HUMAN REPRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

• To be able to recall the parts of the male and female reproductive systems.

• To be able to recall the functions of the parts of the male and female reproductive
systems.

• To be able to describe the journey of the egg and sperm through the reproductive
systems.

• Fertilisation and Implantation

• Pregnancy and Embryonic Development

• Gestation and Parturition

 Human Reproduction

• Human beings reproduce sexually,

dimorphic and are viviparous.
• In humans, the reproductive phase starts
after puberty.
• It involves:
➢Gametogenesis
➢Insemination
➢Fertilisation
➢Implantation
➢Gestation
➢Parturition
 The Male Reproductive System

• It is located in the pelvic region.

• It consists of:
✓ A pair of testes
✓ Accessory glands and ducts
✓ External genitalia
The Male Reproductive System
 Accessory Ducts
The seminiferous tubules open into the
• Rete testis.
• Vasa efferentia
• Epididymis
• Vas deferens that ascends to the
abdomen and loops over the urinary
bladder.
• Urethra

• The urethra starts from the urinary

bladder, extends through the penis and
opens via the urethral meatus.
 Accessory glands
The secretions of these glands make up the seminal plasma, and
provide nutrition and a medium of motility to the sperms.
Seminal Vesicle (70%)
 A pouch like organ lying behind the bladder and in front of the
rectum.
 Produces Fructose, Calcium, Vitamin C to nourish and activate the
sperms.
Prostate Gland (25%)
 Walnut shaped body lying below the bladder. Surrounds the
urethra.
 Produces alkaline fluids to neutralize the acidic environment of
vagina
Cowper’s Gland/Bulbourethral Glands
 Located behind prostate gland. Semen- Mixture of sperms and secretions of
 Secretes thick and alkaline mucus that helps to neutralise the accessory glands
acidic nature of the urethra and provides lubrication during ➢ Designed to survive the female
intercourse. reproductive tract
➢ Enhance sperm motility
Gametogenesis
The primary sex organs – the testis in the males and the ovaries in the
females –produce gametes, i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by the
process called gametogenesis.

SPERMATOGENESIS
• Spermatogenesis starts at puberty by the action of the gonadotropin
releasing hormone (GnRH), which in turn causes the release of two
gonadotropins called Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle
Stimulating Hormone (FSH).

• LH acts on Leydig cells and causes them to release androgens, which

stimulate the process of spermatogenesis while the FSH acts on the
Sertoli cells, which help in spermiogenesis.

• In males, sperms are produced by the spermatogonia (immature

germ cells), which are present in the inner walls of the seminiferous
tubules.
It happens in 3 stages:
➢ Spermatocytogenesis
➢ Meiosis
➢ Spermiogenesis
 Spermatogenesis
• The spermatogonia (2n) present on the inside wall of seminiferous tubules
multiply by mitotic division and increase in numbers.

• Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes(2n) periodically

undergo meiosis.

• A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division)

leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary
spermatocytes(n).

• The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to produce

four equal, haploid spermatids

• The spermatids are transformed into sperms by the process called

spermiogenesis. The Golgi vesicles coalesce into a large acrosomal vesicle filled
with hydrolytic enzymes.

• After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells, and
are finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the process called
spermiation
 STRUCTURE OF SPERM

• A mature sperm consists of, Head, Neck,

Middle piece and Tail.

• The whole sperm is enclosed in a

plasma membrane.

• The head consists of a haploid nucleus

and a cap-like acrosome, which contains
enzymes that aid in fertilisation.

• The middle piece contains several

mitochondria, which produce energy for
the motility of the sperm.
HORMONES INVOLVED IN SPERMATOGENESIS
Female Reproductive System
It is located in the pelvic region
• A pair of ovaries
• A pair of oviducts
• Uterus
• Cervix
• Vagina
External genitalia
Mammary glands (not part of the
reproductive system, but aids in child care)

Integrated structurally and functionally to

support the processes of ovulation,
fertilisation, pregnancy, birth and childcare.
 Ovary
• The primary female sex organs
(Gonads)
• Produce the ovum and r
ovarian hormones.
• Located in the lower abdomen,
and are 2 to 4 cm in length.
• Connected by ligaments to the
pelvic walls and to the uterus.
• External Genitalia
• Mons pubis − Fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair
• Labia majora − Extends from mons pubis and surrounds
the vaginal opening
• Labia minora − Fold of skin beneath the labia majora
• Hymen − Partially covers the vaginal opening
• Clitoris − Lies at the junction of labia minora
• Mammary Glands
• It is paired and is glandular.
• Contains 15 to 20 mammary lobes with alveoli which
secrete milk.
• The alveoli open into the mammary tubules, which
unite to form a mammary duct.
• Many mammary ducts constitute the mammary
ampulla, which is connected to the lactiferous duct.
Hormones involved in Oogenesis
Schematic representation of Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis
FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION
• During coitus semen ---- the vagina (insemination)----cervix----uterus---- ampullary region of the fallopian tube

• The ovum released by the ovary is also transported to the ampullary region
where fertilisation takes place. Ovum surrounded by few sperms

• Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and sperms are transported
simultaneously to the ampullary region. This is the reason why not all
copulations lead to fertilisation and pregnancy.

• The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilisation.

• During fertilisation, a sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer
of the ovum and induces changes in the membrane that block the entry of
additional sperms.

The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the ovum through the zona pellucida
and the plasma membrane. This induces the completion of the meiotic division of the secondary oocyte. The
second meiotic division is also unequal and results in the formation of a second polar body and a haploid ovum
(ootid).

• Soon the haploid nucleus of the sperms and that of the ovum fuse together to form a diploid zygote.
 Transport of ovum, fertilisation and passage of growing
Embryonic development embryo through fallopian tube

• The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through

the isthmus of the oviduct called cleavage towards the
uterus and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.

• The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula .

The morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst
as it moves further into the uterus.

• The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an

outer layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells
attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.
The trophoblast layer then gets attached to the endometrium
and the inner cell mass (ICM) gets differentiated as the embryo.

• After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers

the blastocyst. As a result, the blastocyst becomes embedded
in the endometrium of the uterus . This is called implantation
and it leads to pregnancy.
The trophoblast forms finger-
like projections called
chorionic villi, surrounded by
the uterine tissue and
maternal blood.

The chorionic villi and the

uterine tissue get integrated
to form the placenta.

The placenta is connected to

the embryo by the umbilical
cord.
The Placenta & Umbilical Cord
• During the gestation period the fetus develops and grows by
gaining the glucose, amino acids, fats, water and oxygen it needs
from the mother’s blood.
• The bloods run opposite each other, never mixing, in the placenta.
The fetus’s blood connects to and from the placenta by the
umbilical cord.
• The mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the fetus’s blood
in the placenta; substances like carbon dioxide and urea are
removed from the fetus’s blood so that they do not build up to
dangerous levels.
• Movement of all molecules across the placenta occurs by diffusion
due to difference in concentration gradients. The placenta is
adapted for this diffusion by having a large surface area and a thin
wall for efficient diffusion.
• After the baby has been born, the umbilical cord is cut – this does
not hurt as there are no nerves in it, just two blood vessels
• It is tied off to prevent bleeding and shrivels up and falls off after
a few days leaving the belly button behind
• The placenta detaches from the uterus wall shortly after birth and
is pushed out due to contractions in the muscular wall of the
uterus - known as the afterbirth.
Placenta
refers to the temporary vascular organ found in
mammals, which attaches the fetus to the uterus
of the mother during pregnancy.

FUNCTIONS of PLACENTA

• Supply of oxygen and removal of Carbon di

oxide.
• Transport nutrients to the embryo.
• Excretion of wastes produced by embryo.
• Hormone production –
➢ human chorionic gonadotropin(hCG),
➢ human placental lactogen(hPL),
➢ estrogen,
➢ progesterone
➢ relaxin (later stages of pregnancy).
 Parturition
• Human pregnancy has the duration of 9 months.
This duration is called the gestation period.

• At the end of this period, vigorous uterine

contractions lead to the delivery of the foetus.
This process is called parturition.

• Parturition is started by the signals from the

developed foetus and the placenta, which
produce the foetal ejection reflex.

• This causes the release of oxytocin from the

pituitary, which causes stronger uterine
contractions.

• This leads to the expulsion of the baby along

with the placenta.
 LACTATION

 During pregnancy, the mammary glands undergo differentiation, and milk is

produced during the end of pregnancy.

 The milk produced during the first few days of lactation is known as
colostrum.

 It contains several antibodies that aid the newborn to develop immunity.