipolar world order?
3. What did the Indo-Soviet Friendship Treaty in 1971 offer India?
4. What changes did Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in 1988 bring in the Indo-China
relations?
5. Why was the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) founded?
6. What did the 10th JETCO meeting witness?

India’s Policy Towards SAARC Countries

Indo-Afghanistan Relations
India and Afghanistan have historically maintained friendly and strong
bilateral relations.
India was the only South Asian country to recognize the Soviet-backed
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s.
Relations deteriorated during the Afghan civil wars and the Taliban regime in
the 1990s.
India supported the overthrow of the Taliban and provided humanitarian and
reconstruction aid.
Following the bombing of the Indian Embassy in Kabul in 2008, Afghanistan
affirmed India as a 'brother country'.
India claims a border with Afghanistan through its control of the Gilgit-
Baltistan region of Kashmir.
Cultural and economic links have been maintained, with Indian movies and
music popular in Afghanistan, and Afghan dry fruits and carpets favored in
India.
Both countries have cooperated over conflicts with Pakistan.
Afghanistan joined SAARC as the eighth member in April 2007, with India's
endorsement.

Saur Revolution

Page 66
 Created by Turbolearn AI

In 1979, Soviet troops entered Afghanistan in support of the Saur Revolution.

The revolution was divided between the Khalq and Parcham factions, leading
to internal power struggles.
A rebellion led by mullahs, qazis, landlords, and tribal leaders occurred in
regions bordering Pakistan.
The Soviet Union claimed its troops were invited by the Afghan government
amidst the internal conflicts.
Insurgents received aid from neighboring areas, causing a large migration of
Afghan refugees to Pakistan.
Refugee camps in Pakistan also served as bases for armed forces in
Afghanistan.
India faced a threatening situation, surrounded by big powers, necessitating a
sophisticated and consistent approach.
India's policy was challenged as Indira Gandhi's government dealt with internal
and external problems.
Initial statements in the UN Security Council suggested India did not object to
Soviet troops entering Afghanistan, leading to misunderstandings.
India aimed to facilitate the withdrawal of foreign troops and end external
intervention.
Elite opinions differed, with some prioritizing the withdrawal of Soviet troops,
while others feared a fundamentalist or pro-Pakistan regime.
India opposed foreign troops in any country but acknowledged the Kabul
government's request for Soviet assistance.
India asserted that Soviet troops should not remain in Afghanistan and
demanded an end to external intervention.
On June 12, 1980, P. V. Narasimha Rao stated India's position, emphasizing
Afghanistan's sovereignty, independence, and non-aligned status.
India pursued a political settlement, leading to high-level visits, including
French President Giscard D’Estaing and UN Secretary General Kurt Waldheim.
Indira Gandhi discussed troop withdrawal with the Soviet Union, which
conditioned it on Pakistan ceasing support for insurgents.
India's position was reiterated at international forums, including the Seventh
Non-Aligned Summit.
Negotiations began under the UN Secretary General, acknowledging the
complexity of the issue.
Despite statements of progress, no rapid developments were seen in the
objectives of Pakistan, China, the US, and the USSR.
In December 1980, Indira Gandhi acknowledged that immediate breakthroughs
were unlikely.

Page 67
 Created by Turbolearn AI

The new Afghan government strengthened relations with India due to tensions
with Pakistan, suspecting its support for the Taliban.
India pursues close cooperation with Afghanistan to counter Pakistan, which
supports Islamic militants.
India is the largest investor in Afghanistan, committing over $2.2 billion for
reconstruction.
After the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, India supported the coalition government,
but relations ended with the outbreak of another civil war.
The Taliban regime, supported by Pakistan, became a security threat for India.
The Taliban's destruction of the Bamiyan Buddha monuments led to outrage in
India.
In 1999, the Indian Airlines Flight 814 hijacking was linked to Pakistani ISI
agents in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
India became a key supporter of the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance.
During the Taliban regime, India’s ties with Afghanistan became strained.

Relations between India and Afghanistan after

the Collapse of the Taliban

Page 68
 Created by Turbolearn AI

During the US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, India offered intelligence

and support to coalition forces.
After the overthrow of the Taliban, India re-established diplomatic ties with the
new democratic government, providing aid and participating in reconstruction.
India has provided approximately $650-750 million in humanitarian and
economic aid.
The Indian Army’s Border Roads Organization is constructing a road in the
Nimroz province.
India supports rebuilding air links, power plants, and invests in health and
education.
India helps train Afghan civil servants, diplomats, and police.
India aims to develop supply lines for electricity, oil, and natural gas in
Afghanistan.
The Indian government provides scholarships for Afghan students.
India and Afghanistan have developed strategic and military cooperation
against Islamic militants.
Following the killing of an Indian national by Taliban militants in November
2005, India deployed 200 soldiers at the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) to
protect Indian nationals.
Three Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) were signed to strengthen
cooperation in rural development, education, and standardization.
India provided $50 million to promote bilateral businesses following a visit
from the Afghan Foreign Minister in 2006.
In 2006, India increased its aid package to Afghanistan by 150million, totaling
750 million.
India supported Afghanistan’s membership in the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
On July 7, 2008, the Indian embassy in Kabul was attacked by a suicide car
bomb, resulting in 58 deaths and 141 injuries.
The Afghan government claimed Pakistan’s ISI was involved in the attack.
During the 15th SAARC summit in Colombo, India committed an additional
$450 million for projects in Afghanistan.
In August 2008, Afghan President Hamid Karzai visited New Delhi,
strengthening bilateral relations.
The Indian Embassy in Kabul was attacked again on October 18, 2009, killing at
least 17 people.
The US and its allies offered peace to the Taliban, recognizing the unlikelihood
of a military victory, which presented challenges for India.

Page 69
 Created by Turbolearn AI

According to Raghav Sharma of IPCS, a potential return of the Taliban in Kabul

would limit New Delhi’s options, given its support for the Karzai government.
Sharma suggested India needs to balance its past support for the Tajik-
dominated Northern Alliance against the Pashtun-dominated Taliban.
Sharma advised India to play an active role in strengthening state governance
capacity and win the confidence of Afghan citizens through knowledge sharing.
India could assist Afghanistan in reviving its agricultural sector by supporting
indigenous farming and irrigation techniques.
Sharma also recommended supporting the Senlis Council’s ‘poppy for
medicines’ program to curb illegal poppy trade and share experiences of
licensing poppy cultivation.
The Strategic Partnership Agreement (SPA) includes assistance to rebuild
Afghanistan’s infrastructure and institutions, education, technical assistance,
encouraging investment in Afghanistan’s natural resources, providing duty-free
access to the Indian market, supporting an Afghan-led peace process, and
advocating for sustained international commitment to Afghanistan.
As the lead country for Trade, Commerce, and Investment CBM of the Heart of
Asia Process, India hosted a Senior Officials Meeting of the Heart of Asia
countries in New Delhi in January 2014 and organized a 6th Regional Technical
Group (RTG) in New Delhi in November 2015.

Pakistan and Afghanistan Relations

Page 70
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Pakistan views India’s increasing influence in Afghanistan as a threat.

Pakistan asserts that Indian consulates in Afghanistan provide cover for secret
operations against Pakistan.
Pakistan accuses the Indian mission in Afghanistan of circulating fake Pakistani
currency.
Three-way cooperation between India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan could benefit
all three nations, despite the strained relations.
Instability in the relationship between these nations could impact the entire
South Asian region.
Both India and Pakistan possess nuclear capabilities, emphasizing the need for
improved relations and confidence-building.
Afghan President Hamid Karzai blamed the Pakistani spy agency for the attack
on the Indian Embassy in Kabul on July 7.
Although initially rejected by Pakistan, Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani
assured an independent investigation into the ISI’s involvement.
Afghanistan has repeatedly accused Pakistan of supporting Taliban-led
insurgency and cross-border terrorist attacks.
Militant groups, such as Hizb-ul-Mujahideen, Jaish-e-Mohammad, and Lashkar-
e-Tayiba, have expanded their operations from Jammu and Kashmir to
Afghanistan.
Pakistan is disappointed by the cordial relations between India and
Afghanistan.
The Karzai government has strengthened ties with India, allowing Indian
consulates in Jalalabad, Kandahar, Heart, and Mazar-e-Sharif.
Afghanistan may seek India’s help in training its new army and constructing
dams.
PM Manmohan Singh committed to supporting Afghanistan’s efforts to
establish a stable society.
The ISI is troubled by India’s growing influence in Afghanistan, viewing the
conflict as part of Pakistan’s conflict with India.
India, Russia, and Iran have initiated trade routes bypassing Pakistan’s eastern
port of Karachi.
Iran and India are planning rail and road links between ports in Western
Afghanistan and Iran.
The cultivation of poppy, rampant near Afghanistan’s border with Pakistan,
unites the Taliban, ISI, and Pakistan-supported terrorist organizations.
Poppy farming provides resources to the Taliban and hinders the Karzai
government’s authority.
Pakistan aims to reduce India’s presence in Afghanistan.

Page 71
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Indo-Bangladesh Relations
Bangladesh was created out of Pakistan in 1971, with India playing a
prominent role and installing Mujibur Rehman’s government.

Misunderstandings have arisen over the construction of the Farakka Barrage in

1975.

Mujibur Rehman was assassinated on August 15, 1975, and Ziaur Rehman took
over the government.

India not only helped in the birth of Bangladesh but also provided economic
and military aid and guaranteed its security.

Relations were cordial under Mujibur Rehman, but the US-China-Pakistan axis
began to operate in Bangladesh freely after his assassination.

Anti-India propaganda by sections of the Bangla press and vested interests

strained ties between India and Bangladesh.

Some scholars suggest Mujib’s friendship with India was a factor in the August
1975 coup against his regime.

Factors contributing to anti-India sentiment in Bangladesh during Mujib’s era:

Existence of pro-Pakistan factions

Internal

Indo-Bangladesh Relations

Factors Leading to Strained Relations

Opposition to Mujib's policies: Centralization of authority.
Farakka Barrage issue: Dispute over water sharing.
Rise of communalism in Bangladesh.
Propaganda: Pakistani and Chinese narratives alleging Indian imperialism.
Ineffective governance in Bangladesh and unchecked anti-India sentiment.
Dissatisfaction: Corruption, scarcity of essential goods, and smuggling on the
border.
Criticism by Indian press: Negative portrayal of the opposition in Bangladesh.

Page 72
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Attempts to Improve Relations

Ziaur Rehman's visit to India (post-Mujib assassination): Discussions with
Indira Gandhi on Farakka Barrage and border issues.

H.M. Ershad's policy: Continuation of Mujibur Rehman's foreign policy.

Romesh Bhandari's visit to Bangladesh (1985): Discussion of six outstanding

issues:

Sharing of the Ganga and Teesta waters

Implementation of the 1974 boundary agreement (Tin Bigha corridor)
Ownership of South Talpatty (New Moore) island
Delineation of the maritime boundary
Erection of fences along the Indo-Bangladesh border
Anti-India activities

Positive Developments
Realization of futility: Recognition by Bangladesh rulers of the need for better
relations.
Rajendra Sareen's opinion: Emerging desire for cooperative relations.
India's vested interest: Stability and prosperity in Bangladesh.
Early recognition: India was among the first to recognize Bangladesh.
Economic assistance: Significant contributions to Bangladesh's reconstruction.
Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Peace (1972): 25-year treaty modeled
after the Indo-Soviet treaty.
Cooperation in various fields: Social, cultural, economic, science, and
technology.
Border issue resolution: Equitable demarcation of the border.

Key Disputes and Issues

Page 73
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Farakka Barrage: A legacy issue from Indo-Pakistan relations, dispute over

water sharing.
Ganga Water Dispute: Sharing of waters during the lean season (January to
May).
India withdraws 40,000 cusecs for Calcutta Port.
Bangladesh receives only 15,000 cusecs, deemed insufficient.
New Moore Island (South Talpatty): Dispute over a small island in the Bay of
Bengal.
India first noticed the island in 1971.
The island was named "Purbasha" by West Bengal.
Bangladesh claimed it as "South Talpatty."
The island submerged in the early 2000s, rendering the issue moot.
Chakma Refugees: Bangladeshi refugees taking shelter in Tripura, India.
Repatriation efforts in 1994.
Tin Bigha Corridor: Issue involving Dahagram and Angorpota enclaves.
Agreement in 1982 to lease Tin Bigha to Bangladesh.
Faced opposition and legal challenges in India.
Border Fencing: Construction of a barbed wire fence by India.
Initial acceptance followed by opposition from Bangladesh.
Sheikh Hasina Wajed: Pro-Indian leader, current Prime Minister of Bangladesh.

Ganga Waters Sharing Treaty (1996)

Signed in New Delhi on December 12, 1996.
Aimed to usher in a new era of cooperation.
Joint working group to combat insurgency.
Better border management.

Economic and Trade Relations

Increased Exports: India's exports to Bangladesh increased significantly.
Agreements: Avoidance of double taxation and credit agreements.
Technical Assistance Programme: Training facilities for Bangladesh personnel.
SAARC: Forum for economic assistance.
SAPTA (SAARC Preferential Trading Agreement): Likely to increase economic
cooperation.
Joint Economic Council (JEC): Discussions on Free Trade Agreement (FTA).
Land Route: Kolkata to Dhaka route established in April 1999.

Page 74
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Strains and Challenges

Insurgent groups: Indian insurgents taking shelter in Bangladesh.
ISI activities: Allegations of Pakistan's ISI operating from Dhaka.
Cross-border terrorism: Bangladesh's lack of condemnation of terrorism in
Jammu and Kashmir.

Inter-Religious and Inter-Cultural Cooperation

Need to eliminate religious and cultural hatred.
Importance of peaceful coexistence between Hindus and Muslims.

Sheikh Hasina's Visit

Positive visit, emphasizing friendship and cooperation.
Need to settle internal political differences.

Recent Developments
Line of Credit: India extended a US$ 800 million line of credit.
Cultural Exchanges: Promotion of exchanges in music, theatre, art, books, etc.
Indira Gandhi Cultural Centre (IGCC): Inaugurated in Dhaka in 2010.

ULFA (United Liberation Front of Assam) and ISI (Inter-

Services Intelligence)

Page 75
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Islamists' Party Alliance Victory: Resulted in ULFA re-establishing camps in

Bangladesh.
BNP Government Accusations: Allegations of encouraging ISI operations and
assisting insurgencies.
Musharraf-ULFA Meeting Allegations: Claimed meeting in 2002 arranged by
the Khaleda Zia government.
ULFA's Support for Pakistan: Alleged support during the Kargil war.
Arms Shipment: Capture of truckloads of weapons destined for ULFA in 2004.
Policy Shift: Change towards insurgency of the Northeast after the rise of the
Awami League.
Understanding Between India and Bangladesh: Agreement not to permit their
area to be used against the other.
Threats to Bangladesh Stability: Blind religiosity, armed forces, and radical
political parties.

Indo-Maldives Relations

Overview
Location: Maldives is south of India's Lakshadweep Islands.
Diplomatic Relations: Established after Maldives' independence.
Close Ties: Strategic, military, economic, and cultural relations.
Maldives' Perspective: Friendship with India is a source of aid and a counter-
balance to Sri Lanka.

Historical and Cultural Context

Religion: Predominantly Muslim.
Ethnicity: Mixture of South Indian and Southern Arabian.
Language: Divehi, written in Arabic script.
Islam's Arrival: 12th century, likely from the Malabar Coast.
Traditional Governance: Sultan as political head, theocratic administration.
Colonial Influence: Indirectly under Portuguese and British influence.

Political Development

Page 76
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Internal Changes (1932): Sultan became an elected head.

Abolition of Sultanate (1965): After a referendum.
Establishment of Presidency: Ibrahim Nasir became the first President (1965–
78).
Maumoon Abdul Gayoom: Succeeded Nasir.

Key Visits and Discussions

Ahmed Zaki's Visit to India (1974):
Met Indian President V. V. Giri and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
Discussed bilateral issues.
Emphasized regional cooperation.
India to provide training facilities for Maldivian personnel.
Joint Communiqué:
Support for the Indian Ocean as a zone of peace.
Concern over growing military activity.

Strategic Cooperation
India contributed to maintaining security.
Alliance with respect to strategic interests in the Indian Ocean.

Indira Gandhi's Visit to Maldives (1975)

Met Maldivian Prime Minister Ahmed Zaki.
Confident in expanded economic and technical cooperation.
Need for peace and stability in the Indian Ocean.
Urged resistance to pressures from political, economic, and military fields.
Stressed the need for just and equitable distribution of world resources.

Joint Communiqué
Maldives expressed appreciation and understanding of India's nuclear policy.
Desire to maintain the Indian Ocean as a zone of peace.
Agreed on measures to improve bilateral cooperation in education, fisheries,
and communications.

Page 77
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Economic and Trade Relations

Air Services: Indian Airlines collaborated with Air Maldives.
Airport Construction Contract (1978): Awarded to the Airport Authority of
India.
Air Services Agreement (1979): Signed in New Delhi.
Trade Talks (1980): Agreement to set up regular institutional arrangements.
Essential Commodities: India assured Maldives it would meet their needs.

M. A. Gayoom's Visit to India (1983)

Met Indira Gandhi, President Zail Singh, and External Affairs Minister P. V.
Narasimha Rao.
Discussed non-aligned movement and developments in the Indian Ocean.
Commitment to cooperation among South Asian countries.
Cultural Agreement: Covered art, culture, archaeology, education, social
welfare, public health, mass media, and sports.

India-Maldives Relations

Agreements and Exchanges

India and Maldives have a history of cooperation, marked by various agreements and
exchanges:

Page 78
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Cultural Exchange: Includes scholarships, exchange of literature, art objects,

artists, dance troupes, films, and sports teams.
Honorary Degree: In 1983, Aligarh Muslim University honored President
Gayoom of Maldives with a Doctor of Letters.
Economic Cooperation: Agreements focused on technical and economic
assistance, with India offering expertise in setting up small-scale units.
Five Year Economic and Technical Cooperation Agreement: Signed in 1986 to
boost economic and commercial ties, including the establishment of a joint
commission.
Financial Assistance: India provided a package of economic, technical, and
commercial assistance to Maldives, including specialized training facilities.
Baggage Allowance: Reinstated for passengers visiting the islands.
Healthcare: India constructed a 30-bed general hospital and a 20-bed Indira
Gandhi Cardiac Centre in Maldives.
Cultural Program: A two-year program for the exchange of artists, scholars,
sportsmen, and media personnel was signed in 1987.

Political and Security Cooperation

Assistance Against Insurrection: In 1988, India intervened to help Maldives
quell an insurrection attempt.
Joint Commission: Discussions led to the decision to hold the first joint
commission meeting in Male.
Visa System Abolishment: Agreement in principle to abolish the visa system
between the two countries.
Indian Airlines Flights: Direct flights from Bombay to Maldives were initiated.
Satellite Usage: MoU allowing Maldives to use an Indian Satellite (INSAT-ID)
for metrological data and television programs.
No Defense Treaty: Gayoom saw no need for a defense treaty despite India's
assistance in 1988.
Technical Assistance: India offered technical assistance in various fields in
1995.

SAARC Engagement

Page 79
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Founding Members: India and Maldives are founding members of the South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
SAARC Role: Maldives advocates for SAFTA, a social charter, and greater
action on environmental and human rights issues within SAARC.

PLOTE Involvement
1988 Coup Attempt: Armed militants of the People’s Liberation Organization of
Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) attempted to take over the government.
Indian Intervention (Operation Cactus): Indian forces intervened to squash the
coup attempt, restoring the Maldivian government.

Continued Collaboration
High-Level Visits: Regular visits and discussions between leaders of both
countries.
Economic Ties: Cooperation extended to exchanging Doordarshan programs
and training Maldivian personnel.
Human Resource Development: Focus on human resource development
schemes, including a distance education program.
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU): Delegation visited Maldives
to assess requirements for a distance education scheme.
Maldives Institute of Technical Education: Project funded by India and handed
over to the Government of Maldives.

International Endorsement
Support for Intervention: India's intervention in 1988 received endorsement
from various countries.

Economic Challenges and Reforms

Macro-Economic Imbalances: Maldives faced issues such as rising debt and
low foreign exchange reserves.
Private Sector Development: Reforms required to encourage greater regional
development and improve teaching standards.

Page 80
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Recent Engagements
Tsunami Assistance: Gayoom thanked India for its timely assistance during the
tsunami.
Defense Cooperation: Establishment of a Defence Attaché’s Office in India and
gifting of a Fast Attack Craft to Maldives.
SAARC Summit (2010): Maldivian President expressed hope for resolution of
differences between India and Pakistan.
Bilateral Visits: Continued high-level visits and support in multilateral forums.

Indian Community in Maldives

Second Largest Expatriate Community: Approximately 26,000 Indians in
Maldives, including professionals in various fields.

India-Sri Lanka Relations

Historical and Cultural Ties

Cultural Links: Close cultural links due to Sri Lanka's location off the coast of
South East India.
Propagation of Buddhism: King Ashoka sent his son and daughter to
propagate Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
Indian Settlers: A large number of Indians settled in Sri Lanka, employed
mainly in tea and rubber plantations.
Non-Alignment: Like India, Sri Lanka follows the policy of non-alignment.

Early Relations and Disputes

Independence: Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948 and became a member
of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Katchatheevu Island Dispute: Territorial dispute arose regarding the ownership
of Katchatheevu Island.
Maritime Boundary Agreement: In 1974, a comprehensive agreement was
reached, with India accepting Sri Lanka’s ownership of Katchatheevu Island.

Page 81
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Policy of Non-Alignment
Middle Path: Sri Lanka declared it would not align with any power bloc and
would follow a middle path.
Security Treaty with Britain: Sri Lanka concluded a security treaty with Britain
and allowed British military bases.

Racial Disturbances and Ethnic Tensions

Discrimination Against Tamils: Alleged discrimination against Tamils after the
death of Prime Minister D. S. Senanayake.
Official Language Act of 1956: Declared Sinhalese as the sole official
language, leading to ethnic riots.
Agreement of 1957: Tamil was recognized as the language of the national
minority.

Nehru-Kotelawala Agreement, 1953

Features of the Agreement:
Registration of people of Indian origin who wanted to stay in Sri Lanka.
Repatriation of those who did not want to become citizens.
Checking illegal migration from India to Sri Lanka.
Quick disposal of pending citizenship applications.
Maintenance of a separate electoral register for Indian origin people.
Allowance for those who could not be granted citizenship to stay as
aliens.

Impact of Legislation
Limited Implementation: The Act of 1958 and the agreement of 1957 could
not be effectively implemented.
Reduced Representation: Tamils' representation in public service, army, police,
and education significantly reduced.
Citizenship Laws: Deprived political rights of approximately 10 lakh Tamils.

Sino-Indian Dispute

Page 82
 Created by Turbolearn AI

Sri Lanka's Role: Played an important role in resolving the dispute between
India and China in 1962.
Colombo Proposals: Bandaranaike visited China and discussed proposals for
settlement of the Sino-India dispute.

Relations During Indira Gandhi Era

Strong Bilateral Relations: Close relationship between Indira Gandhi and
Sirimavo Bandaranaike.
Assistance Against Communist Rebellion: Indian armed forces helped
suppress a Communist rebellion in Sri Lanka in 1971.

Tamil Issue and Strained Relations

Serious Problems: The question of Sri Lankan Tamils strained relations
between the two states.
Allegations: Sri Lanka accused New Delhi of aiding Tamil terrorists.

Bandaranaike-Shastri Agreement, 1964

Agreement on Stateless Persons: Sought to solve the problem of stateless
persons in Sri Lanka.
Granting of Citizenship: Approximately 300,000 people were granted Sri
Lankan citizenship, and 525,000 were granted Indian citizenship.

Economic Cooperation
Late Start: Economic cooperation started late due to competition in tea exports.
Loans and Credits: India extended loans to Sri Lanka for importing food
products and equipment.

India and Sri Lanka Relations

Economic Cooperation

Page 83
 Created by Turbolearn AI

In 1971, Sri Lanka imported goods from India worth

20crores, whileitsexportstoI ndiawereworthonly1 crore.

Economic cooperation received a boost after Indira Gandhi’s visit in April 1973. India
provided assistance to Sri Lanka in five areas:

Sheet glass
Rubber-based goods
Graphite
Refractory
Mica

India offered annual aid of

1croref orf iveyearsf ordevelopmentprojectsinSriLankaandagreedtoprovide 50 lakh
for establishing a cattle and sheep breeding unit, donating high-breed animals and
machinery. They also gifted a common facility for the Mica industry costing $25
lakhs.

In 1975, a science and technical cooperation agreement was signed.

Involvement with LTTE

Private entities in Tamil Nadu encouraged funding and training for the Liberation
Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a separatist insurgent force, between the 1970s and
1980s.

Faced with growing anger amongst Tamils and a deluge of refugees, India intervened
directly in the conflict following the Sri Lankan government’s attempt to re-establish
control of northern Jaffna through military assaults and economic blockade.

India provided aid in the form of food and medicines by sea and air.

Peace Accord and IPKF Intervention

Following negotiations, the two countries agreed on a peace accord assigning
regional autonomy in Tamil regions. The Eelam People’s Revolutionary Liberation
Front (EPRLF) controlled the regional council and demanded that Tamil militant
groups lay down arms.

Page 84
 Created by Turbolearn AI

India sent the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri Lanka to facilitate
disarmament and monitor the regional council.

The accord was signed between the governments of Sri Lanka and India, and most
Tamil militant groups accepted it. However, the Tamil Tigers and other Tamil militant
groups did not participate in the signing of the accord.

The LTTE rejected the accord because they opposed the candidate from the EPRLF
for the post of Chief Administrative Officer of the merged Northern and Eastern
provinces, proposing three other candidates who were rejected by India. The LTTE
then refused to hand over their weapons to the IPKF.

Rising Tensions
Tension between the Tamil and Sinhalese had persisted for a long time in Sri Lanka,
the problem became acute in July 1983, when military personnel.

Page 85