UNIT-3
CONSTRUCTION METHOD BASICS
• Types of foundations and construction methods , basics of
formwork and staging , common building construction methods ,
conventional framed structure with block work walls , modular
construction methods for repetitive works , precast concrete
construction methods , basics of slip forming for tall structures ,
basic construction methods for steel structures , basic construction
methods for bridges .
• Construction equipment basics : conventional construction
methods Vs mechanized methods , equipment for earthmoving ,
dewatering , concrete mixing , transporting & placing, cranes ,
hoists and other equipment for lifting , equipment for
transportation of materials , equipment productivities.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Types of foundations :-
1. Shallow foundation
2. Deep Foundation
Shallow foundation :- Shallow foundation are commonly
used for smaller projects and when the top layer of soil can
adequately handle the distribution of weight .
Deep Foundation :- Deep Foundation transfer the load down
to a layer of substrata bedrock to ensure structural integrity.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Staging :-
• Staging is a temporary member which is used to support
formwork (either it may be for centering or shuttering).
• It is done by props, jacks, H frames, cup lock system,
wooden ballies, etc.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
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Formwork :-
• Formwork, Mold used to form concrete into structural
shapes (beams, columns, slabs, shells) for building.
• Formwork can be of timber, steel, plastic, or fiberglass.
The inside surface is coated with a bond breaker (plastic
or oil) to keep the concrete from sticking to the mold.
• Formwork which supports vertical arrangement is known
as shuttering.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Conventional framed structure with block work walls :-
• A framed structure in any material is one that is made
stable by a skeleton that is able to stand by itself as a rigid
structure without depending on floors or walls to resist
deformation.
• Frame structures can be made stronger by using struts. A
strut is a solid bar joined into a structure to make it more
stable. Struts are used in roof trusses, bridges, cranes.
• While there are many varieties of blocks that meet
different requirements, blocks are usually rendered, and so
their appearance isn't particularly important. Blocks are
more often used for internal and retaining walls.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Modular construction methods :-
• Modular construction is a process where a building is
constructed offsite using controlled plant conditions before
being transported and assembled at a final location. This type
of construction can incorporate a range of different building
types and floor plans.
Advantages of Modular Construction :-
• Saves Time
• No Possibility of Weather Delay
• No Need to Store Materials
• Lower Labour Costs
• Lower Volume of Waste
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Precast concrete :-
• The concept of precast (also known as “prefabricated”)
construction includes those buildings where the majority of
structural components are standardized and produced in plants in
a location away from the building, and then transported to the
site for assembly.
• These components are manufactured by industrial methods
based on mass production in order to build a large number of
buildings in a short time at low cost.
The main features of this construction process are as follows:-
1. The division and specialization of the human workforce •
2. The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment, usually
automated, in the production of standard, interchangeable parts
and products
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Precast concrete construction methods :-
• Large Panel System :- Large panel systems are useful for
the construction of apartments and hotels. It consists of
large walls and floor concrete panels connected in the
vertical and horizontal directions. Both horizontal and
vertical panels withstand gravity loads.
• There are three arrangements of large panel system based
on wall layouts which include cross-wall system,
longitudinal-wall system, two-way system.
• Frame System :- It is suitable for the construction of car
parks, stadia, and offices. Precast frames can be
constructed using either linear elements or spatial beam-
column sub assemblages.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
• Precast beam-column sub-assemblages have the
advantages that the connecting faces between the sub-
assemblages can be placed away from the critical frame
regions. However linear elements are generally preferred
because of the difficulties associated with forming,
handling and erecting spatial elements.
• Slab-Column System with Shear Wall :- In this system,
gravity loads supported by slab-column structure whereas
shear walls withstand lateral loads. There are two types of
slab-column system with shear walls namely; lift slab
system with walls and pre-stressed slab-column system.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Slip forming for tall structures :-
• Slip Form is a construction method in which formwork is
continuously risen vertically as a work process. It is a
method of vertical construction of a reinforced
concrete section.
• It is generally used to construct the core wall in building
constriction and also the lift shafts, stair shafts, towers,
etc.
• Slip Forming is a self-supported formwork system and it
may need little help from a crane during construction.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Slip Form Technique :-
• The slip-form technique is a special technique for placing
concrete. This technique is generally adopted for all tall
structures like chimneys and silos. It is also adopted
for pavement construction. This technique is useful for
vertical construction as well as horizontal construction.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Uses of Slip Form :-
• The primary use of Slip formwork has been done for
constructing tall towers and big bridges.
• Silos and grain elevators are constructed using the Slip
Form technique.
• This technique has also been introduced in
The construction of roads and highways.
Slip Form Construction :-
• Slip forming is constructed approximately at 1.0 to 1.2
meters high at the base of the structure. Slip forms consist
of various belts of forms, one for each surface, 1 to 1.5
meters wide usually about 1.2m (4ft) made of timber or
steel.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
• Slip forming is generally placed on the internal and
external surface of a wall, chimney and cooling towers,
etc. As fresh concrete is poured in forms, the form is
slowly and continuously raised by jack screws, hydraulic
jacks, or pneumatic jacks.
• As the form is raised, there is a facility to correct
any error and the thickness of the wall as needed. The rate
of raising the formwork is around 5 to 30 cm/hour as per
requirements. This process helps in achieving the
construction rate between 1.2 to 7.2 m/day, which cannot
be attained by any other construction method.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Basic construction methods for Steel Structures :-
• Construction of steel framed structures includes construction of
its foundations, columns, beams and floors systems.
Construction phases of structural steel frame are discussed.
Methods :-
• Construction of steel frame structure foundation
• Steel column construction
• Erection of steel beams
• Floor systems used in the steel frame structure construction
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Construction of Steel Frame Structure Foundation :-
• Steel framed structure construction begins with the construction
of its foundation. Generally, the types of foundation required
for the given structure is based on the soil bearing capacity.
• Soil investigation including surface and subsurface exploration
is used to assess the condition of soil on which steel frame
structure rests.
• For example, when moderate or low loads are imposed, then it
is advised to use reinforced concrete bearing pads or strip
foundation. These foundation types transfer loads to soil
capable of supporting transferred loads.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Steel Column Construction :-
• The next step of steel frame construction is the placement of
steel columns. The section of the steel is specified based on the
load imposed.
• There are various sizes of steel column section to choose and
these steel columns are commonly produced in advance.
• The most significant point in column installation is the
connection between foundation and column and splices
between columns Regarding foundation to column joints, base
plates are welded to the end of columns. The most desired
shape of base plate is square and rectangular shape.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Erection of Steel Beams :-
• Various prefabricated beam sections are available to be used in
the construction multi storey steel frame structure.
• Beams commonly transfer loads from floors and roof to the
columns. Steel beam members can span up to 18m, but the
most usual range of steel beam spans rang from 3m to 9m.
While steel beams are erected, column to beam connection and
beam to beam connections are encountered.
• There are different types of column to beam connection which
are selected based on the type of loads imposed on the column
to beam joint.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Floor Systems Used in Steel Frame Structure Construction :-
• There are various types of floor systems which can be used in
the steel frame structure construction.
• Floors are commonly installed as the beams are erected. Not
only do the floors systems support vertical applied loads but
also they act like diaphragms and resist lateral loads through
the use of bracings.
• Examples of floor systems include Short-span composite beams
and slabs with metal decking.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Bridges :-
• Building a bridge is a complex undertaking requiring
knowledge and expertise.
• Several variables, including engineering constraints, costs,
and environmental impacts come into play when deciding
which construction method to use and bridge type to build.
• Concrete can be cast on site (in situ) or the bridge can
include precast units which are transported to the site .
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Different Bridge Construction Methods :-
• Precast bridge construction methods :-
• The precast bridge construction method has been parted
into three sections specifically I beams and super Tee,
Segmental and full span.
• Precast construction implies that bridge members or
fragments are pre-assembled at an area unique in relation
to the site, moved to the site, and introduced there.
• Construction with precast sections enjoys a few benefits in
examination with cast-in-place segmental bridges.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Cast in-situ bridge construction method :-
• In this method strength concrete just as high strength
materials like wires, bars, and steel strands ought to be
used.
• After concrete hardening, the strands which have been
gone through the concrete, have been pulled by an
exceptional jack and in the wake of getting pre-decided
force, the strands would be locked.
• This strategy enjoys a few benefits in particular
diminishing direct expense, decreasing the necessary
material, work cost, rebar, and transportation costs, and
speeding up formwork.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Balanced cantilever bridge construction method :-
• Balanced cantilever construction signifies building a
bridge construction from both sides of the pier table in a
scales-like fashion.
• This erection method is also known under the name free
cantilever construction. It is one of the most popular
bridge construction methods used by the engineers. When
two contrasting free cantilever structures are attached as a
single structure and erected in the same step, it is known
as ‘balanced cantilever’ .
• The cost-effective range of span lengths for cast-in-situ
cantilever construction begins at roughly 70m and extends
to beyond 250m.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Span by Span casting bridge construction method :-
• Span-by-span erection is the most widely recognized, least
difficult, and frequently most effective construction
method for precast segmental bridge.
• It is normally addressed to long bridges with an incredible
number of 25-45m spans with an enormous arrangement
radius, and it is viable with basically upheld and
continuous spans.
• The maximum gradient of the bridge oversees the plan of
the erection hardware; however a 4-5% gradient is rarely a
major problem.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Arch bridge construction method ;-
• Arch bridge construction method uses abutments at each
end molded as a bended arch.
• Arch bridges work by moving the heaviness of the bridges
and its loads mostly into a flat pushed controlled by the
projections at one or the other side.
• A viaduct (a long bridge) might be produced using a
progression of arches, although other more affordable
constructions are regularly used today.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Construction equipment basics :-
Conventional construction methods :-
• The conventional method of construction refers to the execution of
construction work at the proposed site .
• It involves the setting up of prefabricated building components at the
construction site following the initial installation of a wood or a plywood
formwork, reinforcement steel, and cast.
• The construction industry uses a variety of building materials for
different aspects of a home build. Architects consult with structural
engineers on the load-bearing capabilities of the materials with which
they design, and the most common materials are concrete, steel, wood,
masonry, and stone.
Mechanized methods :-
• Mechanization is the process of shifting from working largely or
exclusively by hand to do that work using machines.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Equipment for earthmoving :- Here's a list of some of the
most prominently used earth-moving equipment in the
construction industry :-
• Excavators
• Backhoe Loaders
• Bulldozers
• Skid-Steer Loaders
• Trenchers
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Excavators :-
• These heavy machines consist of a base cabin and a long
arm with a bucket attachment at its end. They use a
hydraulic system to function.
• The operator controls the excavator from the base cabin
which is capable of rotating 3600.
• The base cabin is placed on a supporting structure with
either wheels or tracks.
• Excavators are widely used in both small as well as large
construction sites. Their applications include excavation,
demolition, heavy lifting, grading, landscaping, mining,
dredging and more.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Backhoe loaders :-
• Backhoe loaders or backhoes are tyre mounted machines
with a shovel at the front and a bucket attached to a
jointed arm at the rear end.
• They look quite similar to farm tractors and their mobility
makes them ideal for use in urban areas.
• Backhoe loaders are medium-sized machines that can be
used for applications such as excavation works, digging
trenches, placing pipes, filling up trenches, lifting
materials, etc.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Bulldozers :-
• Considered to be one of the most heavy-duty machines
that can be spotted at a construction site, one of the most
common applications of bulldozers is moving huge
amounts of dirt or soil in large and open construction sites.
• They have a large metal plate in the front which can be
moved up, down until a certain depth or in a limited range
of angles using two hydraulic pistons attached to it.
• Apart from moving soil, they can also be used for rough
grading, fine grading, crushing or removing rocks , etc.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Skid-Steer Loaders :-
• As the name suggests, these are tyre mounted small-sized
machines which can skid on their own axis and therefore, are
highly applicable in space-constrained construction sites.
• The tread pattern used in their tyres ensure that they have
minimal impact on finished construction sites and that they
limit soil compaction.
• These machines provide a good grip on snow as well as mud.
Most skid-steer loaders commonly available in the market can
be retrofitted with different attachments and can be used for a
wide range of applications such as moving mud or snow,
excavation works, compacting soil, drilling holes, lifting loads,
etc.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Trenchers :-
• Trenchers are earth moving machines which are used for
digging trenches typically to be used for piping, cabling or
drainage purposes.
• The material that has been dug up is deposited besides the
trench by the conveyor system of the trencher.
• Different types of trenchers are available which vary according
to their applicability, construction requirement or the sturdiness
of the surface to be trenched. Trenchers generally are mounted
either on tracks or on wheels.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Dewatering :-
• Dewatering is a term to describe the removal of groundwater or
surface water from for example a construction site.
• In construction the water is pumped from wells or sumps to
temporarily lower the groundwater levels, to allow excavation
in dry and stable conditions below natural groundwater level.
Dewatering Methods :-
• Wellpoint
• Eductor Wells
• Sump Pumping
• Deep Wellpoint
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Concrete mixing : -
• Concrete of mixing is a process of mixing the ingredient of
concrete such as cement, sand, aggregate, water,
and admixture together to make concrete of suitable grade.
• To make the different grades of concrete mixing of
concrete materials should be done properly as per the mix
design of concrete to achieve the design strength of concrete.
The following methods are used for concrete mixing :-
1. Hand Mixing of Concrete
2. Machine Mixing of Concrete
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
1. Hand Mixing of Concrete :-
• Hand Mixing of Concrete is practiced for small-scale
unimportant concrete works. In this method, as material mixing
is not sufficient compared to machine mix it is desirable to add
10 % more cement to cater to the inferior concrete produced by
this method .
2. Machine Mixing of Concrete :-
• For large size construction, the concrete mixing is done by
machine only, for reinforced concrete work, and for medium or
large scale mass concrete work. Mixing of Concrete in a
mixer is not only efficient but also economical when the
quantity of concrete to be produced is large.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Transporting :-
• Transporting the concrete mix is defined as the transferring of
concrete from the mixing plant to the construction site.
• Concrete produced from a mixer is required to be transported to
the forms for placement. This handling may
produce segregation and loss of slump , if the distance is long.
Methods of Transporting Concrete :-
• Direct Discharge, Manual Transport in Containers
• Dumpers and Trucks
• Elevating towers and hoists (Vertical transport)
• Cranes and Cable way (Two or three dimensional transport)
• Belt Conveyor
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Placing :-
• To provide durable concrete, it should be free of segregation
and the mortar should be in close contact with the coarse
aggregate, reinforcement, and any adjacent faces to which it is
to be bonded.
• Concrete should be deposited, as nearly as practicable, in its
final position. Placement of concrete is accomplished with
buckets, hoppers, manual or motor-propelled buggies, chutes
and drop pipes, conveyor belts, pumps, tremies, and paving
equipment.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Equipment for transportation of materials :-
• Tipper Trucks : Dumping Large Quantities of Load
Material :-
• Tipper trucks operate with a large platform raised at an angle
from the front to assist in dumping a large load of material.
Gravity acts as the prevailing force that helps in the tipper’s
design.
• They pop up most frequently in environments such as mining
or quarry operations where large loads of rock and minerals
need to be unloaded quickly. Because the tipper is a truck, it
can help significantly reduce operating costs for a construction
crew.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
• Concrete Trucks : Carrying and Sometimes Mixing the
Concrete :-
• If the project calls for concrete, crews use concrete trucks
designed specifically to transport the material to the work site.
There are different types of concrete trucks that can be used
depending on the nature of the application.
• For plant-mixed concrete, general transit trucks conduct
transportation. In some cases, dump trucks haul concrete to the
site and mix it on site.
• It all depends on how much and what use the concrete will
serve in the overall building application.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
• Trailer Trucks : Hauling Equipment and Supplies Long
Distances :-
• The most common type of truck is the trailer truck. Trailer
trucks haul almost any piece of equipment or building supplies
over incredible distances.
• Trailer trucks transport things on highways and job sites.
Loading a trailer presents a fast and effective means of getting
your materials from point-to-point without much worry.
• Although these trucks face strict enforcement of weight
regulations, and trailers are common, invaluable machines for
hauling construction materials and supplies.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
• Tankers : Transporting Materials on Highways and
Through Job Sites :-
• Tanker trucks are not as common as some of the others on this
list, but they are still an essential part of building and fueling
applications on a job site.
• Tankers transport liquids, gases and waste materials on
highways and public roadways. In some cases, they may be
equipped with a vacuum to help remove waste materials from
areas such as septic tanks.
• Often crews use tankers in situations where wastewater needs
to be pumped out from a work site.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
• Dump Trucks: Quickly Hauling and Dumping Their Loads
:-
• As with tipper trucks, dump trucks haul materials and dump
their loads quickly. Gravity plays a role in their operation, but
motors raise the automatic unloading device.
• The dump truck has an increased capacity for material and per
axle, can carry 20,000 lbs. Typically dump trucks take part in
earth-moving operations and haul soil. Crews most often use
side or rear dump trucks
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG
Equipment productivities :-
• Equipment productivity generally refers to the time during
which the machine is in operation performing productive work.
• The more efficiently the workers can complete their tasks, the
higher the production level is.
• Equipment productivity applies whether you’re an equipment
owner or you’ve rented a machine for the week.
• Poor equipment productivity is a leading contributor to many
problems that contractors face, including increased and
unexpected costs that cause budget creeps.
• Non-productive hours can slowly add up throughout the day,
week, month and year.
MRS. DEEPA SAHU (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR),
BIT DURG