Lecture 1

Types of Analog Measuring Instruments

Working Principles of Measuring Instruments
PMMC Instruments
 Overview of Analog Meters

Analog Meters

Indicating type Recording type Integrating type Null Deflection

type
Ammeter C.R.O Energy Meter
Potentiometer
Voltmeter E.C.G

Wattmeter
Analog Meters
Indicating Type Instruments

• These instruments provide a reading by displaying the position of

a pointer on a scale when the system reaches a steady state.

Recording Type Instruments

• These instruments continuously record the variation in the quantity

being measured over time, allowing the user to track changes.

Integrating Type Instruments

• These instruments calculate the total quantity by integrating another

related quantity over time. For example, energy is obtained by
integrating power.
Analog Meters
Direct Instrument

• These instruments measure the value of a quantity directly.

• Example: Voltmeter, Ammeter.

Indirect Instrument

• These instruments measure the value using indirect methods, such

as comparison techniques.
• Example: AC/DC Bridges
Analog Meters

Absolute Instrument

• These instruments measure the quantity based on fundamental

physical principles without needing calibration against a standard.
• The energy required for the measurement comes directly from the
physical quantity itself.
• Example: Tangent Galvanometer, which measures current based
on the tangent law of magnetism.
• Often used in laboratories for theoretical or experimental work.
Analog Meters
Secondary Instrument

• These instruments provide readings after being calibrated against a

standard instrument or scale.
• The energy for measurement comes from an external source, usually
electrical.
• Example: Voltmeter and Ammeter, which measure voltage and
current, respectively, by relying on the instrument’s internal circuitry.
• Commonly used in practical applications, such as industrial or
domestic measurement systems.
Analog Meters
Forces involved in Indicating Instruments
Forces involved in Indicating Instruments
Deflecting Force (Fd) :

• This force or torque moves the pointer from its zero position to indicate
the measured value on the scale.

Deflecting Torque (Td) :

• The torque that causes the movement of the pointer proportional to

the measured quantity.
Forces involved in Indicating Instruments
Controlling Force (Fc) :

• This force opposes the deflecting force and ensures that the pointer
comes to rest at the correct position on the scale.

Controlling Torque (Tc) :

• The torque that ensures the pointer stops at the right point and returns
to zero when the measurement is removed. It is usually provided by
springs.

Magnetic Effect:
Forces involved in Indicating Instruments
Damping Force (Fdamp) :

• This force prevents oscillations of the pointer and helps it reach the
final position quickly without overshooting.

Damping Torque (Tdamp) :

• The torque responsible for reducing oscillations and stabilizing the

pointer. Damping can be provided by air, fluid, or eddy current damping
methods.
Principles Involved in Deflecting Force
Magnetic Effect :

• Used in instruments like Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC),

Moving Iron (MI), and Dynamometer type instruments.
• The deflection is caused by the interaction of magnetic fields
generated by the current passing through the coil and a permanent
magnet.
• Example: PMMC, Moving Iron instruments, Dynamometer,
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Working Principle :

• The Permanent Magnet Moving Coil

(PMMC) instrument works on the
principle that when a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a force. This force
produces a torque, causing a pointer
attached to the moving coil to deflect.
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Working Principle :

1. Magnetic Field: A permanent magnet creates a strong and steady

magnetic field between its poles.
2. Current in Coil: A rectangular coil is suspended between the poles of the
magnet. When an electric current passes through the coil, it generates a
magnetic field around the coil.
3. Interaction of Fields: The interaction between the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet and the magnetic field generated by the current in the
coil produces a force on the coil.
4. Deflecting Torque: This force generates a deflecting torque, causing the
coil (and the attached pointer) to rotate, thus indicating the magnitude of
the current on the scale.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Working Principle :
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Deflecting Torque :
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Controlling Torque :

A pair of control springs provides a restoring (controlling) torque, ensuring

the pointer stops at the appropriate point on the scale and returns to zero
when the current is removed.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Damping Torque :

Damping is typically provided by air or eddy currents to stabilize the pointer

and prevent oscillations.

Applications :

PMMC instruments are used to measure DC quantities like current and

voltage due to their high accuracy, sensitivity, and reliability.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Materials used :

Permanent Magnet:
Material: Alnico (Aluminum, Nickel, Cobalt alloy)
Purpose: These materials provide a strong and stable magnetic field
essential for creating the deflecting force.
Moving Coil:
Material: Copper or Aluminum wire.
Purpose: The coil is wound from a fine wire to produce the magnetic field
when current passes through it. Copper is commonly used because of its
high conductivity and flexibility.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Materials used :

Control Springs:
Material: Phosphor Bronze.
Purpose: These springs control the movement of the pointer and return it to
zero when the current is removed. Phosphor bronze is chosen for its
elasticity and corrosion resistance.
Pointer:
Material: Lightweight materials like Aluminum.
Purpose: The pointer needs to be lightweight to ensure quick and precise
movements without adding inertia to the system.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Materials used :

Damping System:
Material: Non-magnetic metals like Aluminum for eddy current damping or
air damping mechanisms.
Purpose: Damping materials prevent oscillations and help the pointer settle
smoothly.
Frame and Core:
Material: Aluminium or Soft Iron or low-carbon steel.
Purpose: The frame and core materials guide and concentrate the magnetic
field to ensure a uniform magnetic field in the air gap.
Question
Question
A deflection of 60° is observed in a PMMC galvanometer when a
current of 1 mA flows through its moving coil, with controlling torque
provided by a control spring. If the magnet in the galvanometer is
replaced with another magnet that has twice the magnetic flux density of
the original one, and the current flowing through the coil is reduced to
one-fourth of the initial value, what will be the new deflection of the
galvanometer?
Question
A PMMC voltmeter with resistance of 20 Ω has a full-scale deflection of
120° for a voltage of 80 mV across it. The coil dimensions are 20 mm x
20 mm having number of turns equal to 100. Current carrying turns are
made of conductor with specific resistance = 1.69 × 10 -m. The control
spring constant is 0.5 x 10 N-m/degree. The coil resistance is 50% of
total instrument resistance. The the value of diameter of conductor wire
used in coil winding
Question
In the circuit shown below, a voltmeter is connected across points a and
b. If the voltmeter has a resistance of 600 Ω, Compute Error for the
following measurement.
Question
An ammeter has a range of 0 to 100 A and gave the following readings:

What is the non-linearity of the instrument as a percentage of the full-scale

reading?
Question
A parallel combination of two current sources with waveforms is feeding
a resistive load of 10 Ω. An ideal PMMC voltmeter connected across this
resistance reads 50 V. What is the value of (x) (as shown in the figure)?
PMMC Ammeter
Range Extension :
PMMC Ammeter
Range Extension :
PMMC Voltmeter
Range Extension :
PMMC Voltmeter
Range Extension :
Question
A 100 μA ammeter has an internal resistance of 100 Ω. For extending

its range to measure 500 μA, the shunt resistance (in Ω) required is
Question
Question
PMMC Ammeter
Sensitivity :
PMMC Voltmeter
Figure of Merit :
Question
PMMC Voltmeter
Multi-Range Voltmeter :
Question
The End
 Lecture 2
Rectifier Type Instruments
Moving Iron Type Instrument
Working Principles of Dynamometer
Rectifier Type Meter
Half-Wave :
Rectifier Type Meter
Full-Wave :
Question
A sinusoidal voltage with an amplitude of 120 V is applied to a circuit
containing a rectifying device that blocks current in one direction and
offers a resistance of 5 Ω in the other direction. If a hot-wire type
instrument and a PMMC type instrument are connected in this circuit to
measure the current, what would their readings be, respectively?

(a) 6 A and 5.40 A

(b) 6 A and 7.64 A
(c) 12 A and 5.40 A
(d) 12 A and 7.64 A
Question
A half-wave rectifier type instrument with a 0-5 V range is to be used for
measuring voltages up to 100 V(Sinusoid). The full-scale deflection
current is 5 mA. Assuming the diode resistance is 50 Ω. The multiplier
resistance(in KΩ) should be
 Moving Iron Instrument

Working Principle :

Moving-Iron (MI) instruments operate on the principle that a soft iron piece
placed in a magnetic field experiences a force that causes it to move. The
movement is proportional to the current flowing through the coil, and this
deflection is used to measure the electrical quantity.

Key Types :

1. Attraction Type: A piece of soft iron is attracted towards a coil carrying

current.
2. Repulsion Type: Two iron pieces, both magnetized by the current, repel
each other.
Moving Iron Instrument

Working Principle :
Moving Iron Instrument
Working Principle :

Deflecting Torque:

The movement of the iron piece generates a deflecting torque that is proportional to
the current in the coil. As the current increases, the magnetic field strengthens,
causing more movement of the iron piece.

Controlling Torque:

A controlling torque is provided by a spring mechanism, which opposes the

deflection. This ensures the pointer moves to a steady position and returns to zero
when the current is removed.

Damping:

Air or fluid damping is used to prevent oscillations of the pointer and stabilize its
movement. This allows the pointer to come to rest at the correct position on the scale.
Moving Iron Instrument

Working Principle :
Moving Iron Instrument
Keypoints :

Can Measure Both AC and DC: MI instruments can measure both alternating
current (AC) and direct current (DC) because the deflection depends on the
magnitude of the current, not the direction.

Non-linear Scale: The scale is typically non-linear, more compressed at the

lower end and expanded at the higher end due to the nature of the magnetic
force. Also It has hysteresis error & eddy current error.
Question
Question
Question
Moving Iron Instrument
Range Extension :
Moving Iron Instrument
Range Extension :
Moving Iron Instrument
Range Extension :
Moving Iron Instrument
Compensation for Frequency Error :
Question
 Dynamometer
Working Principle :
A dynamometer is an instrument used for measuring mechanical power, torque,
or force. The term is commonly associated with devices that measure rotational
torque in motors or engines, but it can also refer to electrical instruments, like the
dynamometer type wattmeter, used for measuring power in electrical circuits.

Key Types :

1. Mechanical Dynamometer: Used to measure mechanical force or

[Link] employed in engines and motor testing to determine the
output [Link] dynamometers often use frictional, hydraulic, or
electrical methods to measure torque.
2. Electrical Dynamometer: Also known as a dynamometer wattmeter, used to
measure electrical [Link] type of dynamometer operates on the principle
of the interaction between two magnetic fields generated by current-carrying
coils.
Dynamometer
Working Principle :
Dynamometer
Working Principle :

• The dynamometer wattmeter operates on the principle of electromagnetic

induction and uses two coils:
• Fixed Coil (Current Coil):It is connected in series with the load, so it
carries the current of the [Link] coil produces a magnetic field
proportional to the current.
• Moving Coil (Voltage Coil):It is connected in parallel with the load and
carries a current proportional to the voltage in the [Link] moving coil
is placed on a spindle that allows it to rotate under the influence of the
magnetic field created by the fixed coil.
• The deflecting torque in the moving coil is proportional to the product of
the current and voltage, meaning it is proportional to the power being
consumed.
 Dynamometer
Deflecting Torque :

• The interaction of the magnetic fields produced by the current in the fixed
and moving coils results in a deflecting torque. The magnitude of this
torque depends on both the current in the circuit and the applied voltage.

Controlling Torque :
• A spring is used to provide the controlling torque, ensuring the pointer of
the instrument settles at a particular point on the scale when the forces
balance out.

Damping Torque :
• Air or fluid damping is used to prevent oscillations and stabilize the
pointer.
Dynamometer
Deflecting Torque :
Dynamometer
Deflecting Torque :
Question
For an electrodynamometer ammeter, the mutual inductance M varies
with the deflection angle theta (in degrees) as shown below. What
will be the deflecting torque when a direct current of 50 mA flows
and the deflection is 60°?
Question
What will be the reading of an electrodynamometer ammeter when a
current of ( 8 - 6 sin(ωt + π/2) is passed through it?

(a) 6 A
(b) 8 A
(c) 10 A
(d) 9.06 A
Dynamometer
Advantages :
• Dual Use for AC and DC: Can measure Current,Voltage & Power in both
AC and DC systems.
• High Accuracy: Provides precise measurements of electrical power.
• Non-Inductive Design: Ensures accurate readings in circuits with varying
frequencies.

Disadvantages :
• It cannot measure voltage and current accurately because extra
calibration is required.
• Delicate: They are sensitive instruments and must be handled carefully to
maintain accuracy.

Application :

• Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, PF Meter, Power Frequency Meter,

Megger.
Dynamometer
Key Features of Dynamometer :

• Measures AC and DC Power: One of the biggest advantages of the

dynamometer wattmeter is that it can measure power in both alternating
current (AC) and direct current (DC) circuits.
• Accuracy: These instruments provide accurate measurements since the
deflection is directly proportional to the power.
• Non-Inductive Resistance: To ensure the instrument reads correctly in both
AC and DC circuits, the moving coil is wound with fine wire and the
resistance is made high enough that its inductive reactance becomes
negligible.
Question
A 10A range electrodynamic ammeter is controlled by a spring with
a torsion constant of 10 N-m per degree. The full-scale deflection is
110°. The inductance of the instrument when measuring a current of
10A will be if the initial inductance is 2 µH, and the inductance
changes linearly with the deflection of the moving coil.
Question
For a dynamometer ammeter, the mutual inductance M varies with
the deflection angle(in degrees) as M = -12cos( +10 ) mH. What is
the deflecting torque produced by a direct current of 25 mA for a
deflection of 50°?
Question
The End
 Lecture 3-A
Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
Errors in Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
Dynamometer
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :

The fixed coil is connected in series with the load and carries the
load current, and is also known as the current coil.
The moving coil, connected across the load, carries a current
proportional to the voltage and is referred to as the voltage coil,
potential coil, or pressure coil.
Dynamometer
Measurement of Power :
Dynamometer
Measurement of Power :
Dynamometer
Measurement of Power :

• For low load current both FC are connected in series.

• For high load current both sections of FC are connected in parallel.

• CC & PC are air core coil so no saturation.

• PC must be highly resistive to minimise error
• PC must be highly inductive for energy meter.
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
Different Types of connections :
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
MC(Main-side) connection :
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
MC(Main-side) connection :
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
LC(Load-side) connection :
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
LC(Load-side) connection :
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
LC(Load-side) connection :
 Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
Multiplication factor in wattmeter :

• Voltage Range & Current Range Can be increased by use of potential

& current transformer respectively.
Question
Question
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
Error due to connection flowing in C.C :

• In the current coil (CC), when a higher

current flows, the flux increases, causing the
moving coil to experience greater torque,
leading to a deflection that exceeds the
actual value.
• To correct this, the extra mmf or flux from
the current coil needs to be canceled. This is
done by using a compensating coil, which
subtracts the excess flux.
• The compensating winding (yellow coil)
adjusts the net mmf to balance the system.
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
Error due to Self-Inductance in P.C :
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
Error due to Self-Inductance in P.C :
Error due to Self-Inductance in P.C
Correction Factor :
Error due to Self-Inductance in P.C
Percentage error :
Error due to Self-Inductance in P.C
Absolute Error :
 Error due to Self-Inductance in P.C
With Respect to P.F. :
• The effect of load power factor (PF) on the error in wattmeter readings is significant. At low

power factors, the error due to the inductance of the potential coil (PC) increases, leading to

higher measurement inaccuracies.

• This happens because the phase angle between the voltage and current increases, and the

inductance of the potential coil introduces more phase error.

• In ordinary dynamometer-type wattmeters, this error becomes more pronounced at low

power factors, making them less accurate under these conditions.

 Low Power Factor(L.P.F)
Circuit Diagram :
• A low power factor (LPF) wattmeter is designed to provide

accurate measurements even when the power factor is low. In

such conditions, the deflecting torque is reduced due to the low

power factor, making it difficult to measure power accurately.

• To increase the deflecting torque at low power factors, one

approach is to reduce the series resistance , but this increases

phase angle error , causing more inaccuracies.

• To mitigate this, a compensating capacitor is placed across the

series resistor to cancel the error caused by the inductance of

the potential coil (PC). The value of is also made lower than in

a normal wattmeter to improve performance at low power

factors.
Question
If the reactance of the pressure coil circuit in a wattmeter is 1% of its
resistance, calculate the percentage error caused by this at power
factors of 0.8 ,0.5 and 0.2, respectively.(assume lagging loads)
The End
 Lecture 3-B
3- Phase Power Measurement with Two
Wattmeter Method
 Lecture 10-A
Basics of 3-φ systems
3-φ Half Wave Phase Controlled Rectifier(R load)
Questions
3-φ Systems
Phase Voltages

• Considering a 3-φ balanced system star network,

3-φ Systems
Star Delta Connections
 3-φ Systems
Line Voltages
• If nothing is mentioned in the question then by default we will consider
the given voltage as RMS value of Line voltage.
3-φ Systems
Power
3 Phase Power
Blondel’s Theorem :

• To measure the total power in an n-phase unbalanced/balanced system, the

number of wattmeters required is (n-1). Therefore, for a 3-phase balanced
system, only 2 wattmeters are needed to accurately measure the total power.
• This is based on the principle of the two-wattmeter method, where two
wattmeters are sufficient to measure the power in a balanced three-phase
system. This method is effective because the sum of the readings from the two
wattmeters gives the total power, taking into account both active and reactive
components in the system.
 3 Phase Power
TWO Wattmeter Method :

• For measuring three-phase power, two wattmeters are required, and this
technique is commonly known as the Two Wattmeter Method.
• This method can be applied to both balanced and unbalanced three-phase,
three-wire systems, as long as there is no zero-sequence current.
• In a three-phase, three-wire system, zero-sequence current is absent, making it
suitable for the two-wattmeter method.
• However, in a three-phase, four-wire unbalanced system, three wattmeters are
necessary—one in each phase—to accurately measure the power.
TWO Wattmeter Method
Star Connected Load :
TWO Wattmeter Method
Active Power :

Reactive Power :
TWO Wattmeter Method
Power Factor :
TWO Wattmeter Method
Delta Connected Load :
TWO Wattmeter Method
Delta Connected Load :
 TWO Wattmeter Method
Keypoint :

• At times, the reading of a wattmeter may be negative, but since wattmeters

generally cannot display negative values, we reverse the connection of the
potential coil (PC) to obtain a positive reading.
• However, during calculations, the value should still be considered negative and
used with a negative sign to ensure accurate results.
TWO Wattmeter Method
Effect of Load on Watt Meter Reading :

• When power factor is less than 0.5 one of the wattmeter reads negative value.
Question
Question
Question
A wattmeter reads 400 W when its current coil is connected in the R phase and
its pressure coil is connected between this phase and the neutral of a
symmetrical 3-phase system supplying a balanced star connected 0.8 p.f.
inductive load. The phase sequence is RYB. What will be the reading of this
wattmeter if its pressure coil alone is reconnected between the B and Y phases,
all other connections remaining as before?
Question
Question
When two watt-meters W1 and W2 are used to measure power input to a AC
Load, each of them indicates 60 kW. If the power factor is to be changed to
0.866 leading keeping the total input power same then reading of W1 and W2
are,
Question
Question
Question
The current coil of a 120 V, 5 A electro-dynamometer type low-power factor
wattmeter carries a current of 2sin(50 t) A, while the voltage across the
pressure coil is 440cos(50 t) V. What will the meter indicate?
Question
A 5 A, 200 V electro-dynamometer type wattmeter has a scale with 120
divisions. Its pressure coil receives a voltage of ( 250cos(ωt) + 46sin(3ωt)),
while its current coil carries a current of ( 8cos(ωt + 45°) + 5sin(2ωt) +
2cos(3ωt - 30°)).

Where will the needle of the wattmeter indicate?

Question
For the network depicted in the figure, connected to a 3-phase, 440 V, 50 Hz
supply with a phase sequence of abc, the wattmeter reading is ____ W.
The End
Lecture 4
Energy Meter
Principles Involved in Deflecting Force
Electromagnetic(Induction) Effect :

• Utilizes the interaction between magnetic fields generated by electric

currents in different parts of the instrument.
• Example: Energy Meters, where deflecting force is produced by
electromagnetic fields.
 Energy Meter
Working Principle :

• The working principle of an energy meter is based on the concept of

electromagnetic induction. It measures the electrical energy consumed in
a circuit over time, typically in kilowatt-hours (kWh). The energy meter
operates on the interaction between two magnetic fields generated by the
current coil and the voltage (or pressure) coil.
Energy Meter
Working Principle :
Energy Meter
Working Principle :
Energy Meter
Phasor Diagram :
Energy Meter
Phasor Diagram :
Energy Meter
Working Principle :
 Energy Meter
Key Components :

1. Current Coil: Connected in series with the load, it produces a magnetic

field proportional to the current flowing through the load.
2. Voltage (Pressure) Coil: Connected across the supply, this coil produces
a magnetic field proportional to the supply voltage.
3. Aluminum Disc: Placed between the coils, it is free to rotate. The
interaction between the magnetic fields from the current and voltage coils
induces eddy currents in the disc, creating a torque that causes the disc to
rotate.
4. Brake Magnet: Provides damping by generating eddy currents in the disc
to slow down its rotation proportionally to the speed of the disc, thus
controlling its motion.
 Energy Meter
Working Mechanism :

• The current coil produces a magnetic field based on the load current, and
the voltage coil creates a magnetic field proportional to the voltage.
• The interaction of these magnetic fields induces eddy currents in the
aluminum disc, generating a driving torque that rotates the disc.
• The speed of the rotating disc is proportional to the electrical power
being consumed (i.e., the product of voltage, current, and the power
factor).
Energy Meter
Braking Mechanism :
 Energy Meter
Working Mechanism :

• A brake magnet applies a controlling torque to the disc, ensuring it

rotates at a speed directly proportional to the power being consumed.
• The disc is connected to a spindle, which is linked to a pivot through
bearings.
• The shunt magnet includes a shading ring to adjust the phase lag.
 Energy Meter
Working Mechanism :

• A permanent magnet is positioned near the disc to generate braking

torque.
• The number of rotations of the disc is recorded by a register, which gives
a direct reading of the energy consumed over time.
• In essence, the rotation of the disc is proportional to the energy usage,
and the register displays this in units such as kWh.
Energy Meter
Working Mechanism :
 Energy Meter
Working Mechanism :

• Energy (kWh) is calculated as the product of power and time:

Question
An energy meter is calibrated to complete 100 revolutions of the disc for every
1 unit of energy. Determine the number of revolutions the disc will make when
connected to a load drawing 50 A at 230 V with a power factor of 0.6 for one
hour.
Question
If the energy meter disc completes 30 revolutions in 200 seconds with a load of
850 watts connected, what is the meter constant?
Question
The meter constant of a single-phase 240 V induction energy meter is 4400
revolutions per kWh. What is the speed of the meter disc for a current of 10A
with a power factor of 0.8 lagging?
Question
An energy meter is calibrated to complete 250 revolutions per kWh. Determine
The induction-type energy meter can operate faster by:
the number of revolutions it will make when connected to a load drawing 30 A
at 250 V with aA) Changing
power the
factor of 0.8load
for afrom leading
duration of 85to lagging
minutes.
B) Changing the load from lagging to leading
C) Moving the braking magnet closer to the center of the
disc
D) Moving the braking magnet farther from the center of
the disc
Question
A 220 V, 8 A, 50 Hz single-phase energy meter has a meter constant of 115
revolutions per kWh. When connected to a 25 kW unity power factor load, the
meter takes 1 minute to complete 50 revolutions of the disc. What is the
percentage error in the meter's reading?
 Energy Meter
Errors in Energy Meter and Their Compensation :

Phase Error:
• For an energy meter to provide accurate readings at all power factors,
the field produced by the shunt magnet must lag the applied voltage by
90°. However, due to winding resistance and iron losses, the flux
generated by the shunt magnet does not naturally lag the applied voltage
by exactly 90°.
Compensation:
• To correct this, the position of the shading band (or shading ring or
shading coil) around the lower part of the control limb of the shunt
magnet is adjusted, ensuring that the flux lags the supply voltage by
exactly 90°.
Energy Meter
Errors in Energy Meter and Their Compensation :
 Energy Meter
Errors in Energy Meter and Their Compensation :

Speed Error :
• Sometimes the speed of the meter is either fast or slow, resulting in the
wrong recording of energy consumption.
Compensation :
• An error in the speed of the meter when tested on non-inductive load can
be eliminated by correctly adjusting the position of the brake magnet.
Movement of the brake magnet in the direction of the spindle will reduce
the braking torque and vice-versa.
 Energy Meter
Errors in Energy Meter and Their Compensation :
Frictional Error :
• This error arises due to friction in the rotor bearings and the register mechanism,
causing unwanted braking torque on the moving system. As a result, the meter
registers less energy than the actual energy passing through it.
Compensation :
• To compensate for this error, two short-circuited bands are placed on the outer
limbs of the shunt magnet. These bands enclose the flux in the outer limbs,
inducing an emf that generates a circulating current. This creates a phase
displacement between the enclosed flux and the main flux, producing a small
driving torque exerted on the disc by the pressure coil, which compensates for
the friction torque.
 Energy Meter
Errors in Energy Meter and Their Compensation :

Creeping Error :
• Creeping refers to the slow, continuous rotation of the energy meter when only
the pressure coil is energized, but no current flows through the current coil. This
error may occur due to overcompensation for friction, excessive voltage supply,
or stray magnetic fields.
Compensation :
• To prevent creeping under no load, two holes are drilled on opposite sides of the
disc at the same radius from the spindle. This distorts the magnetic field just
enough to stop the continuous rotation of the disc.
 Energy Meter
Errors in Energy Meter and Their Compensation :

Temperature Error :
• Temperature-induced errors in energy meters are generally very small because
the different effects tend to cancel each other out. However, changes in
temperature can affect the resistance of the disc, the characteristics of the
potential coil, the magnetic circuit, and the strength of the brake magnet.
Compensation :
• Careful design of the meter ensures that the impact of temperature variations is
minimized, reducing errors caused by these factors.
 Energy Meter
Errors in Energy Meter :

Frequency Variations :
• The meter is typically calibrated to operate with minimal error at a specific
frequency, usually 50 Hz. If the supply frequency fluctuates, it affects the
reactance of the coils, causing a small error. However, this error is insignificant
since commercial frequencies are maintained within close tolerances.
Voltage Variations :
• Voltage variation errors are generally very small, typically ranging from 0.2% to
0.3%. These errors can be minimized through the proper design of the shunt
magnet’s magnetic circuit.
 Energy Meter
Phantom Loading in Energy Meter :
• When testing or calibrating energy meters or wattmeters, applying the actual
rated load can result in high energy consumption, making the process costly.
• For instance, applying a 230 V, 100 A rated load consumes 23 kW, leading to
23 kWh (units) in just one hour.
• To avoid such high energy costs, phantom or fictitious loading is used.
Energy Meter
Phantom Loading in Energy Meter :
• In phantom loading, both the pressure coil (PC) and current coil (CC) are
connected to separate sources to simulate rated voltage and current without
applying the full load.
• The power consumed in this method is primarily due to losses.
• For example, for a 50 A current coil with 0.5 Ω resistance, the power loss is:
Question
In a single-phase induction-type energy meter, the lag adjustment is made to
ensure that:

A) The current coil flux lags the applied voltage by 90°

B) The pressure coil flux lags the applied voltage by 90°
C) The pressure coil flux is in phase with the applied voltage
D) The current coil flux lags the pressure coil flux by 90°
Question
The braking torque generated by a permanent magnet in a single-phase energy
meter is directly proportional to:

(a) The square of the permanent magnet's flux

(b) The speed of the meter
(c) The distance between the permanent magnet and the center of the rotating
disc
(d) All of the above
Question
Which instrument is designed to read only the average quantity?

A) Induction-type ammeter
B) PMMC
C) Moving Iron voltmeter
D) Rectifier type
Question
The voltage-flux adjustment of a single-phase 240 V induction watt-hour meter is
modified, resulting in a phase angle of 86 degrees between the applied voltage
and the corresponding flux (instead of the ideal 90 degrees). What errors are
introduced in the meter's reading when the current is 5 A at a lagging power
factor of 0.9?
Question
An energy meter is calibrated to achieve 100 revolutions of the disc per unit of
energy consumed. When a load of 20 A at 240 V and a power factor of 0.8 is
connected, what is the percentage error if the meter registers 400 revolutions in
one hour?
Question
The induction-type energy meter can operate faster by:

A) Changing the load from leading to lagging

B) Changing the load from lagging to leading
C) Moving the braking magnet closer to the center of the disc
D) Moving the braking magnet farther from the center of the disc
Question
The braking torque generated by a permanent magnet in a meter is
proportional to which of the following factors?

A) Flux of the permanent magnet

B) Square of the speed of the meter
C) Square root of the distance between the permanent magnet and the center
of the revolving disc
D) None of the above
Question
A 240 V, 5 A DC energy meter is tested at its rated specifications. The
resistance of the pressure circuit is 5000 Ω, while the current coil has a
resistance of 0.1 Ω. What is the power consumed when testing the meter using
phantom loading, with the current circuit excited by a 10 V battery?
The End
Lecture 5
Hot Wire Instrument
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Summary
Miscellaneous Topics
Principles Involved in Deflecting Force
Heating Effect :

• Involves the heating of a conductor due to the current passing through

it, causing expansion that results in deflection.
• Example: Thermal instruments, Hot Wire Instruments.
Hot Wire Instruments
Working Principle :

• Hot Wire Instruments are devices used for measuring current by

utilizing the heating effect of current. The key components include a
fine wire made of Platinum-Indium (Pt-In) alloy, which expands when
heated due to current flow. As the current flows through the wire, it
generates heat, causing the wire to expand and sag, which is linked to
the current value.
Hot Wire Instruments
Key Features :

• Slow Response: The instrument has a slower response time because it

relies on heat build-up for measurements.
• Controlling Torque: A spring is used to provide the necessary
controlling torque.
• Air Friction Damping: Air friction damping is employed to prevent
oscillations of the moving system.
Hot Wire Instruments
Key Features :

• Measures Both AC and DC: It can measure both AC and DC currents.

For AC, the instrument reads the RMS value of the current.
• Frequency Independent: The instrument is ideal for measuring high
currents, and its reading is independent of frequency, making it suitable
for both low and high-frequency applications.
 Thermocouple
Working Principle :

• A thermocouple consists of two different metals joined at a junction.

When exposed to different temperatures at the hot and cold junctions, a
DC voltage is generated due to the Seebeck effect. The voltage
produced is proportional to the temperature difference between the two
junctions, as described by the equation:
 Thermocouple
Working Principle :

• A DC voltage is generated at the cold junction, which is measured by a

PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) meter.
• Applications: Thermocouple instruments are used to measure both AC
and DC currents. For AC, they provide the RMS value of the current.
• The test current is passed through a heater, which produces heat to
raise the temperature of the hot junction of the thermocouple,
generating the necessary voltage for measurement.
• This setup ensures that both AC and DC currents can be accurately
measured using the thermocouple and PMMC combination.
Question
A thermocouple ammeter reaches full-scale deflection at 50 A. For a current of
20 A, what will be the new deflection as a fraction of the full-scale deflection?
Principles Involved in Deflecting Force
Electrostatic Effect :

• Deflection occurs due to electrostatic forces between charged plates.

• Example: Electrostatic Voltmeters (ESVM), which measure voltage
based on the attraction between charged plates.
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Working Principle :

• An electrostatic voltmeter operates based on the principle of the

electric field. It measures voltage by the force of attraction between
charged plates.
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Working Principle :

• A moving plate experiences a torque due to the electric field, causing

it to rotate and align itself parallel to a fixed plate.
• This rotation is proportional to the voltage applied, and the deflection
of the pointer is calibrated to measure the voltage.
• Controlling Torque: A spring provides the controlling torque,
balancing the electrostatic force.
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Working Principle :

• Electrostatic voltmeters are primarily used for measuring high

voltages, often in the kilovolt (kV) range, such as in substations or for
feeder voltage measurements.
• Capacitance: As the moving plate rotates, the overlap between the
two plates increases, which raises the capacitance (C). The stored
energy is given by
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Working Principle :
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Working Principle :
Question
An electrostatic voltmeter has a full-scale reading of 1500 V and is controlled by
a spring with a constant K in µN-m/rad. At full-scale deflection, the needle
subtends an angle of 75°. The capacitance at zero voltage is 12 pF, and at full-
scale deflection, it is 30 pF. What is the value of the spring constant K ?
Question
A current of 0.5 - 0.2sin( t) - 0.1sin(2 t) (in A) is passed through the circuit
shown in the figure below. Calculate the reading of the electrostatic voltmeter
across a 5 mH inductor, where = 10^6 rad/sec.
Question
Which of the following instruments is least affected by the frequency of the AC
supply?

(a) Moving Iron

(b) Hot Wire
(c) Induction
(d) Electrostatic
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Range Extension :

• To increase the measurement range, a series capacitor is used,

effectively multiplying the voltage range by a factor depending on the
added capacitance.
• The new range can be calculated as:
Question
An electrostatic voltmeter with a meter capacitance of 2 µF can measure
voltages up to 1 kV. Calculate the required series multiplier capacitance needed
to extend the measurement range to 200 kV.
Principles Involved in Deflecting Force
Hall Effect :

• Deflection is based on the Hall Effect, which occurs when a magnetic

field is applied to a current-carrying conductor, producing a voltage
perpendicular to the current.
• Example: Pointing Vector Galvanometers, used for measuring electrical
currents and fields based on the Hall Effect.
Principles Involved in Controlling Force
Gravity Control :

• A Balance Weight is used to ensure the system remains at rest when

there is no torque.
• When the pointer rotates, the control weight also moves, with gravity
working to return it to its initial position. The torque opposing the
rotation is represented by Wsin , where W is the weight.
Principles Involved in Controlling Force
Gravity Control :

• Since gravity control creates a non-linear opposing torque, it may not

be ideal for precise measurements.
• The meter must be positioned vertically for effective gravity control, as
the control mechanism depends on the weight’s orientation relative to
gravity.
Question
A 15 g weight is used as a control weight in an upright, gravity-controlled, zero-
center deflection measuring instrument. With an input signal, the observed
deflecting torque is 4 mN-m. If the control weight is positioned 32 mm from the
spindle and the acceleration due to gravity is 10 N/kg, what will be the
deflection in degrees?
Question
Measuring Instruments
Summary :
Principles Involved in Damping Force
Air Friction Damping :

• Air Friction Damping Mechanism is used in cases where magnetic energy

is minimal.
• When the pointer moves to the right, the vane shifts left. This movement
causes an increase in the volume of gas within the chamber, decreasing
the pressure inside. As a result, inward pressure opposes the pointer’s
movement.
 Principles Involved in Damping Force
Air Friction Damping :

• When the pointer moves left, the vane moves right, pushing the piston
inward. This compresses the gas, increasing internal pressure and
providing resistance against further motion.
• This damping method helps stabilize the pointer by using gas pressure
adjustments to counteract its movements, ensuring more accurate readings.
 Principles Involved in Damping Force
Fluid Friction Damping :

• When the pointer rotates, the shaft also rotates, causing the attached
float to move within the fluid. Due to the fluid’s viscosity, a frictional force
is generated, opposing the motion of the pointer.
• Commonly used in devices like electrostatic voltmeters, where stable
readings are required.
• The fluid acts as both a support medium and a damping agent, providing
smooth resistance to the pointer’s movement.
Principles Involved in Damping Force
Electromagnetic or Eddy Current Damping :

• When the coil moves within the magnetic field of two permanent magnets, a
motional electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the former, generating eddy
currents. These currents oppose the motion of the coil, creating a damping
torque that stabilizes the movement.
• Eddy Current Damping: Damping torque is directly proportional to the velocity
of the moving coil within the magnetic field.
• Electromagnetic Damping: Damping torque is proportional to the current
flowing through the coil.
 Principles Involved in Damping Force
Electromagnetic or Eddy Current Damping :

• Permanent Magnet: Provides the magnetic field required for inducing EMF.
• Copper Coil: Acts as the current-carrying conductor.
• Former (Aluminium): Rotates within the magnetic field, generating eddy
currents.
• Pointer: Indicates the measurement.
• Pivot Suspension: Supports the coil and pointer assembly for smooth
operation.
• Found in Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instruments, where stable
pointer deflection is needed without overshooting, ensuring precise
measurements.
 Power Factor Meter
Working Principle :

• The power factor meter works on the principle of phase difference

measurement between voltage and current in an AC circuit. It is typically an
electrodynamometer-type instrument that indicates the cosine of the angle ( )

between the voltage and current, which is the power factor (PF). factors.
 Power Factor Meter
Working Principle :

1. Current Coil: Connected in series with the load and carries the load current. It
produces a magnetic field proportional to the current.

2. Voltage Coil (Pressure Coil): Connected across the load and produces a
magnetic field proportional to the voltage. This coil has a phase-shifting circuit
to introduce a lagging or leading current depending on the power factor.
Power Factor Meter
Working Principle :
 Power Factor Meter
Working Principle :

• The angle moved by the pointer (deflection) corresponds to the actual phase
angle between the current and voltage, but the scale is calibrated in terms of
the power factor (cosine of the angle).
• In power factor meters, there is no need for a controlling spring, as both the
torques produced by the moving coils balance each other.
• The pointer's final position is determined by the equilibrium of these torques,
directly indicating the power factor on the calibrated scale.
• Air friction damping is used.
 Megger
Working Principle :

• Similar to a power factor meter, a megger also contains two moving coils
positioned at 90° to each other.
• Both coils carry current and are subjected to the magnetic field of a permanent
magnet. These moving coils experience force and torque, and when the torques
produced by the two coils balance each other, the pointer comes to a steady
state.
 Megger
Working Principle :

• This indicates that the system achieves a stable position when the torques from
the two coils cancel each other out, allowing the megger to provide an
accurate measurement.
• Can Measure from very low to very high resistance that is insulation resistance
• Air friction damping is used
Megger
Working Principle :
The End