Unit-3

International Politics and

International Organisation
 Cuban Missile Crisis
• In 1961, Fidel Castro asked for more SA-2 anti
aircraft missiles, but Soviet turned down
their request.

• Focused on China

• Eisenhower- CIA (Central Intelligence

Agency)- planned paramilitary action against
Cuba. Approved by the new President
Kennedy.
• Bay of Pigs Invasion

• The failed invasion made US massively

sponsor the terrorism against Cuba.

• In January 1962, US Air Force General Edward

Lansdale.- Operation Mangoose but failed.

• Due to the fear of US further invasion Soviet

started building missiles in Cuba. Nikita
Khrushchev and Fidel Castro.
• In 1962- US denied the charges

• US Air Force U-2 spy plane- Medium Range

Ballistic Missiles R-12 and Intermediate
Range Ballistic Missiles R-14.

• John F Kennedy convened a meeting with the

National Security Council.

• Initially, he wanted an airstrike and invasion

of the Cuban mainland.
• But took less aggressive step of ‘Quarantine’.
He didn’t use the word blockade.

• Increased the tension and continued for 2

weeks (13 days). From 16 to 28 October 1968.

• Soviet Union removed their missiles from

Cuba.

• In a secret agreement Between US and

Soviet, the US removed nuclear missiles from
Turkey and Italy.
• US agreed not to invade Cuba without direct
provovation

• Hotline was created between US and Soviet

Union.

• Cuba was not consulted during this deal.

 Vietnam War
• It was a colony of French from 1800’s to 1954.

• In 1940 Vietnam was invaded by Japan.

• In 1945 with the surrender of Japan Vietnam fall

back to the control of France.

• Ho Chi Minh formed Viet Minh (League for the

Independence of Vietnam) in 1941.
• While leaving from Vietnam French made
Bao Din as emperor.

• Viet Minh used the opportunity and taken

the control of the northern city of Hanoi and
declared Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

• Ho Chi Minh became the President.

• France backed emperor Bao set up the state

of Vietnam in 1949 with Saigon as its capital.
• Ho and Bao both wanted a unified Vietnam.
Ho a communist model state and Bao West.

• Northern and Southern Vietnam armed

conflict continued until the end of Dien Bien
Phu in 1954 with the defeat of French forces.

• In 1954 a treaty was signed at a Geneva

Conference. That split Vietnam and called for
a nationwide election for the reunification in
1956.
• In 1955, Ngo Dinh Diem became the President of
Government of the Republic of Vietnam.

• In the same year US President Dwight D.

Eisenhower pledged his support to Diem.

• With the help of US military and CIA, Diem

brutally tortured and executed communist
sympathisers. 1 lakhs of people got arrested.

• By 1957 Viet Cong and opponents of Diem

started attack on government official and by
1959 engaged with armed conflicts.
• In December 1960, communists and
opponents of Diem formed National
Liberation Front (NLF) in South Vietnam.

• In 1961 President Kennedy sent a team to

analyse the situation in South Vietnam and
based on its report he increased the aid.

• US worried about the Domino Effect.

• US increased its troops from 800 in 1950’s to

9,000 in 1962.
• Diem’s own General’s coup killed him and his
brother in 1963, 3 weeks before the
assassination of Kennedy.

• The political instability made Lyndon Johnson

to increase the military and economic
support.

• In 1964 DRV torpedo boats attacked two

destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin.

• Johnson ordered bombing in North Vietnam.

• Congress supported by passing Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution, Johnson ordered regular bombing
raids- Operation Rolling Thunder.

• US also bombed on Laos between 1964 and

1973. To stop the formation of communism
there and to cut off supplies to North Vietnam.

• In 1965 with the public support Johnson sent

combat forces to Vietnam.

• By end of 1965 1,75,000 troops were stationed.

• In spite of the advice of his advisers he
dispatched the forces.

• North Vietnam aided by Soviet Union and

China.

• By 1967 total number of troops reached

500,000, 15,058 killed and 1 lakhs of people
wounded.

• Due to the long war US soldiers got stress

disorder.
• US people after watching on television the
heavy bombings turned against the government.

• On January 31, 1968, 70,000 DRV froces

launched Tet Offensive attacked on 100 cities
and towns in South Vietnam.

• General Westmoreland request additional 2

lakhs troops.

• Johnson worried about the election as his

popularity going down and called to halt
bombings.
• Peace talk stared between US and North
Vietnam in Paris and later South Vietnam and
NLF were included.

• Nixon got elected in the election and started

withdrawing troops from South Vietnam and
announced a program called Vietnamisation.

• In 1970, US-South Vietnam forces attacked on

Cambodia.

• Protests were started in Kent State University

and Jackson State University- students were
killed.
• In 1972 drafted the agreement but South
Vietnam rejected it.

• Nixon ordered bombing in Hanoi and Haiphong.

• In January 1973, US and North Vietnam

concluded final peace agreement. But the war
between South and North Vietnam continued
until April 30, 1975 when DRV forces captured
Saigon.

• Finally in 1976 Vietnam unified as Socialist

Republic of Vietnam.
 Oil Crisis
• On October 19, 1973, US President Richard
Nixon provided aid of 2.2 billion dollars to
Israel in support of Yom Kippur War.

• As response to this Organisation of the

Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
approved embargo on the US.

• The price of the oil quadrupled. It was 2.90

dollar and now it became 11.65 dollar per
barrel.
• US was fully depended on Middle East for oil
and had no capacity to boost production.

• Embargo extended to other countries as well

who supported Israel. Netherlands, Portugal,
and South Africa.

• US allies in Europe and Japan had stockpiled

oil supplies and secured for a short term.

• Nixon administration adopted Project

Independence and intensive diplomatic
efforts with its allies.
• Nixon and Kissinger started talks with OPEC
members.

• High inflation and stagnation in oil imports.

• Talks were also failed because of the strained

relations with Saudi Arabia.

• Dollar started to fall and that created economic

crisis.

• US had to negotiate to come out from the issue.

• US agreed to re-export arms to Saudi Arabia.
 Afghan Civil War
• Soviet’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.

• Formed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan

• Resistance to the new government by

Mujahedeen.

• CIA of the US supported funds, weapons and

trainings to the Mujahedeen through
Pakistan.
• Soviet started withdrawal of its forces from
1988 to 1989.

• But the Communist government led by

President Najibullah lasted until 1992.

• Majorly 7 groups:
– Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin, Jamiat-e Islami,
Harakat-i-Inqilab-i-Islami, Ittehad-e Islami, Hezb-i
Wahdat and Junbish-i Milli.
• After Soviet seized its power from Afghanistan,
mujahedeen started fighting among themselves
for power.

• Ethnic groups- Pashtun (Pathan), Tajik, Hazara,

Uzbek, and other minority ethnic groups
(Aimaks, Baloch, Turkmen, etc.)

• Burhanuddin Rabbani leader of Jamat-e Islami

formed the government- Islamic State of
Afghanistan.

• In 1994 a new mujahedeen group was formed.

Named Taliban.
• Graduated students in religious teachings from
the Madrasahs of Pakistan and Southern
Afghanistan formed the Taliban.

• In 1996, the Taliban seized the capital city of

Kabul and killed Najibullah and ousted President
Burhanuddin Rabbani (Jamat-e Islami).

• Taliban formed new government- Islamic

Emirates of Afghanistan- Mullah Mohammad
Omar (Supreme Leader)

• Immediately political forces realigned including

non-Pashtun ethnic groups.- United Front led by
Burhanuddin Rabbani
• Initially Taliban got the support of people as
they disarmed petty regional warlords.

• By the late 1998, Taliban controlled 90% of

Afghanistan and northeast were controlled
by the United Front.

• Soon came up with the harsh laws-

– Women are forbidden to attend school, earn a
salary, or show their faces in public.
– Men must grow beards. The depiction of living
things (photographs, stuffed animals, statues) is
forbidden.
• In this war all the major factions violated human
rights- killings, attack on civilians, bombing and
shelling, rape, etc.

• While the fight was in progress against the

Taliban by the United Front, America started
bombing Afghanistan as part of their policy of
War on Terror.

• Ousted the Taliban from the power.

• A new government was formed in 2004- Islamic

Republic of Afghanistan.
 Gulf War
• Iraq-Iran war 1980-1988

• Iraq in debt of $37 billion to UAE and Kuwait.

• Iraqi President Saddam Hussein asked them

to cancel the debt- spent for the protection
of Arabian Peninsula.

• Iraq started threatening Kuwait

• Kuwait was a British protectorate and ended
it in 1961.

• Iraqi Prime Minister General 'Abd Al-Karim

Qasim- Kuwait is an “integral part of Iraq”.

• Ba’athist Iraq did not accept the boundary

between Iraq and Kuwait.

• In 1990, Saddam Hussein claimed that the

UAE & Kuwait broke the OPEC principles.
• And he also alleged that they are stealing oil
from Rumayla oil field.

• He also demanded that Kuwait cede control

of the Bubiyan and Warbah Islands to Iraq.

• Iraq also accused USA and Israel behind the

reduce in oil prices by Kuwait.

• Against the threatening by the Iraq, USA

staged manoeuvre in Gulf.
• Also Bush adopted conciliatory policy
towards Iraq.

• In 1990, US sent its senators led by Robert

Dole and US Ambassador Glaspie sent the
message of America’s intention of
maintaining economic and political relations
with Iraq.

• On August 2, 1990, one hundred thousand

Iraqi forced invaded Kuwait within 2 hours.
• With the effort of US UNSC passed:
– Resolution 660: unconditional immediate withdrawal
– Resolution 661: economic sanctions
– Resolution 663: annexation of Kuwait is null and void

• US stationed its forces in Saudi Arabia along

with Saudi Arabia forces.

• Because of the US petition the UN passed one

more Resolution 678- use of force to compel Iraq
to withdrawal from Kuwait and the deadline is
45 days.
• After the deadline was over the coalition
forces attacked Iraq and within 24 hours
taken controlled the skies.

• Bombarded on all Iraqi strategic places.

• And then targeted Iraqi forces in Kuwait.

• in retaliation Saddam launched missile

attacks on Israel. but Israel refused to
retaliate.
• 34 coalitional forces including Arab countries
made attack on Iraqi forces and liberated
Kuwait.

• On March 2, 1991, UN passed a Resolution 686-

conditions for cease fire.
– sanctions and payment of reparations for war
damages. Iraq was obligated to return property
stolen from Kuwait.

• Due US pressure UN passed one more

Resolution 687:
– United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) to
inspect Iraq’s suspected chemical and biological
weapons capabilities.
 Yugoslav Crisis (1990-2001)
• Yugoslavia was created at the end of WWI.

• Croat, Slovenian, and Bosnia- united with the

Serbian Kingdom.

• Broke up during the WWII- Nazi allied-

independent Croat State. Reunified at the
end of WWII.

• Joined NAM in 1961

• There were ethnic demands but it was
successfully suppressed by Josip Broz Tito.

• But after his death in 1980. Strong feelings

for an independence started.

• Collapse of Soviet Union, reunification of

Germany, shift of focus of US, economic
issues.

• Slobodan Milosevic- Serbia’s President from

1989- Serbian ultra-nationalism.
• Slovenia & Croatia declared independence in
1990.

• Later Bosnia-Herzegovina declared

independence.

• Yugoslav Army (JNA) briefly intervened in

Slovenia, but it withdrew after 10 days,
effectively confirming Slovenia’s separation.

• Serbs in Croatia declared independence.

• In January 1992, Croatia and Slovenia
internationally recognised. Later Bosnia’s
independence.

• Serbia and Montenegro formed new Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia. But international
community didn’t recognise it.

• War was continued in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

• In 1998-99, violence started in Kosovo- Albanian

population demanded independence from
Serbia.
• NATO bombing- forced Milosevic- accept
NATO-led international peace keeping force.

• Kosovo placed under U.N. administrative

mandate.

• Gradually, economy started falling and

Milosevic lost power in 2001.

• He got arrested and trial started in the

International Crimes Tribunal in The Hague.
• He died in prison in 2006.

• Kosovo declared independence in 2008 and

recognised by the US and most European
countries but objected by Russia.
 War on Terrorism
• On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda attacked
on WTC against the US.

• It was attended by the representatives of 80

countries.

• Killed more than 3000 people and some are

gone missing.
• The US President George W. Bush declared ‘War
on Terrorism’.

• In the first 100 days of the war, President George

W. Bush increased America’s homeland security
and built a worldwide coalition that:
– Began to destroy al-Qaeda’s grip on Afghanistan by
driving the Taliban from power.
– Disrupted al-Qaeda’s global operations and terrorist
financing networks.
– Destroyed al-Qaeda terrorist training camps.
– Helped the innocent people of Afghanistan recover
from the Taliban’s reign of terror.
– Helped Afghans put aside long-standing differences
to form a new interim government that represents
all Afghans – including women.
• The US adopted comprehensive and visionary
policy:
– Diplomacy: 136 countries offered military assistance,
46 multilateral organisations offered support, under
the US leadership and with the international support
building Afghanistan started.
– Terrorist Finances: seized terrorist financial assets
and disrupt their fundraising pipelines. 196 countries
supported the financial war on terror, 142 countries
frozen terrorists assets, US alone seized 156 known
terrorist assets.
– The Military Campaign: Operation Enduring Freedom
began on October 7, 2001. Taliban forced to
surrender. destroyed 11 terrorist training camps and
39 Taliban command and control sites, al-Qaeda
terrorists were captured, killed and some ran.
– Law enforcement: Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task
Force to prevent terrorists from entering the U.S,
arrested and punished known terrorists, sharing
law enforcement information.
– Humanitarian: the US increased its humanitarian
funds to Afghanistan- $187 million aid including
food, shelter, blankets, and medical supplies.
America’s Fund for Afghan Children that has
already raised more than $1.5 million.
– Homeland security: $20 billion for homeland
security; strengthened intelligence, created the
Office of Homeland Security and the Homeland
Security Council; tough new airline security
measures
 – Respecting Islam: steps to protect Muslim-
Americans from hate crimes, first-ever White
House Iftar and an Eid event at the end of
Ramadan, the President visited the Islamic
Centre; and the President created the
"Friendship Through Education" initiative to
bring American and Muslim children closer
together.

• Most significant development in the ‘War on

Terror’ was killing of Osama Bin Laden. On
May 2, 2011, US Special Forces raid Pakistan
and killed him.
 UN and its Organs
• Article 1 of UN Charter: Objectives:
– Maintaining international peace and security
– Developing friendly relations among states based on
respect for the principle of equal rights and the self-
determination of peoples
– Achieving international cooperation in solving
international problems of an economic,
– Social, cultural, or humanitarian character and in
promoting and encouraging respect for
– Human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all
– Functioning as a center for harmonizing the actions
of countries to attain these common ends
 General Assembly
• Main deliberative and policy making organ of
the UN.

• All the member states of UN are the members.-

193 countries- each country can send maximum
of 5 representatives.

• Presiding Officer: President

– Elected by the UNGA for one year
– The presidency rotates annually between the five
geographic groups: African, Asia-Pacific, Eastern
European, Latin American and Caribbean, and
Western European and other States.
• Headquartered in New York

• Session:
– meets once in a year (September)
– Depending on the tasks

• Voting:
– Every member has one vote
– Most of the matters decided by a simple majority
– 2/3rd majority- budgetary questions, election to
the UNSC, and ECOSOC.
• Functions:
– Consider and approve the UN budget
– Elects the non-permanent members of the UNSC,
ECSOC, appoints the Secretary-General on the
recommendation of the UNSC
– Recommending the general principles of cooperation
for maintaining international security and peace-
disarmament.
– Discusses any matter relating to international peace
& security.
– Conduct studies and make recommendation-
political cooperation, international law, human
rights, etc.
– Recommends the peaceful settlement of any
disputes
– Consider reports from the various UN organs.
 Security Council
• Primary responsibility of maintaining peace
and security.

• It consists of 15 members-
– 5 permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia
& China)
– 10 non-permanent members are elected by the
UNGA for the a term of for 2 years on a regional
basis:
• 3 are from Africa, 2 are from Asia-Pacific group, 2 are
from Latin America & Caribbean group, 2 from
Western Europe group & 1 from Eastern Europe group.
• Present non-permanent members of UNSC are:
Gabon, Ghana, Mozambique, UAE, Japan,
Albania, Brazil, Ecuador, Malta & Switzerland.

• Voting: Affirmative vote (3/5th)of 9 votes of 15 &

Veto- permanent members
– A member party to a dispute must abstain from
voting.

• Presiding officer: President

– Presidency is based on the English alphabetic order
for a one-calendar-month period.
– Rotates among the member states on every month

• Headquartered in New York

• Functions:
– Maintaining peace and security, determines the
existence of a threat to peace or act of
aggression.
– Recommends methods of adjustment or terms of
settlement
– Deploy UN peacekeeping operations & impose
sanctions.
– Impose diplomatic severance, blockades,
penalties, military actions, etc.
– Submits annual or special reports to the UNGA
for its consideration
 Economic and Social Council (ECOSC)
• Coordination, policy dialogue, policy review and
recommendations on social, economic, and
environmental issues, and also the
implementation of internationally agreed
development goals.

• It consists of 54 members elected by the UNGA.

• Term: 3 years

• Each member country can send one

representative.
• Voting:
– By a simple majority
– Each member has one vote

• Presiding officer:
– President- 1 year term

• Functions:
– make or initiate studies and reports with respect
to international economic, social, cultural,
educational, health, and related matters; make
recommendations to the UNGA.
– recommendations for the purpose of promoting
respect for, and observance of, human rights.
– Prepares draft conventions for submission to the
General Assembly.
– May call international conference on matters
within its competence.
– May enter into agreements with the agencies
referred in Article 57 subject to approval by the
GA.
– May make arrangements to obtain the report
from the specialised agencies of the UN to know
the effectiveness of their own recommendations.
– Provides information to and assists the Security
Council on its request.
 Trusteeship Council
• To administer the 11 Trust Territories of the UN.

• Former colonies or dependent territories.

• UNSC permanent members are the members of

trusteeship council.

• Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall

designate one specially qualified person to represent
it therein.

• The last trust territory became independent was

Palau in 1994.
• Functions:
– consider reports submitted by the administering
authority;
– accept petitions and examine them in
consultation with the administering authority;
– Periodic visits
– Prepares questionnaire on the political,
economic, social, and educational advancement
of the inhabitants of each trust territory, and the
administering authority for each trust territory
and make annual report on that and submits to
the GA.
 International Court of Justice (ICJ)
• Judicial organ of the UN.

• All the members of the UN are the ipso facto

parties to the statute of the ICJ.

• A state which is not a Member of the United

Nations may become a party to the Statute of
the ICJ.

• Consists of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms

by the GA & the Security Council.
• 1/3rd of the judges term will get over for
every three years. And eligible for reelection.

• If a judge dies or resigns election should be

held as soon as possible.

• Secret ballot held to elect the President and

Vice-President for 3 years.

• Persons of high moral character and possess

the legal qualification required in their state’s
higher judicial office are elected to the ICJ.
• Once they elected, they are not the delegates
of their government or any other state.

• To guarantee the independence of the

judges, no member of the court can’t be
dismissed unless there is a unanimous
opinion of the other members.
• Functions:
– Settles the disputes submitted to it by states.
– The Court can only deal with a dispute when the
States concerned have recognized its jurisdiction.
– The judgment is final, binding on the parties to
the case and without an appeal.
– Performs advisory role to five UN organs and 15
specialised agencies.
– Such advise is not binding on them but carries a
great moral authority and helps in development
and clarification of international laws.
– It has jurisdiction only on the consent, not
compulsory jurisdiction.
 Secretariat
• It is a body to carry out day-to-day work of
the UN organs.

• It is headed by a Secretary-General and

assisted by other supporting staff.

• The Secretary-General is appointed by the GA

on the recommendation of the SC.

• Secretary-General is Chief Administrative

Officer of the organistion.
• Term of office of the secretary-general is for 5
years.

• Functions: peacekeeping operations,

surveying economic and social trends,
mediating in international disputes,
conducting international conferences to
laying the groundwork for international
agreements.

• Headquartered in New York

• Five regional commissions:
– ECA – Economic Commission for Africa
– ECE – Economic Commission for Europe
– ECLAC – Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean
– ESCAP – Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific
– ESCWA – Economic and Social Commission for
Western Asia
 European Union
• A model of regional cooperation.

• A group of European countries formed on

Nov 1, 1993 through a Maastricht Treaty.

• Has a single currency, a unified foreign and

security policy.

• Common citizenship rights.

 A Brief History of EU
• France and Germany cooperation

• Western European countries sought closer

economic, social and political ties.

• In 1951, leaders of six countries Belgium,

France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
and West Germany ‐ signed the Treaty of
Paris- came into effect in 1952 and formed
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
• On March 25, 1957, the six ECSC countries
signed two treaties of Rome:
– European Atomic Energy Community(Euratom)
– European Economic Community (EEC)

• In 1965 – Brussels Treaty- commissions of

EEC, Euratom and the high authority of ECSC
merged into a single commission.

• Collectively, the EEC, the Euratom and ECSC

referred as the European Communities.
• In 1974 formed the European Council to
discuss the long agendas. Meets twice a year.

• Maastricht Treaty was signed on February 7,

1992 created the European Union. Amended
version of the treaty came into effect on
November 1, 1993.

• Institutions of the European Union:

– Executive: European Council and European
Commission
– Legislative: European Parliament & Council of the
European Union
– Judicial: Court of the Justice of the European
Union & European Court of Auditors
– Financial: European Central Bank
 European Council
• It consists of 27 members who are the heads
of state or government of EU countries,
President of the European Council, President
of the European Commission.

• President is elected by the European Council

for once renewable term of two and a half
years.

• The President represents the EU to the

outside world.
• It meets four times a year but the President
can call additional meetings to address
urgent issues.

• Voting: unanimity

• Functions:
– overall direction and political priorities – but
does not pass laws
– deals with complex or sensitive issues that
cannot be resolved at lower levels of
intergovernmental cooperation
– sets the EU's common foreign & security policy,
taking into account EU strategic interests and
defence implications.
– nominates and appoints candidates to certain
high profile EU level roles, such as the ECB and
the Commission
– On each issue, the European Council can:
• ask the European Commission to make a proposal to
address it
• pass it on to the Council of the EU to deal with
 European Commission
• Team or ‘College’ of Commissioners, one
each from EU country.

• 27 commissioners:
– President of the Commission
– 8 Vice-Presidents (including 3 Executive
Presidents & 1 High Representative of the Union
for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy)
– 18 Commissioners each responsible for a
portfolio.
• Directorates-General (DGs) perform its day-to-
day business.

• The President is elected by the European

Parliament, nominated by the European Council
for a 5-year term.

• The President selects Vice-Presidents and on

consultation with the member states the
Commissioners.

• They must appear before the EU Parliament

with their vision and then must be approved by
the European Council.
• Functions:
– Proposes new laws
– Manages EU policies & allocates EU funding:
• sets EU spending priorities, together with the Council
and Parliament
• draws up annual budgets for approval by the
Parliament and Council
• supervises how the money is spent, under scrutiny by
the Court of Auditors
– Enforce EU laws
– Represents the EU internationally
 European Parliament
• One of the legislative body of the EU.

• Directly elected by the people of EU countries

for a 5-year term.

• Proportionate to its population. Should not be

less than 6 and more than 96 MEPs and the total
number should not exceed 705 MEPs.

• MEPs are grouped by political affiliation not by

nationality.
• The President of the Parliament is elected by
itself for a period two and a half years.

• Functions:
– Legislative:
• Passing EU laws, together with the Council of the EU,
based on European Commission proposals
• Deciding on international agreements
• Deciding on enlargements
• Reviewing the Commission's work programme and
asking it to propose legislation
– Supervisory:
• Democratic scrutiny of all EU institutions
• Electing the Commission President and approving the
Commission as a body. Possibility of voting a motion
of censure, obliging the Commission to resign
• Granting discharge, i.e. approving the way EU budgets
have been spent
• Examining citizens' petitions and setting up inquiries
• Discussing monetary policy with the European Central
Bank
• Questioning Commission and Council
– Budgetary:
• Establishing the EU budget, together with the Council
• Approving the EU's long-term budget, the
"Multiannual Financial Framework"
 Council of the European Union
• Another legislative body of the EU

• Government ministers from each EU country,

according to the policy area to be discussed.

• Each EU country holds the presidency on a 6-

month rotating basis.
• Functions:
– negotiates and adopts EU laws, together with the
European Parliament, based on proposals from
the European Commission
– coordinates EU countries' policies
– develops the EU's foreign & security policy, based
on European Council guidelines
– concludes agreements between the EU and other
countries or international organisations
– adopts the annual EU budget - jointly with the
European Parliament
• Operation:
– EU ministers meet in public when they discuss or
vote on draft legislative acts
– to be passed, decisions usually require a
qualified majority:
– 55% of countries (with 27 current members, this
means 15 countries)
– representing at least 65 % of total EU population
– To block a decision, at least 4 countries are
needed (representing at least 35% of total EU
population)
• exception - sensitive topics like foreign policy and
taxation require a unanimous vote (all countries in
favour).
 Court of Justice of the European
Union
• Ensuring EU law is interpreted and applied
the same in every EU country; ensuring
countries and EU institutions abide by EU
law.

• Members:
– Court of Justice: 1 judge from each EU country &
11 Advocates General.
– General Court: 2 judges from each EU country.
• Court of Jutice:
– Judges are appointed by the governments of the
member states after a consultation with a panel.
– Term: 6 years (renewable)
– Elects among themselves a President and Vice-
President for a term of 3 years (renewable)

• General Court:
– Judges are appointed by the governments of the
member states after a consultation with a panel.
– Term: 6 years (renewable)
– Elects among themselves a President and Vice-
President for a term of 3 years (renewable)
• Functions/jurisdiction:
– interpreting the law (preliminary rulings)
– enforcing the law (infringement proceedings)
– annulling EU legal acts (actions for annulment)
– ensuring the EU takes action (actions for failure
to act)
– sanctioning EU institutions (actions for damages)
 European Court of Auditors
• To check EU funds are collected and used
correctly, and help improve EU financial
management.

• Members: 1 from each member state

• Appointed by the Council after consulting the

Parliament for 6 years (renewable)

• President for 3 years term (renewable)

• Functions:
– audits EU revenue & expenditure, to check EU
funds are correctly raised, spent, achieve value
for money and accounted for.
– checks any person or organisation handling EU
funds – including spot checks in EU institutions
(especially the Commission), EU countries and
countries receiving EU aid
– writes up findings and recommendations in audit
reports, for the European Commission and
national governments
– reports suspected fraud, corruption or other
illegal activity to the European Anti-Fraud Office
(OLAF)
 – produces an annual report for the European
Parliament and Council of the EU, which the
Parliament examines before deciding whether to
approve the Commission's handling of the EU budget
– gives its expert opinion to EU policymakers on how
EU finances could be better managed and made
more accountable to citizens

• 3 types of audit:
– Financial audits – checking that accounts accurately
present the financial position, results and cash flow
for the year.
– Compliance audits – checking that financial
transactions follow the rules.
– Performance audits – checking that the EU funds
achieve its goals with the fewest possible resources
and in the most economical manner.
 European Central Bank
• To manage the euro, keep prices stable and
conduct EU economic & monetary policy.

• Members: ECB President and Vice-President

and governors of national central banks from
all EU countries.

• The President is appointed by the European

Council after consultation with European
Parliament and the Bank’s Governing Council.
• 3 following decision-making bodies:
– Governing Council – the main decision-making
body.
• Consists of the Executive Board plus the governors of
the national central banks from eurozone countries.
– Executive Board – handles the day-to-day
running of the ECB.
• Consists of the ECB President and Vice-President and 4
other members appointed for 8-year terms by the
leaders of the eurozone countries.
– General Council – has more of an advisory &
coordination role.
• Consists of the ECB President and Vice-President and
the governors of the central banks from all EU
countries.
• Functions:
– sets the interest rates at which it lends to
commercial banks in the eurozone (also known as
the euro area), thus controlling money supply and
inflation
– manages the eurozone's foreign currency reserves
and the buying or selling of currencies to balance
exchange rates
– ensures that financial markets & institutions are well
supervised by national authorities, and that payment
systems work well
– ensures the safety and soundness of the European
banking system
– authorises production of euro banknotes by
eurozone countries
– monitors price trends and assesses risks to price
stability.
 South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC)
• Established on December 8, 1985.

• SAARC Charter in Dhaka was signed by seven

countries.
– India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka
and Maldives.

• Afghanistan joined as the eighth member of the

SAARC in 2007.

• In SAARC decisions are made unanimously at all

levels.
• Objectives:
– To promote the welfare of the people of South Asia and to
improve their quality of life.
– To accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural
development in the region and to provide all individuals the
opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full potentials.
– To promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the
countries of South Asia.
– To contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation
of one another’s problems..
– To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the
economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields.
– To strengthen cooperation with other developing countries.
– To strengthen cooperation among themselves in international
forums on matters of common interests, and
– To cooperate with international and regional organizations
with similar aims and purposes.
• Principles:
– Support for the ideals of sovereign equality,
geographical integrity, political independence,
non-interference in the internal affairs of other
nations, and mutual benefit underpin
cooperation within the framework of the
Association.
– Such collaboration should enhance rather than
replace bilateral or multilateral cooperation. It
does not engage in discussion of matters that are
bilateral or controversial.
• Structure:
• SAARC Summit:
– The Meetings of the Heads of State or
Government of Member States is the highest
decision making authority.
– Summits are usually held biennially hosted by a
Member State in alphabetical order.
– The Member State hosting the Summit assumes
the Chair of the Association.

• Council of Ministers:
– Comprised of the Foreign Ministers of the SAARC
member states.
– Meets twice a year
– Functions:
• Formulation of the policies of the Association;
• Review of the progress of cooperation under the
Association;
• Decision on new areas of cooperation;
• Establishment of additional mechanism under the
Association, as deemed necessary; and
• Decision on other matters of general interest to the
Association.
• Standing Committee:
– Consists of the Foreign Secretaries of the SAARC
Member States.
– Should to meet often
– Functions:
• Overall monitoring and coordination of programme of
cooperation;
• Approval of projects and programmes, and the
modalities of their financing;
• Determination of inter-sectoral priorities;
• Mobilization of regional and external resources; and
• Identification of new areas of cooperation based on
appropriate studies.
• Programming Committee:
– consists of the Joint Secretary-level officials of
the Ministry of Foreign/External Affairs of the
SAARC member states.
– It meets prior to the Standing Committee
sessions or at the end of each English calendar
year to scrutinize the budget of the SAARC
Secretariat, Regional Centers and Specialized
Bodies.
– Functions: to assist the standing committee
• Selection of regional projects, including their location,
cost-sharing modalities among the Member States,
and mobilization of external resources; Inter-Sectoral
priority of Work Programme; and Review of the
Calendar of Activities.
• Technical Committee:
– Comprise representatives of member states.
– six Technical Committees on: i) Agriculture and
Rural Development (including livestock and
fisheries), ii) Health and Population Activities, iii)
Women, Youth and Children, iv) Science and
Technology, v) Transport (including land, water,
railway and civil aviation) and vi) Environment
and Forestry.
– Responsible for the implementation,
coordination and monitoring of the programmes
in their respective areas of cooperation.
– They also monitor the implementation of such
activities and report them to the Standing
Committee.
• Working Groups:
– consist of the representatives of member states
– four Working Groups: Telecommunications, and
Information and Communication Technology
(ICT), Biotechnology, Tourism and Energy.
– formulate the related programs, prepare projects
in their respective fields, monitor the
implementation of such activities and report
them to the Standing Committee.
• Secretariat:
– to coordinate and monitor the implementation
of SAARC activities, service the meetings of the
Association and serve as the channel of
communication.
– Headed by a Secretary-General, assisted by 8
Directors, and the General Service Staff.
– The Secretary-General is selected for 3 years
from the member states on rotational basis in
English alphabetic order.
 Economic, Social and Cultural
Progress
• SAPTA (SAARC Preferential Trading
Agreement):
– Signed by the Foreign Ministers of SAARC in
Dhaka on 11 April, 1993.
– entered into force on 7th December 1995.
– preferential tariff concessions among member
states and remove Non-Tariff barriers on major
items
• SAFTA (Agreement on South Asian Free Trade
Area):
– Signed in Islamabad in January 2004
– entered into force from January 2006.
– Objective: creation of South Asian Economic
Union
– higher level of trade and economic cooperation
and promotion of fair competition
– SAFTA Ministerial Council (SMC) comprised of
Trade/Commerce Ministers- assisted by the
Committee of Experts (COE).
• SATIS (SAARC Agreement on Trade in
Services):
– To complement SAFTA signed in Thimphu, Bhutan
in 2010
– entered into force with effect from 29 November
2012.
– Objective: to promote and enhance trade in
services among the member states in a mutually
beneficial and equitable manner.
– Banking, Telecom and Tourism (including Airlines
Services)
• SAARC and Environment Protection: from
1987- ministers of environment-
environment, climate change, and natural
disasters.

• Established Food Bank in India in 2007:

– Operational from 2013
– either wheat or rice, or a combination of both
– India’s initial share: 1,53,200 MTs out of a total
share of 2,43,000 MTs
– Currently 3,06,400 MTs out of a total share of
4,86,000 MTs
• SAARC Energy Centre:
– Dhaka Declaration in 2005
– started journey from 1st March, 2006 in
Islamabad
– cooperation in energy sector including
development of hydropower, renewable and
alternative energy, promoting technology
transfer, energy trade, energy conservation and
efficiency improvement in the region.

• South Asian University established in 2010 in

New Delhi.
• SAARC Cultural Centre:
– In Colombo in 1988
– SCC was established in 2009 in Colombo
– need to share, preserve and promote the rich and
diverse intangible and oral cultural heritage of South
Asia
– all forms of art such as performing arts (e.g. Dance,
Music, Drama, Theatre, puppetry and folk culture),
visual art (e.g. painting, sculpture, film making,
photography) and literature
– organizes events other than annual programs,
Competitions, Culture festivals, Short
Story/Poem/Novel/Photo collections, etc. Also the
SCC publishes SAARC Cultural Journal, SAARC Art
Magazine, News letter, SAARC Cultural Calendar.
• Challenges:
– Mutual suspicion
– Indo-Pak tension
– The frequency of SAARC meetings is low:
• Last Summit held in 2014 in Nepal
• 2016 Summit suspended due to Pulwama Attack- India
refused to participate
• Sri Lanka and Nepal pushing for it but without India’s
participation and interest it not possible.
• Takeover of Afghanistan by the Taliban
– After 2016 attack:
• India pledged to isolate countries supporting terrorism
• BJP’s 2019 election manifesto- “to forward our
‘neighborhood first’ policy, we will extensively
leverage forums such as BIMSTEC [Bay of Bengal
Initiative for Multi-Sectoral and Economic
Cooperation], to accelerate regional coordination and
economic cooperation with countries in our
neighborhood.”
• Pakistan is not a member of BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal
Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation)- 1992
• India also pushing more BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India and Nepal) formed in 2015
– SAPTA & SAFTA:
• Intra-regional Trade accounts only 5% of total Trade
(ASEAN- 25%)

– Unresolved maritime issues

– SAARC raised Covid-19 Fund of total $21.6

million led by Indian PM Narendra Modi.
• the SAARC secretariat has “no knowledge of any
progress on the COVID-19 fund. The secretariat does
not coordinate and oversee that fund.”