TITLE: Networking (Different types of network, Network topologies, Communication Media)

Data communication:

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must
be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).

Basic Elements of Communication System:

A data communications system has five components

 Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
 Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media
include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable and radio waves.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data transmission modes:

Simplex:

 The communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one

of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.
 Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the
monitor can only accept output.
 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Half Duplex:

 Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time,
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are traveling
in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
  In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time.
 Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time, the entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each direction.

Full Duplex:

 Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with
traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
 In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in the
other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided
between signals traveling in both directions.
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
 The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

Networks:
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer,
printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

Categories of topology:

Topology refers to the way in which a network links its nodes (computer or other communication devices)

Mesh topology:

 Completely connected network.

 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The term dedicated
means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
 To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each
node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected
to n - 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. However, if
each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by
2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links. To accommodate
that many links, every device on the network must have n - 1 input/output ports to be connected to the other n - 1
stations.
 Advantage:
o Use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the
traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
o Communication is very fast between any two nodes.
 oIf one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
oThird, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line,
only the intended recipient sees it.
o Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
 Disadvantage:
o Every device must be connected to every other device so cost, installation and reconnection are difficult.

Star topology:

 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub i.e. multiple nodes
connected to a host node.
 The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct
traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange i.e. host node performs routing function and centrally
controls communication between any two other nodes by establishing logical path between them.
 Advantage:
o Minimal cost because only n-1 lines are required for connecting n nodes.
o If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active.
o Easy fault identification and fault isolation as long as the hub is working.
 Disadvantage
o Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system
is dead.

Bus topology:

 Multi-access bus network, where a single transmission medium is shared by all nodes i.e. all computers are
attached to the same communication line (channel).
 When a computer wants to send a message to another computer, it appends the destination address to the message
and checks whether the communication line is free. As soon as the line becomes free, it broadcasts the message on
the line.
 As the message travels on the line, each computer checks whether it is addressed to it. The message is picked up
by the addressee computer, which sends an acknowledgement to the source computer and frees the line.
 Is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
  Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the
device and the main cable.
 Advantage
o Helps in reducing the number of physical lines.
o Failure of a computer does not affect the communication among other computers in the network.
o Addition of new computers to the network is easy.
 Disadvantage
o If communication line fails, the entire system breaks down.

Ring Topology

 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
 Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device
requires changing only two connections.
 Advantage
o Works well where there is no central-site computer system.
o More reliable then star network because communication is not dependent on a single host computer.
o If a link between any two computers breaks down, or if one of the computers breaks down, alternate
routing is possible.
 Disadvantage
o Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes in the network.
o Requires more complicated control software than star network.

Hybrid:
Different Types of Network:

Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to two primary categories: local-area networks and wide-
area networks. The category into which a network falls is determined by its size. A LAN normally covers an area less than
2 mi; a WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size in between are normally referred to as metropolitan area networks
and span tens of miles.

Local Area Network (LAN):

 LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building, or campus.
 Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs
and a printer in someone's home office; or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and video
peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
 LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or
workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software
(e.g., an application program), or data.
 A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links a workgroup of task-related
computers, for example, engineering workstations or accounting PCs. One of the computers may be given a large
capacity disk drive and may become a server to clients. Software can be stored on this
central server and used as needed by the whole group.
 Data transmission rates are usually much higher in LANs than in WANs.
 LAN generally experience fewer data transmission errors than WAN do.
 Common communication links used in LANs are twisted pair, coaxial cable and fiber optics. Communication
links used in WANs are telephone lines, microwave links, and satellite channels.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

 WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio and video information over large geographic
areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.

Metropolitan Area Network

 MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.

 It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
 It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints
spread over a city or part of city.

Communication Media:

Twisted-Pair Wire:

 Consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together (Unshielded
Twisted Pair-UTP).
  UTP is called because plastic coating around the two individual branches of copper wires, nothing shields it from
outside interference.
 UTP cables are commonly used in local telephone communication and short distance (up to 1 km) digital data
transmission.
 UTP cables are an inexpensive, easy to install and use. However, UTP is subject to external electromagnetic
interference, including interference from nearby twisted pair and from noise generated in the environment
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
o Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference
o Provides better performance at higher data rates.
o More expensive
o Harder to handle (thick, heavy)

Coaxial Cable:

 Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are
constructed quite differently.
 Has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is,
in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes
the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a
plastic cover.
 Offer cleaner and crisper data transmission without distortion or loss of signal.
 Used in long distance telephone lines and cable for cable TV.

Optical Fiber:
  Optical fiber is a thin, flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray.
 Various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers.
 An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three concentric sections: the core, the cladding,
and the jacket.
 The core is the innermost section and consists of one or more very thin strands, or fibers, made of glass or
plastic.
 Each fiber is surrounded by its own cladding, a glass or plastic coating that has optical properties different
from those of the core. The interface between the core and cladding acts as a reflector to confine light that
would otherwise escape the core. The outermost layer, surrounding one or a bundle of cladded fibers, is the
jacket.
 The jacket is composed of plastic and other material layered to protect against moisture, abrasion, crushing,
and other environmental dangers.
 Optical fiber already enjoys considerable use in long-distance telecommunications, and its use in military
applications is growing.

Microwave System:

 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
 Use very high frequency radio signals to transmit data through space.
 At microwave frequencies, the electromagnetic waves cannot bend or pass obstacles like hill.
 Curvature of the earth, mountains, and other structures often block the line-of-sight.
 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of
each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking
obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate by using microwaves.
 Signals become weaker after travelling a certain distance and require further amplification so repeaters are often
needed for long distance communication.
 Several repeater stations are required for long distance transmission.

Communications Satellite:

 Microwave relay station placed in outer space.

 Launched either by rockets or space shuttles, and are precisely positioned 36,0000 kms above the equator with an
orbit speed, which exactly matches the earth’s rotation speed.
 Satellite is positioned in a geosynchronous orbit, it is stationary relative to earth, and always stays over the same
point on the ground. This allows a ground station to aim its antenna at a fixed point in the sky.