Psych notes
research methodologies
psychology is the study for individual behavior and mental processes.
behavior is an observable action
mental processes are the internal tasks we perform with our minds.
example of animal research, clever hans and wilhelm von osten (Goodwin 2010)
hypothesis – expresses a relationship between 2 variables
quantitative methods
data in quantitative methods comes in the form of numbers
aim is to derive universally applicable laws (nomothetic approach)
variable is anything that can vary among participants in a study.
objective (researcher is eliminated from the studied reality)
focus – behavioral manifestations
experimental studies
includes 1 DV, 1 IV and others are controlled variables.
IV is the one manipulated and DV is the one measured.
DV is expected to change when IV changes.
allows cause and effect inferences
looking to prove casual relationships
laboratory vs field experiments
qualitative research methods
in depth study of a particular phenomenon (idiographic approach)
uses data collections such as interviews and observations
data comes in the form of texts
more subjective (researcher is included in the studied reality)
focuses on human experiences, interpretations and meanings
Sampling
sample is the group of individuals that take part in the research study
sampling is the process of finding and recruiting individuals for the study
random sampling – random choices; everyone has an equal chance to become part
of the experiment
stratified sampling - a type of sampling method in which the total population is
divided into smaller groups to complete the sampling process.
opportunity – recruiting participants that are more easily available
self-selected – recruiting volunteers; people who want to join can join.
Credibility
refers to the degree to which the results of the study can be trusted to reflect the
reality.
closely linked to bias, as result in study isn’t accurate and credible if bias is included
Generalizability
refers to the extent to which the results of the study can be applied beyond the
sample.
Confounding variables
a variable that has influenced the CV but is not a subject study.
random sampling
hawthorne effect – control groups can also experience change
experimentar bias – not a conscious act
placebo effect - when a person's physical or mental health appears to improve after
taking a placebo or 'dummy' treatment.
order effects - differences in research participants' responses that result from the
order (e.g., first, second, third) in which the experimental materials are presented to
them.
Correlational method
relationship between 2 variables
doesn’t show causation
positive correlation – variables go in same direction
negative correlation – variables go in opposite direction
correlation coefficient – number that measures strength of the relationship
ranges from -1 to +1
relationship gets weaker when closer to 0
Cohen (1988) suggestions to interpret the effect of side of correlation in social
sciences
Survey method
measure correlation
need a good random sample rate
low response rate
Naturalistic observation
watching subjects in their natural environments
don’t manipulate the envi
good – hawthorne effect
bad – doesn’t show cause and effect
Case studies
detailed research on one or few subjects
descriptive research
no correlation data
Statistics
recording results from observations/studies
descriptive statistics – describes sets of data
standard deviation – variance of scores around the mean
higher the SD, more spread out the distribution is
inferential statistics - to discover whether the finding can be applied to the larger
population from which the sample was collected
Animal research
studying animal behavior as they share the same genotypes as humans
clear purpose
treated in humane way
least amount of suffering possible
acquired in legal ways
Human research
no forcing – must be voluntary
informed consent
no significant risk
must debrief beforehand
Quasi experiments
Like a true experiment, quasi experiments are a type of research design that
attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship.
The main difference with a true experiment is that the groups are not randomly
assigned.
Animal research (HL topic)
• Human physiology and genetic set-up is similar to that of animals, which naturally
suggests that animal research is to some extent generalizable to humans.
Purpose for Use of Animal Research
• Researchers in the field of Comparative psychology focus on a particular species or
compare this species to humans.
• Another group of researchers advocates the study of animals as models of human
beings and the expectation is that the findings will be universal and generalizable.
• A third group of researchers use animal studies to understand particular human
conditions such as diseases.
An animal model - refers to using animal research to test a certain cause–effect hypothesis
about a certain human behaviour.
Four major types of experimental manipulation used in animal models
(Shapiro, 1998).
1. genetic manipulation (when animals are bred in a certain way)
2. invasive manipulations with the nervous system (parts of the brain are stimulated
with electrodes, lesioned or removed)
3. invasive manipulations with other body parts (parts may be stimulated by
substances or damaged)
4. behavioral and environmental manipulations (such as electric shocks for rats
depending on their performance in a maze-learning task).
Value of animal models
- some brain areas that both humans and primates have in common were found to be
different in terms of how neurons are structured within them.
- this suggests that the evolution of the brain might have been more complex than
simply building newer structures upon older structures.
- These discoveries led some scientists to argue that comparison of brain differences might
not give us a full understanding of how animals are psychologically similar to humans, and
that we need to compare psychological functions as well (that is, we also need to look at
the problem from the cognitive and the social perspective).
Advantages:
Humans and animals are identical in many ways, both in terms of brain structure and
genetics.
Studies with animal models do produce results: useful models of human behavior
and life-saving treatments have been developed based on animal experimentation.
Animal studies allow researchers to embrace the full lifespan. While human subjects
often outlive researchers themselves, laboratory mice live 2–3 years and this
presents an opportunity to see their behavior across their lifespan and even across
generations. This is especially helpful in genetic research.
Animal research may be highly controlled. For example, the “knockout” technique
has been developed to selectively switch off one of the genes in the DNA sequence.
All other things being equal, this technique provides great insight into the function of
individual genes. The ability to better control confounding variables means higher
internal validity of experiments.
Animal subjects are relatively inexpensive and easily accessible, easy to handle and
manage.
Disadvantages:
When scientists develop new biomedical treatments for mental disorders, they
usually first test them with mouse models. However, results from mouse models are
never directly applied to humans.
Animals are tested in strictly controlled laboratory environments, so arguably they
may be under stress. As a result, their reactions to experimental manipulations may
not be quite the same as in their natural environments: there may be an issue with
ecological validity.
Although humans and animals are similar in many ways, they are still essentially
different.
Examples of animal research:
Ethical considerations of Animal research
Any animal study should be justified “with a clear scientific purpose”. One of the
following justifications may be used.
If non-human animals are chosen for research, it has to be ensured that the chosen
species is the best choice to address the research question, the minimum required
number of non-human participants is used, and it should be assumed that whatever
procedures cause pain in humans would cause pain in animals too.
All animal research proposals must be submitted to the Ethics Committee prior to
conducting the study.
Psychologists and their assistants conducting the study must be familiar with the
species, and specific characteristics of normal behaviour so that they will be able to
tell when the animal is stressed or unhealthy.
Laboratory animals must be given humane care.
Whenever possible, the experimental procedures should be designed in a way that
minimizes the discomfort of the animal.
If a research animal is observed to be in distress or chronic pain and this is not
necessary for the aims of the study, it should be euthanized.
Animals reared in the laboratory must not be released into the wild.