BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIC AND ETHICAL STUDIES

MODULE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (CVET 232)

BY

EMBIALE BEYENE

KALEWONGEL MINALE

MATUSALA SUNDADO

MOGES DEMISSIE

January 2012
 BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIC AND ETHICAL STUDIES

MODULE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (CVET 231)

BY

EMBIALE BEYENE

KALEWONGEL MINALE

MATUSALA SUNDADO

MOGES DEMISSIE

EDITOR

FREW YIRGALEM
Module Introduction

Though the practice of development is as old as human civilization, the study of

development as distinct field of study has a relatively short history, roughly dating back
to post World War II period. Since then, the interdisciplinary field of development
studies has seen many changes in thinking regarding the meaning and purpose of
development (ideologies) and in practice in the field (strategies of development).

During the first United Nations Development Decade of the 1960s, development thinking
(encompassing these aspects of ideology and strategy) prioritized economic growth and
the application of modern scientific and technical knowledge as the route to prosperity in
the underdeveloped world at that time. However, by the second UN Development Decade
of the 1970s, inequality between and within countries had in fact worsened. Many
developing countries had achieved economic growth as measured by Gross National
Product (GNP) but this „development‟ was not shared equally amongst the populations of
these nations. By the third UN Development Decade of the 1980s, distributional issues,
such as improving the income levels of target populations, were accepted as fundamental
parts of any development strategy. Phrases such as „growth with equity‟ or „redistribution
with growth‟ emerged in the 1970s and encapsulated the recognition that economic
growth remains a fundamental ingredient within development thinking and action, but
that the nature of that growth was critical to ensuring that the benefits do not fall solely to
a minority of the population.

However, both modernization theory and the radical critique have been criticized for
over-emphasizing the economic dimensions of development. By the 1980s,
„development‟, in contrast, was seen as a multidimensional concept encapsulating
widespread improvements in the social as well as the material well-being of all in society.
In addition, it was recognized that there was no single model for achieving development
and that investment in all sectors was required, including agriculture as well as industry.
Above all, „development‟ needed to be sustainable; it must encompass not only economic
and social activities, but also those related to population, the use of natural resources and
the resulting impacts on the environment. Specifically, it was also widely recognized by
academics and practitioners in many fields, both in the developing and more
industrialized countries, that development to date has regularly led to the degradation of
resources, for example. Mounting world poverty is also testimony to the failure of such
economic and social transformations to deliver even basic goods to many people
(particularly in the developing regions). It was suggested that these patterns and
processes of development will not be able to supply the needs of the world‟s population
into the future and cannot deliver the higher standards of living to the rising numbers of
people essential to the conservation of the environment.

By the late 1980s, commission, World Commission on Environment and Development

(WCED), was formed by the United Nations. The commission was an independent group
of 22 people drawn from member states of both the developing and developed worlds,
and charged with identifying long-term environmental strategies for the international
community. In 1987 the commission came up with the famous Brundtland Report and the
term sustainable development has „gained a currency and is widely used in development
discourses. According to the report sustainable development was defined as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.” Since then, the demand to pursue policies
aimed at achieving „environmentally friendly development‟ or „sustainability‟ has
become a clarion call for many countries. The commission also identified core issues and
necessary conditions for sustainable development viz: population and development, food
security, species and ecosystems, energy, industry, and the urban challenge. As a result,
since the last two decades, environmental issues have been firmly established in
development thinking and practice.

Hence, the central aim of this Module is to acquaint student with specialized knowledge
concerning the nexus between development and environment and tools of environmental
mainstreaming such as environmental impact assessment. Moreover, it will equip
students with the necessary conceptual understanding of natural resource management,
environmental management theories and approaches, sustainability and its basic
dimensions, ecology and ecosystems. In addition, the roles of various actors in managing
the environment and ensuring sustainable development; various international conferences
and institutions concerning sustainable development and environmental management
assessed. While in doing so, attention is paid to the Ethiopian situation mainly on issues
of development and environmental management, development plans, policies and
strategies.

Module Organization
The module comprises of six major units. The first unit deals with the definition of
various concepts and some theories related with environmental management and
sustainable development. Types and natures of natural resources are the concerns of the
second unit. The third unit covers environmental problems. Environmental management
attempts and various conferences held at international level covered in unit four. The fifth
unit deals with environmental issues, policies and institutions of Ethiopia. The last unit
deals with environmental ethics and education.
Module Objectives
The general aim of the Module is to provide students with advanced knowledge of
the environment-development nexus and apply them to their own experience and
conditions. Specifically, after the successful completion of the Module, students
will be able to:
 Familiarize with terminology and key concepts of environmental management
and sustainable development
 Understand the various issues of environment and sustainable development
 Identify and understand the linkages between population, resource consumption
and wealth generation, poverty and environmental change.
 Have deeper knowledge of the nature and underlying causes of key global
environmental concerns - and understanding how these impact on the
livelihoods of poorer communities in particular.
 Explain the roles of various actors of environmental management
  Have insight into efforts to date at an international and national (Ethiopia) level
to formulate policy and action on environment and development
 Critically explain the main challenges and prospects of Sustainable development
and environmental management in Ethiopia.
Mode of Assessment
Students will be assessed based on:
1) Two Individual Assignments --------------------30%
2) Final Exam-----------------------------------------70%
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents page

Module Introduction

UNIT ONE: UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT-------------------------------------------------1

Lesson One: Understanding Environment and Environmental Management-----------------------------2
1.1.1. Environment-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
1.1.2 Types of Environment--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1.1.3. Environmental management-------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.1.4. Stakeholders of Environmental Management-----------------------------------------------------------8
1.1.5. Environmental Management Approaches--------------------------------------------------------------10
[Link]. Participatory Management Approaches--------------------------------------------------------------10
[Link]. Community Based Management----------------------------------------------------------------------10
[Link]. Cooperative Management------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
[Link]. Co-Management-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
1.1.6. Natural Resources Management (NRM)---------------------------------------------------------------13
1.1.7. Evolution of Resource Management Paradigms-------------------------------------------------------19
1.1.8. Environmental Impact Assessment---------------------------------------------------------------------21
Lesson Two: Ecology and Ecosystems------------------------------------------------------------------------26
1.2.1. Ecology-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
1.2.2. Ecosystem--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
1.2.3. Components of Ecosystems -----------------------------------------------------------------------------28
1.2.4. Ecosystem Services ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------29
Lesson Three: Understanding Sustainable Development---------------------------------------------------31
1.3.1. The Concept of Development----------------------------------------------------------------------------32
1.3.2. Sustainable Development---------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
1.3.3. The basic dimension and perspectives of sustainable development------------------------------- 37
[Link]. Environment - the basis--------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
[Link] Economy - the tool--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
[Link] Social - the target----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
1.3.4. A Synthesis of the above Perspectives-----------------------------------------------------------------45
1.3.5. Historical Development and Origins of sustainable development---------------------------------47
Lesson Four: Theories of Environmental Management and Sustainable Development--------------49
1.4.1. Neo-Malthusian Theory---------------------------------------------------------------------------------51
1.4.2. Deep Ecology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------51
1.4.3. Shallow Ecology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------55
1.4.4. Market Environmentalism------------------------------------------------------------------------------56
1.4.5. Liberal Institutionalism---------------------------------------------------------------------------------57
UNIT TWO: ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES-------------------------------------------------------59
Lesson One: Understanding Natural Resources-----------------------------------------------------------60
Lesson Two: Types of Natural Resources------------------------------------------------------------------64
2.2.1. Minerals--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------64
2.2.2. Land Resources-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------66
2.2.3. Forests Resources---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------68
2.2.4. Water-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
2.2.5. Fishery Resources--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------76
2.2.6. Biodiversity---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
2.2.7. Air Resources------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------84
2.2.8. Animals----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85
Lesson Three: Need for Ecological Balance------------------------------------------------------------ 86
2.3.1. Sustainable Development and natural resources management----------------------------------87
2.3.2. Challenges of Natural Resources--------------------------------------------------------------------88
UNIT THREE: THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGE------------------------------90
Lesson One: Environmental Problems-------------------------------------------------------------------92
3.1.1. Population Growth, Poverty and Inequality-------------------------------------------------------92
3.1.2. Growing demand for food; limits to increasing supply------------------------------------------93
3.1.3. Tropical Forests and Deforestation-----------------------------------------------------------------94
3.1.4. Climate Change and pollution------------------------------------------------------ ----------------95
Lesson Two: Impacts of Environmental Problems------------------------------------------------------96
3.2.1. The Challenge of Managing Solid Waste and Sewage------------------------------------------96
3.2.2. Hazardous substances (including nuclear waste)--------------- ---------------------------------97
3.2.3. Biological Diversity and Decline in Species-------------------------------------------------------98
3.2.4. Desertification and Drought--------------------------------------------------------------------------99
3.2.5. Growing water Demand and Decline of Water Quality-----------------------------------------101
Lesson Three: The Trends in Consumption and its Effects on the Environment-------------------101
3.3.1. Oceans, coasts and degradation of marine resources---------------------------------------------101
3.3.2. Growing energy demand, unsustainable use, pollution of the environment-------------------102
3.3.3. Nuclear War and Global Security-------------------------------------------------------------------104
3.3.4. Development, the environment and unsustainable development-------------------------------104
UNIT FOUR: ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT: PRINCIPLES, INSTITUTIONS
AGREEMENTS----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
Lesson One: Principles of International Environmental Management-----------------------------------107
4.1.1. The Principle of State Responsibility------------------------------------------------------------------108
4.1.2. The Precautionary Principle-----------------------------------------------------------------------------109
4.1.3. The Polluter Pays Principle------------------------------------------------------------------------------110
4.1.4. The Principle of International Cooperation-----------------------------------------------------------111
4.1.5. The Principle of Sustainable Development-----------------------------------------------------------112
Lesson Two: The Role of Institutions in Environmental Management----------------------------------113
4.2.1. The Role of States----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------113
4.2.2. The Role of Intergovernmental Organizations(IGOs)-----------------------------------------------115
4.2.3. The Role of Non-governmental Organizations(NGOs)---------------------------------------------122
Lesson Three: Multilateral Environmental Agreements and Environmental Management-----------124
4.3.1. The Stockholm Conference-----------------------------------------------------------------------------125
4.3.2. The Rio Earth Summit-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------128
4.3.3. From Rio to Johannesburg-------------------------------------------------------------------------------132
4.3.4. The Johannesburg Summit-------------------------------------------------------------------------------133
UNIT-FIVE: ENIVIRONEMNT AND SUSTENABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA----------136
Lesson One: Geography and Natural Resources of Ethiopia----------------------------------------------138
5.1.1. The Geography of Ethiopia------------------------------------------------------------------------------139
5.1.2. Natural Resources of Ethiopia--------------------------------------------------------------------------139
[Link]. Geographic Location-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------139
[Link]. Topography----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------140
[Link]. Climate---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------140
[Link]. Land ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------140
[Link]. Forest Resources----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------141
[Link]. Mineral Resources--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------141
[Link] .Water Resources----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------141
[Link]. Fishery Resources--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------142
[Link]. Live Stock Resources----------------------------------------------------------------------------------142
[Link]. Apiculture /Bee Keeping-----------------------------------------------------------------------------143
[Link]. Floristic And Faunistic Resources------------------------------------------------------------------143
[Link]. Wild Life Resources----------------------------------------------------------------------------------144
[Link]. Energy Resources-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------144
Lesson Two: Environmental Challenges/ Problems in Ethiopia-------------------------------------------145
5.2.1. Rural Environmental Problems in Ethiopia------------------------------------------------------------146
[Link]. Deforestation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------146
[Link]. Land degradation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147
[Link]. Climate change in Ethiopia----------------------------------------------------------------------------149
[Link]. Floods-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------149
[Link]. Pollution--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------149
5.2.2. Urban Environmental Problems in Ethiopia-----------------------------------------------------------150
 Lesson Three: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA--------------------------------------151
5.3.1. Economic Growth and Environment in Ethiopia -------------------------------------------------------------152
5.3.2. Conducive Government Policies--------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
[Link]. Expansion of Exports and remittances----------------------------------------------------------------153
[Link]. Heavy investment to address infrastructure bottleneck---------------------------------------------153
[Link]. Increased public expenditure to enhance pro-poor growth-----------------------------------------153
[Link]. Increased domestic revenue mobilization and aid--------------------------------------------------154
Lesson Four: Development Plans and Environment Policies in Ethiopia -------------------------------154
5.4.1. Haile Sellasse’s Regime Development Plans and Environment policies--------------------------155
5.4.2. Development Plans and Environment policies of the Derg-----------------------------------------158
5.4.3. Development Plans and Environment policies of the FDRE Regime-----------------------------160
[Link].The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia-------------------------------160
[Link]. Proclamations-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------162
[Link]. Policies---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------164
[Link] Strategies and Plans-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------171
Lesson Six: Environmental Institutions, Communities , Citizens and their Roles in Environmental
Conservation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------174
5.6.1. The role of institutions in Environmental Conservation -------------------------------------------175
5.6.2. The Role of the Communities in Environmental Conservation in Ethiopia----------------------177
5.6.3. The Role of individuals in Environmental Conservation -------------------------------------------178
UNIT SIX: ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Lesson One: Environmental Ethics--------------------------------------------------------------------------183
Lesson Two: The Challenge of Environmental Ethics----------------------------------------------------183
6.2.1. Anthropocentric Environmental Ethics----------------------------------------------------------------189
6.2.2. Responses to Mainstream Environmental Ethics-----------------------------------------------------191
[Link]. Deep Ecology-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------192
[Link]. Eco-feminism/Feminism and the Environment----------------------------------------------------194
Lesson Three: The Role of Environmental Ethics and Environmental Education to Attain Sustainable
Development and Tackle Environmental Crisis--------------------------------------------197
6.3.1. Is there a global environmental crisis-------------------------------------------------------------------199
6.3.2. Ethical guidelines for environmental Management and Individual Responsibilities------------204
6.3.3. Environmental education and awareness--------------------------------------------------------------206
Module summary-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------214
Reference Materials
 UNIT ONE: UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

UNIT ONE

UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

This unit comprises of two major sections. The first section is the conceptual framework
which has the purpose of clarifying and defining concepts that are being used in the
following parts of the module. The second section is the theoretical framework that
presents some relevant theories of environment and sustainable development. The aims
are to help you understand the theory and practice of sustainable development and
environmental management; the concept of ecology; ecosystem; environmental impact
assessment.
Resources/major text

 Adams, W. (2001). Green Development: Environment and Sustainability in the

Third World, 2nd ed. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group: London and New
York.
 Anjaneyulu,Y.(2004). Introduction to Environmental Science. BS Publication:
Giriraj Lane
 Baker, Susan. (2006). Sustainable Development. Routledge: London and New
York.

Unit Objectives

On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 Define and conceptualize the perspectives of sustainable development

 Understand the environment and the main components of it.
 Know the interplay of environment, ecology and ecosystem.
 Offer explanations for various theories of environment and sustainable
development
 Explain the inter play between environmental management and sustainable
development.

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 CVET 232: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

The various issues that will be examined in this unit include the concept of sustainable
development and its major dimensions, environment and environmental management,
natural resources management, ecology, ecosystem, environmental impact assessment.
The unity will introduce you to the major theories of sustainable development and
environment, major environmental approaches.

Lesson One: Understanding Environment and Environmental Management

Lesson objectives

On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the environment and the main components of it.

 Know the interplay of environment, ecology and ecosystem.
 Define environmental management
 Identify the main ecosystem services

Development and environment are interrelated to each other. Improper or uncontrolled

development is likely to cause adverse impacts on the environment, and environmental
pollution or degradation may become a major obstacle for social and economic
development.

The interrelationship between development and environment has been observed

throughout the world. Recognizing detrimental effects of environmental pollution and
degradation on sustainable development, the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development, which was held from June 3 through June 14, 1992 in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil discussed and agreed on several global environmental issues including non-
binding statements on the relationship between sustainable environmental practices and
the pursuit of social and socioeconomic development. One of these agreements was

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Agenda 21, a wide-range assessment of social and economic sectors with goals for
improving environmental and developmental impact of each.

Activity 1

What do you think about the concept environment?

1.1.1. Environment

The word environment is derived from an old French word ENVIRON MEANS
ENCIRCLE. In real world everything that affects an organism during its life time
(existence, growth and welfare) is collectively known as its environment. Hence, it is a
very broad concept which encompasses the surrounding conditions that affect the people
and other organisms. Our Environment is our surrounding. This includes living and non-
living things around us. The non-living components of environment are land, water and
air. The living components are germs, plants, animals and people. All plants and animals
adjust to the environment in which they are born and live are parts of the environment.
Hanley; Jason and White (2001: 4) have defined the concept environment as ―…all the
natural resources including land, land cover, and ecosystems (flora and fauna); resource
deposits under the land surface; the world‘s oceans and atmosphere; and natural climate
and nutrient cycles.‖ Another writer has defined environment as ―… the sum of all
external influences and conditions which affect health, life or growth. Environment has
also been defined as ―… the natural resources and ecosystems upon which humanity is
dependent on for survival….‖ In fact, Environment is the basement of life and socio
economic development of society. Environment shall mean the space with all living
organisms and natural resources, i.e. natural and man-made values, their interaction and
the entire space in which people live and in which settlements, goods in general use,
industrial and other facilities, including the media and the areas of the environment, are
situated. ―Environment‖ here usually means the natural surroundings, both living and
inanimate, of human lives and activities.

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Generally the environment constitutes:

a) Ecosystems and their constituent parts, including people and communities

b) Natural and physical resources

c) The qualities and characteristics of locations, places and areas, and

d) The social, economic and cultural aspects of a thing mentioned in a, b or c.

Activity 2

What are the different types of environment?

1.1.2. Types of Environment

Environment may be divided into the following two categories: natural environment and
anthropogenic environment. The natural environment includes components such as air,
water, soil, land, forest, wildlife, flora, and fauna. This environment operates through the
self regulating mechanisms; therefore any change brought about by one component of the
environment is countered balanced by some other changes in another component of the
environment. The natural environment is never static; the changes may sometimes be
negligible, while at other times they may be drastic. These changes may be either
beneficial or harmful to the living organisms in the environment.

Human beings are the most powerful environment agents and are capable of modifying
the environment to a great extent according to their needs by the application of modern
technology. They have thus created the anthropogenic environment in the biosphere (the
part of the earth which includes the air, land surface rock, and water and all components
within which life occurs). It includes components that have been introduced by human
beings depending on their needs and requirements.

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 UNIT ONE: UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

All major components of the environment, (abiotic and biotic) namely air, water, land,
energy, and living beings are interrelated and interconnected in many ways. Living
beings are dependent upon their physical environment-land, water, air and energy- for
their existence; the activities of the living organisms affect the physical components and
the changed physical conditions again have a direct impact on living beings.

Activity 3

What is environmental management?

1.1.3. Environmental Management

The development of strategies to allocate and conserve resources, with the ultimate goal
of regulating the impact of human activities on the surrounding environment is related
with the need of managing the environment and its resources. Environment protection
and improvement shall mean a system of measures and activities (social, political,
economic, technical, educational etc.), which provide support and create conditions for
protection against pollution and degradation of and impacts on environmental areas and
media (protection against depletion of the ozone layer, prevention of harmful noise and
vibrations; protection against ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, protection against
odour and use and disposal of wastes, and other types of environment protection.
Environmental Management is an integrated effort to conserve the environmental
functions through arrangement, usage, development, maintenance, recovery, supervision,
and control policies on the environment.

Environmental management can also be defined as ―… the system that anticipates and
avoids or solves environmental and resource conservation [degradation] problems….‖
Environment management is concerned with meeting and improving provision for human
needs and demands on a sustainable basis with no or minimal damage to the
environment. It concerns with the control of degradation and the depletion of natural
resources of the environment with the framework of sustainable development. It also
seeks improvement of human adaptability; recognition and reduction of threats to people
and the physical environment; maintaining continued resource productivity without

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adverse side effects and ultimate deterioration of the ecosystem and take into account the
support and participation of stakeholders.

Environmental management is not, as the phrase could suggest the management of the
environment as such, but rather the management of interaction by the modern human
societies with, and impact upon the environment. The three main issues that affect
managers are those involving politics (networking), programs (projects) and resources
(money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be viewed from a
variety of perspectives. A more common philosophy and impetus behind environmental
management is the concept of carrying capacity. Simply put, carrying capacity refers to
the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The concept of
carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in
Malthusian theory. Environmental management is therefore not only the conservation of
the environment solely for the environment's sake, but also the conservation of the
environment for humankind's sake.

Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-

physical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the
interconnected and network of relationships amongst all living species and their habitats.
The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the
social, cultural and economic environment with the bio-physical environment. As with all
management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required.
An 'environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce
environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. Sustainable development
can not be realized without environmental protection and vise-versa- they are inexorably
linked. Development can not sustain upon a deteriorating environmental resource base
and the environment cannot be protected when growth leaves out of account the costs of
environmental destruction. Hence, integrated and sustainable development and
management approach is the best mechanism to overcome the alarming degradation of

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the environment and its basic components and ensure their continued supply for the
welfare of both present and future generations.

Environmental management is a mixture of science, policy, and socioeconomic

applications. It focuses on the solution of the practical problems that humans encounter in
cohabitation with nature, exploitation of resources, and production of waste. In a purely
anthropocentric sense, the central problem is how to permit technology to evolve
continuously while limiting the degree to which this process alters natural ecosystems.
Environmental management is thus intimately intertwined with questions regarding
limiting economic growth, ensuring an equitable distribution of consumable goods, and
conserving resources for future generations. Environmental management is a response to
the increasing seriousness of the human impact on natural ecosystems. With a smaller
global population base and a less pervasive use of technology, the environment might be
able to recuperate on its own from human misuse, but it is now widely recognized that in
many cases positive intervention is necessary if the environment is to recover.

Integrated Environmental management (IEM) must have the following elements: holistic
and interactive, address complex resource management issues, coordination and multi-
sectoral, and:…the coordination of multi-sectoral uses requires new methodological
approaches and new legislation for access and use of environmental resources. Similarly,
it can be defined as the ―coordinated control, direction or influence of all human activities
in defined environmental systems to achieve and balance the broadest range of short-and
long-term objectives‖. Plans are needed to consider the available priorities and transform
these into policies and goals. Choices will need to be made amongst competitive uses .
IEM‘s main objective is to break down the barriers between the various sectors of the
environmental administration and to view the environment in its totality. It goes beyond
scientific and technological concerns and addresses the activities of society as a whole. It
is the next step in the evolution of environmental policy making. The following are
characteristics of IEM Plans:
Longer timescale (i.e. 10 to 15 years); goal of integrating the various measures (e.g. for
pollution prevention, nature conservation and the creation of environmental amenities);
establishment of environmental policy objectives agreed-on by all members of the
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community (local authorities, the prefectural population and developers); encouragement

of voluntary activities, public participation and the promotion of greater environmental
awareness; quality information; monitoring is an essential part; flexibility to allow
adjustment; and good leadership.

1.1.4. Stakeholders of Environmental Management

Participants in the process of environmental management fall into seven main groups: (1)
governmental organizations at the local, regional, national, and international levels,
including world bodies such as the United Nations Environment Program and the U.N.
Conference on Environment and Development; (2) research institutions, such as
universities, academies, and national laboratories; (3) bodies charged with the
enforcement of regulations, such as the Environmental Protection Agency; (4) businesses
of all sizes and multinational corporations; (5) international financial institutions, such as
the World Bank and International Monetary Fund; (6) environmental nongovernmental
organizations, such as the World Wildlife Fund for Nature; and (7) representatives of the
users of the environment, including tribes, fishermen, and hunters.

The agents of environmental management include foresters, soil conservationists, policy-

makers, engineers, and resource planners. The main link between these diverse groups of
people is the need for accountability in the use of nature's riches. However, though there
is much collaboration, relationships are often adversarial as objectives differ among the
groups. Intellectually, environmental management has assumed the status of a
multidisciplinary academic field dedicated to furthering the human stewardship of natural
resources. Biologists participate by virtue of their links with ecology and their interest in
flora, fauna, and habitats. Geographers have a long-standing involvement in the ecology
of people's relationships with their surroundings—in other words, in the two-way
interaction between human communities and the landscapes that offer opportunities to
prosper but that limit activities. Economists have become involved through the need to

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value environmental goods and services, assess the costs of pollution, and calculate
materials balances. Engineers have created the field of eco-technology, which is
dedicated to the practical restoration of degraded or polluted environments. Finally,
political scientists are the source of much environmental policy and regulatory know-
how. Though these and other disciplines have a hand in environmental management, the
links between them are complex, and as a result the field is remarkably diffuse. Indeed, it
tends to lack a core of integrated concepts that might give it a clear popular identity.

All of the main environmental problems of the late twentieth and early twenty-first
centuries fall under the environmental management field. Most problems are
controversial. Tropical deforestation, ozone depletion, and global warming have fueled
debate over strategies for the management of the global environment. Transboundary
pollution and the international exploitation of resources (for example, the appropriation
of raw materials in one country and the patenting of their genetic derivatives in another)
have underlined the need for bilateral, and often multilateral, agreements about sharing
responsibilities. Radiation emissions, toxic waste issues, and hazardous material spills
have emphasized the need for secure and standardized methods of treating pollutants. The
production of organic chemicals, for example, grew by more than two orders of
magnitude during the second half of the twentieth century, and there was a corresponding
growth in the number of catastrophic pollution episodes.

Environmental management has risen to meet many of these challenges. The elements of
an IEM mentioned above are considered as very appropriate for the sustainable resource
and environmental management of the world. This integrated systems-based approach
has been used to manage a growing number of environmental problems such as fisheries,
large marine ecosystems, management of terrestrial habitats, land use and water quality
problems in various estuaries, river basins, and the Great Lakes.

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1.1.5. Environmental Management Approaches

[Link]. Participatory Management Approaches

Participatory approaches allow greater community (direct or indirect) involvement in the

policy formulation and decision-making processes or the technical aspects of the
functions of the central authority. This approach provides for consultation of the
stakeholders or for the community to have some form of representation in the decision-
making process. It promotes a more transparent and accountable management authority
on the one hand and creates a more responsive community in terms of implementation of
the management programs and objectives, and greater compliance on the other. There are
eight steps of ladder of participation. The first step (at the bottom of the step) is
‗manipulation‘, the second is ‗therapy‘ both aiming at education the participants. The
third step is ‗informing‘, followed by ‗consultation‘, ‗placation‘, ‗partnership‘, ‗delegated
power‘ and finally ‗citizen control‘ at the top of the ladder.

Community based‘ management is a form of participatory management, where the

community has the total responsibility of managing the resources. Another form of
participatory management is cooperative management. Co-management regime is a form
of participatory management where the local community shares resource management
responsibilities with an external agency or organization.

[Link].1. Community Based Management

Management of common resources, or resources held in common by many individuals is

where property rights are assigned to the community or a social group rather than to
private individuals or to the state. Communities develop the rules about using the natural
resources, and they also develop the social values and norms, many of which are informal
and non-contractual, that stress moderation and prudence rather than excessiveness and
recklessness. Management of common resources may take place through completely self-
regulated systems (community-based) or through co-management arrangements. Self-

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regulated (self-organizing or self-governing) systems are those where the rules have been
devised and modified by the participants themselves, and also are monitored and
enforced by them.

Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM): combines conservation

objectives with the generation of economic benefits for rural communities. The three key
assumptions being that; locals are better placed to conserve natural resources, people will
conserve a resource only if benefits exceed the costs of conservation and people will
conserve a resource that is linked directly to their quality of life. When a local people‘s
quality of life is enhanced, their efforts and commitment to ensure the future well-being
of the resource is also enhanced. The United Nations advocates CBNRM in the
Convention on Biodiversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification. It is based
particularly on advocacy by nongovernmental organizations working with local groups
and communities, on the one hand, and national and transnational organizations, on the
other, to build and extend new versions of environmental and social advocacy that link
social justice and environmental management agendas with both direct and indirect
benefits observed including a share of revenues, employment, diversification of
livelihoods and increased pride and identity.

Self-governance systems, however, have limits and drawbacks. They may be impractical
where resources are migratory or overlap jurisdictions. Self-governance may be
unacceptable where it excludes people with claims to common use-rights based on
historical use or other notions of right (competing claims), for example, the special rights
of the local people who depend on the resource, versus the rights of citizens or the public
to the use of the resource. The success of the program and long term sustainability
depend on the profit villagers receive from their management of the resources therefore,
there is a need for education and awareness programs for marketing both local and
external. The regulatory aspects of community-based management regimes, however,
have also not been given much attention in the literature.

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This could be partly due to a belief that communities will regulate themselves. However,
threats to conservation do not disappear, either from within or from outside the
community, just because land rights, or other community-based measures are introduced.

[Link].2. Cooperative Management

Cooperation management draws maximum support; and enhances the stakeholders‘

willingness to voluntarily cooperate in their implementation by inviting respect for the
whole process of their selection and implementation. However, there are circumstances
where there are limits to the voluntary proactive response to achieve the best practice
environmental management. This is when there is an emphasis of corporations on short-
term profitability. This is where the role for governmental regulations remains – to nudge
firms at the margin towards cleaner production, heightening their awareness of
environmental issues, providing them with financial incentives, etc. Cooperative
management agreements are a potential solution for management of forest fragmentation.

[Link].3. Co-Management

No single property-rights regime is sufficient to guarantee the sustainable use of

resources. More recently, resource users have been seeking and obtaining formal powers
to participate in the decision making process, referred to as co-management. Co-
management focuses on user group oriented approach as the self-governed system, but
without neglecting or compromising the state role in resource management. It is a way to
develop a dynamic partnership using the capacities and interests of both government
agencies and the resource user. In other words, co-management, where power is actually
shared, provides an institutional response to the ‗commons‘ problem, which essentially is
the question of how private interests can better intermesh with collective interest. In
theory co-management will improve both the effectiveness and the equitability of
resource management. The co-management process is influenced by both internal and
external factors. Internal factors that affect resource use and management are based on

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beliefs and perceptions, experiences and observation of the local community and the
environment. That is, resource management is regulated by socio-political institutions
that are an integral part of the cultural traditional practices. These institutions in turn are
influenced by such factors as colonial manipulation, science and technology, population
changes, urbanization, education and elements of modern economic development.

Activity 4

Discuss the main differences among the above components of participatory approaches of
environmental managements.

1.2. Natural Resources Management (NRM)

Before getting any deeper into what this means, and what INRM involves, it is prudent to
look into what INRM is not. INRM is not a uni-disciplinary approach to research or
development. It is not a commodity driven process or program, nor is it intended to be a
dogma. INRM is also not represented necessary by the individual components and sub-
components of systems that might contribute to it. So what then does INRM involve?

Natural Resource Management refers to the management of natural resources such as

land, water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects
the quality of life for both present and future generations. Natural resource management
is congruent with the concept of sustainable development, a scientific principle that forms
a basis for sustainable global land management and environmental governance to
conserve and preserve natural resources. Natural resource management specifically
focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of resources and ecology and the life-
supporting capacity of those resources. The term Environmental management is also
similar to natural resource management. A more integrated approach should be
implemented recognizing the intertwined social, cultural, economic and political aspects
of resource management.

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Natural Resources Management (NRM) concerns the sustainable utilization of major

natural resources such as land, water, air, minerals, forests, fisheries, and wild flora and
fauna. Together, these resources produce the ecosystem services that underpin human
existence and welfare. Poor people are often critically dependent on natural resources,
and suffer most when they are degraded. While poverty alleviation and sustainable NRM
are generally compatible, some situations may require difficult tradeoffs. Nevertheless,
the fact remains that without poverty alleviation, the environment in developing countries
will continue to degrade, and without better NRM, poverty alleviation will be
undermined.

Activity 5
What are the basic differences and similarities among the three components of
participatory approach?
Three Key Concerns of NRM

Three persistent concerns are consistently raised regarding NRM, particularly in

developing countries:

1. Renewable resources are utilized beyond their regenerative capacity, which is

especially troubling for the poor, whose resource-base tends to be narrow and less easily
shifted geographically and sectorally

2. Nonrenewable resources are depleted with insufficient savings in man-made, human,

or social capital, and with minor benefits directed specifically to the poor

3. The ―sink‖ capacity of the environment is overburdened by pollution, which in turn

damages human health and ecosystem functions. The poorest frequently pay the human
price for this development.

While pursuit of poverty alleviation and sustainable NRM objectives is usually

compatible, it should not be denied that there are difficult tradeoffs. For example, in some

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countries short-term poverty alleviation (―shoot the wild animals, cut down the forest,
and plant maize‖) is in opposition to long-term poverty alleviation (―conserve the
ecosystem, and develop ecotourism‖). Poverty alleviation must be pursued in the most
cost-efficient manner possible, including external costs. For example, riverbed mining
that uses hazardous chemicals may be income generating for some, but for people living
downstream resource degradation may be far too costly. A situation-specific cost-benefit
analysis is helpful in determining how such tradeoffs should be resolved.

NRM issues are inherently complex as they involve the ecological cycles, hydrological
cycles, climate, animals, plants and geography etc. All these are dynamic and inter-
related. A change in one of them may have far reaching and/or long term impacts which
may even be irreversible. In addition to the natural systems, NRM also has to manage
various stakeholders and their interests, policies, politics, geographical boundaries,
economic implications and the list goes on. The various approaches applied on NRM
include: Top-down or Command and Rule; Bottom-Up; Adaptive approach;
Precautionary approach; Integrated approach (INRM). Integrated natural resource
management is a process of managing natural resources in a systematic way, which
includes multiple aspects of natural resource use (biophysical, socio-political, and
economic) meet production goals of producers and other direct users (e.g., food security,
profitability, risk aversion) as well as goals of the wider community (e.g., poverty
alleviation, welfare of future generations, environmental conservation). It is focuses on
sustainability and at the same time it tried to incorporate all possible stake holders from
the planning level itself, reducing the possible conflicts in future.

At the heart of INRM practice, is not the environment or the natural resources per se.
These resources are indeed the principal elements within the environment, and they are
the basic capital within INRM. However, at the heart of INRM, are ‗People‘ - their needs,
their livelihoods and their rights, and how these needs interact with management of the
natural resources. INRM accepts the notion that natural resources exist not just to
stabilize or beautify the environment; they were created to be used to meet the needs of
human beings. Any management strategy on natural resources that limits itself to the

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conservation or protection of natural resources without considerations given to the use of

the resources by people, and how it influences livelihoods is not likely to be sustainable.

Two points are worth making at this juncture. The first is that the use of the resources
must be within the framework of sustainability. It is the responsibility of human being to
ensure that the way the resources are used today does not compromise their availability
for tomorrow; this is a paradox. Sustainability in this context involves successful
management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs, while
maintaining or enhancing the quality of the environment, and conserving natural
resources. What mechanisms are available to ensure that natural resources are being used
sustainably, and not destructively?

The second point to be made, is that people (especially communities living around a
particular natural resource domain, e.g. forest) need to be involved in the management
and conservation of the natural resource. Communities need to be involved in the
development of policies and regulations for ensuring sustainable use of the resources.
They must feel a sense of ownership and responsibility in the management of the
resource, and in the benefits that accrue from its use. Whatever management and control
system is put in place is likely to face barriers in implementation, if it ignores the
community role and benefit-sharing mechanisms. Oftentimes this creates conflict
situations in the management of natural resources. A central dimension in INRM is the
way in which the natural resources interact within and among themselves, and how their
management and interaction relates to people and livelihoods. Integrated natural
resources management is of prime importance for ensuring the sustainable use and
conservation of our natural resources. INRM is not just a subject for researchers; it is
equally relevant and significant for farmers, communities, and development agents.

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Water resources management

There are two aspects of water resource management. The first is supply management
and the second is demand management. The former includes the establishment of large
storage reservoirs, inter-catchments water transfer schemes, rain water harvesting and
recycling water to cope with variable and unpredictable water flows. While the latter
approach concerns on increasing the awareness of efficient use of water for different
purposes such as applying quota system with penalties on abuse of water, enhancing
water price system, proper irrigation scheduling, reduction of evaporation losses,
irrigation of appropriate crops, improving irrigation technologies; the former is concerned
with the reduction of water consumption and raising water productivity. Historically
water resource management approaches capitalized on supply-side management to meet
the growing demands for water in specific areas, and little effort was directed towards
demand side management to reduce society‘s demands for water.

The objective of integrated watershed management is to prevent and control depletion

and degradation of water resources to meet present as well as future needs of water for all
life supporting activities. Integrated water resources management seeks to address in an
integrated, coordinated and balanced way the needs of upstream and downstream uses,
supply and demand factors, social and economic benefits and requires the prediction of
the amount, variability both in time and space, and the quality of the water body under
consideration. Integrated resource use implies that each water resource should be
developed and managed to benefit a community in ways that are compatible with its
ecological potentials and limitations. It involves having data on population of humans
and livestock, topography , vegetation cover, rainfall, run off, erosion problems, ground
and surface water, statistics on existing water bodies; service facilities, development
components such as soil, forest and water conservation.

The basic tenet of effective watershed management is that all water users within a
catchments must share responsibility for determining the short, medium and long term
objectives of the management of the resource, whilst ensuring that water allocation is
both equitable and fair. So as to achieve the objectives of integrated water resource

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management the riparian states need to look beyond purely national priorities and harness
the basin‘s collective social, economic and technological resources to attain a common
goal of ensuring long term water security. In addition, this type of management requires a
high degree of trust between the states, as well as a firm political commitment to inter-
state collaboration and cooperation, an organizational frameworks and multi purpose
projects that promotes stability of purpose, direction and serve as base for water resource
development . Therefore, implementing integrated water and environment resources
management in the world is not a matter of choice but a matter of necessity. Because this
approach can solve the problems of water scarcity and other environmental problems and
ensure the sustainable development and management of the resources of the environment.

Biodiversity Conservation

Activity 6

What is biodiversity? Why concern for biodiversity?

The issue of biodiversity conservation is regarded as an important element in natural

resource management. Biodiversity is a comprehensive concept, which is a description of
the extent of natural diversity. Biodiversity is the variety of life and relate to different
kinds of biodiversity organization. Biodiversity, at both wild and cultivated levels, is an
essential component of INRM. It should not be seen as an end in itself, but rather as a
means of achieving productivity, stability, resilience, improved environmental quality,
and the conservation of crop genetic diversity. These in turn are part of larger societal
goals – sustainable food security, reduced poverty, and improved public health. Societies
also value natural biological diversity in the broader sense. People are concerned about
the possible extinction of species because of their potential future benefits, their role in
ecological balances, and simply because people place a value on their continued
existence, regardless of future human benefits. We need to take steps to ensure that
efforts aimed at dealing with the food security situation of today do not compromise the

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ability of the system to deal with the food security situation of the future. The treats
wreaking havoc on biodiversity include; habitat fragmentation, putting a strain on the
already stretched biological resources; forest deterioration and deforestation; the invasion
of alien species and climate change. Since these treats have received increasing attention
from environmentalists and the public, the precautionary management of biodiversity
becomes an important part of natural resources management.

1.3. Evolution of Resource Management Paradigms

The dominant theoretical paradigms that explain the evolution of resource management
and development paths include the classic, the neo-liberal and neo-populist paradigms,
the community-based development and the integrated management approaches.

Classic, Neo-Liberal and Neo-Populist Paradigms

The ‗classic‘ paradigm, which was predominant between 1950 and 1975, drew its sources
from notions relating to rural development and environmental management. The model is
top-down, state instigated, informed by state-sponsored scientific institutions, and
promoted via extension agents. The following steps characterize the classic paradigm‘s
approaches:

• Perceived problems are identified by external agents (government officers, donors,

researchers etc.);

• Technical measures are formulated by these external agents but require community
cooperation; and

• Plans are implemented using a combination of encouragement, persuasion and subtle

threats.

With the classic model, local knowledge is seen as defective, traditional, irrational,
nonscientific and even superstition, which should be replaced by expert-led knowledge
and officially sponsored innovations. Failure with this approach, however, is blamed on
the community or the environment. The neo-liberal and neo-populist paradigms were
formulated at about the same time because of the rejection of the classic model. The neo

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liberal paradigm relies on incentives and regulations and is related to the economics of
externalities and property rights. An issue with the neo-liberal paradigm is the absence of
any universal or explicit criteria to judge the best technology.

The neo-populist approach is a result of the rejection of the top-down, techno-centric and
state-led model of technology transfer. It is a reaction against the incapability of central
or external authorities and the market to stop resource degradation and of the self-
sufficient society against capitalist penetration of small-scale capitalism and urban
interests of rural movement seeking to realize traditional values in a changing society.
This approach, which promotes a more participatory style, became central to the
development agencies by the 1980s. Many researchers advocate the neo populist
approach and have argued for the need for ‗community based‘ or ‗co-management‘
approach to ensure sustainability of local communities. Other features include flexible
‗process oriented‘ planning in which local people use their own knowledge and skills to
figure out solutions to their problems.

In recent years, the neo-populist approach has led to a shift away from ‗supply-driven‘
approaches to ‗demand-driven‘ ones and from centralized command and control to local
management or co-management of resources and services. The shift has been aimed at
increasing efficiency, equity, empowerment and cost effectiveness. In order for
development to serve the needs of a community, development should be based on
appropriate strategies for encouraging participation, the existence of viable community
groups, the appropriate fit of technology to the project and community needs, effective
agency outreach strategies, client responsive agencies, and enabling policies.

In other words, successful community development relies on an integrated management

approach. However, the decline and disappearance of certain natural resources (i.e.
diminishing fisheries, deforestation, grazing land degradation, water shortages etc.) in
many parts of the world has led to crises in natural resources management. Recently,
largely as a response to failure of development paradigms mentioned above, to attain

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sustainable development objectives, researchers and governments are looking at

alternative resource arrangement as an attempt to reverse resource degradation and to
achieve sustainable livelihoods for the community concerned. For example, Agenda 21
promotes the study of traditional resource management systems because of the lessons
they offer to contemporary societies.

1.4. Environmental Impact Assessment

Activity 7

What is Environmental Pollution? What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)?

A change in any component of the environment may cause discomfort and affect normal
life. Any unfavorable change or degeneration in the environment is known as
Environmental Pollution. Environmental pollution is caused due to over-use of natural
resources, presence of a large number of people and livestock in congested areas, use of
agro-chemicals, setting up of factories, running of automobiles, burning of fuel, etc. A
change in the environment due to pollution also affects the ecological balance.
Environmental pollution is caused both in rural and urban areas. Pollution can cause
sickness and discomfort. It also affects the productivity of natural resources, such as land,
water, forests and livestock. We can prevent environmental pollution if we understand its
causes. We need to protect our environment to live happily. For better environment, all
its components should be protected from pollution and the surroundings should be clean.

To promote environmentally sustainable development, the government requires an

analysis of environmental impacts for all proposed activities with potential environmental
impacts. Subsequently, the project proponent designs preventive measures, negative
impact mitigation, and positive benefit enhancement measures. Through this planning
process, it is expected that development activities will be carried out with due
consideration for environmental protection. Concern for the environment and for
sustainable use of resources is essential because of the increasingly evident and close
linkages between the environment, economic growth and human health and welfare.

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Wise management of the natural resource base is an absolute requirement of any

successful development program because environmental degradation impairs economic
growth and the potential for such growth, while deteriorating economies exacerbate and
accelerate environmental degradation. Well-established, as well as innovative, solutions
are available to effect change in focus areas. In determining which set of solutions to
apply, activities that first and foremost attack the root causes of environmental
degradation, stressing the prevention of problems should be emphasized. The political,
social, institutional and cultural causes of environmental degradation are difficult to
address in isolation. An integrated approach and long-term perspective are critical to any
effort to address environmental constraints. Solutions to fundamental environmental
problems must often be undertaken in a logical sequence to reflect the chain of cause and
effect.

Environmental impacts defined

An environmental impact is any direct or indirect change to the environment, whether

negative or positive, wholly or partly resulting from an activity. Environmental Impact
Assessment can be defined as: -The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and
mitigating the biophysical, social and other relevant effects of development proposals
prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made. It is intertwined with
sustainable development. EIA is a detailed study of the environmental consequences
(impacts) of a proposed course of action, including mitigation of those impacts and
monitoring to ensure that mitigation is working. It is an instrument, which makes it
possible to introduce at an early stage of the planning and design process, a systematic
methodology to help ensure the environmental, social and economic sustainability of
development interventions. It is a tried and tested instrument for analyzing the effects of
development proposals on the environment and to mitigate their impacts.

A direct impact is a change (physical, chemical or biological) to the environment because

of the activity (eg building a road, constructing an irrigation canal, establishing a waste-

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water system, protecting natural resources, or introducing a plant or animal species). An

indirect impact is where there is an expectation that the changes in policy or behavior
flowing from the activity will affect the environment in the future or ‗downstream‘ (eg
designing a road system, funding land titling, providing environmental education, or
strengthening an institution in the natural resource sector). A positive impact is a
beneficial environmental outcome, such as increased biodiversity, or better health as a
result of a cleaned water supply. A negative impact is an adverse environmental outcome,
such as a contaminated water table from sewage systems, erosion from poorly planned
infrastructure activities, or decimation of existing vegetation through the introduction of
livestock. Such outcomes can sometimes be irreversible and have a chain of impact on
poverty such as poor health or a reduction in livelihood potential.

An environmental impact assessment should take into consideration direct or indirect

effects on the following:
- Bio-physical Environment (water, land, vegetation, animals, atmosphere,) etc.
- Human Welfare
- Socio cultural environment (religion, culture, population, community structures) etc.
-Economic environment
General objectives of EIA
The overall objective of carrying out an Environmental Impact Assessment is to
determine the likely impacts of a given project, might have on the environment, propose
possible mitigative measures, and monitoring. Other objectives include:

-Ensuring that environmental considerations are explicitly addressed and incorporate into
the development decision making process

-To anticipate and avoid, minimize or offset the adverse significant biophysical social
and other relevant effects of development proposals;

-To protect and sustain the productivity and capacity of natural systems and the
ecological processes which maintain their functions and

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-To promote development that is sustainable and optimizes resources use and
management opportunities

Whereas it is evident that major/large-scale projects are the greatest threat to our
environment hence subject to intensive reviews, small scale community based projects
can also have significant cumulative adverse impact on the environment. Failures of
small scale activities are no less devastating at the local level than failures of large scale
projects to which environmental assessments and review techniques have been
historically applied. The environmental damage caused by small scale projects which
currently constitute the bulk of international development can add to and compound a
community's problems. At the heart of EIAs is a focus on the identification and
assessment of predicted impacts, with the management actions to mitigate negative
impacts or enhance positive impacts (i.e. benefits) often being described only in
illustrative terms in EIA reports, unconnected to the project design? In order to promote
effective environmental management throughout the life-cycle of a project, it is therefore
important that the management actions arising from EIAs are clearly defined and
translated into an Environmental Management Plan for the design, construction,
operation and/or decommissioning phases of a project.

Basic steps in EIA

(1) Screening (usually by an EIA Authority, or using published checklists) – to decide

whether an EIA is required and focus resources on projects most likely to have significant
impacts, those where impacts are uncertain and those where environmental management
input is likely to be required.. Official EIA guidelines usually contain lists or schedules
specifying which developments require an EIA.

(2) Consideration of possible alternatives (demand, activity, location, process & design,
scheduling, inputs, ‗no project‘) should be undertaken before a choice is made. Some
projects can be site specific (eg in mining, extraction can only occur were a mineral is

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sited). In such cases the EIA might focus more on measures such as scale, mitigating
measures and traffic management. Projects promoted by public sector agencies are more
likely to consider alternative sites or routes for development than private sector initiatives
where the early need to acquire options or purchase land strongly influences development
location.

(3) Preliminary assessment - where screening suggests further assessment is needed or if

there is uncertainty about the nature of potential impacts. Uses rapid assessment
techniques, but provides sufficient detail to identify key impacts, their magnitude and
significance, and evaluate their importance for decision-making.

(4) Scoping –a ‗narrowing‘ process usually undertaken by an ‗assessment team‘ to

identify the key issues of concern at an early stage in the planning process and guide the
development of terms of reference for the EIA. It aids site selection, identifies possible
alternatives, and avoids delays due to having to assess previously unidentified possible
impacts. Scoping should involve all interested parties such as the proponent and planning
or environmental agencies and members of the public. The results determine the scope,
depth and terms of reference to be addressed within an Environmental Impact Statement
(see below). Once the site for development has been selected, the number of issues
usually decreases and attention to detail increases.

(5) Main EIA study – building on and deepening the preceding steps to predict the extent
and magnitude of impacts and determine their significance. A variety of methods can be
used including: checklists, questionnaires, matrices, overlays, networks, models and
simulations. The study should incorporate consideration of mitigating measures -
reviewing the action proposed/taken to prevent, avoid or minimise actual or potential
significant adverse effects of a project, eg abandoning or modifying a proposal, or
substituting techniques using BATNEEC (Best Available Technology Not Entailing
Excessive Costs) such as pollution abatement techniques to reduce emissions to legal
limits. If the uncertainties are great, with the possibility of grave consequences and no
mitigating measures then the proposed development should be rejected. If there are

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uncertainties that might be reduced by further studies, then an application can be deferred
pending until further studies.

Lesson Two: Ecology and Ecosystems

Lesson Objectives

On successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Define and conceptualize ecology

 Differentiate the main differences between ecology and ecosystem.

 Explain the various components and benefits of an ecosystem.

The various issues that will be examined in this lesson include the concept of Ecology,
the structure and the nature of Ecosystems. The lesson will introduce you to the
components and benefits of Ecosystem.

2.1 Ecology

Among the basic environmental knowledge that is needed in order to better understand
and develop connections with one‘s environment and community are the foundations of
ecology. These foundations also are critical in helping one understand the impacts of
human actions on the environment. Ecology was first defined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866
as ―the science of relations between organisms and their environment‖. Ecology is the
scientific study of relationships in the natural world. It includes relationships between
organisms and their physical environments (physiological ecology); between organisms
of the same species (population ecology); between organisms of different species
(community ecology); and between organisms and the fluxes of matter and energy
through biological systems (ecosystem ecology).

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Ecologists study these interactions in order to understand the abundance and diversity of
life within Earth's ecosystems—in other words, why there are so many plants and
animals, and why there are so many different types of plants and animals. To answer
these questions they may use field measurements, such as counting and observing the
behavior of species in their habitats; laboratory experiments that analyze processes such
as predation rates in controlled settings; or field experiments, such as testing how plants
grow in their natural setting but with different levels of light, water, and other inputs.
Applied ecology uses information about these relationships to address issues such as
developing effective vaccination strategies, managing fisheries without over-harvesting,
designing land and marine conservation reserves for threatened species, and modeling
how natural ecosystems may respond to global climate change.

Change is a constant process in ecosystems, driven by natural forces that include climate
shifts, species movement, and ecological succession. By learning how ecosystems
function, we can improve our ability to predict how they will respond to changes in the
environment. But since living organisms in ecosystems are connected in complex
relationships, it is not always easy to anticipate how a step such as introducing a new
species will affect the rest of an ecosystem. Human actions are also becoming major
drivers of ecosystem change. Important human-induced stresses on ecosystems are
treated in later units of this text.

2.2. Ecosystem

Activity: 1

What is an Ecosystem? What are its main components? How is it different from an
ecological community? Name a few biotic and abitoic components of an ecosystem.

An ecosystem is a community of animals and plants interacting with one another and
with their physical environment. Ecosystems include physical and chemical components,
such as soils, water, and nutrients that support the organisms living within them. These
organisms may range from large animals and plants to microscopic bacteria. Ecosystems
include the interactions among all organisms in a given habitat. People are part of

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ecosystems. The health and wellbeing of human populations depends upon the services
provided by ecosystems and their components – organisms, soil, water, and nutrients. An
ecosystem is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic network of biological,
chemical and physical interactions between themselves and with the nonliving
components. Study of such interaction and connections can help us explain the links
mentioned in the previous paragraph. Further, such interactions are crucial for sustaining
the system and allowing it to respond to changing conditions. Forest ecosystem, grassland
ecosystem, pond ecosystem are some of the ecosystems found on the earth.

An ecosystem is also defined as a functional and structural unit of Ecology. This implies
that each ecosystem has a definite structure and components, and that each component
part of the system has a definite role to play in the functioning of the ecosystem. Unlike
ecological communities which comprise of living elements only, ecosystems have two
‗parts‘: The living (biotic) components like plants and animals; and the nonliving
(abiotic) components like water, air, nutrients and solar energy. These two parts of the
ecosystem do not stand in isolation; rather they continuously interact with one another. In
fact they are so closely linked to each other that experts, by looking at the type and
condition of the abiotic environment of an ecosystem can identify the kind of life that one
is likely to find in an ecosystem, and vice versa. Before we understand what these
interactions are like, let us analyze the two components in detail.

2.3. Components of Ecosystems

Living components

Living organisms (biotic components) in an ecosystem can be classified as either

producers or consumers, depending on how they get their food. Producers (autotrophs,
i.e. self-feeders) can make the organic nutrients they need, using simple inorganic
compounds in their environment: for instance, the green plants on land and the small
algae in aquatic ecosystems produce their food by the process of photosynthesis.

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Consumers (heterotrophs, i.e. other feeders) are those organisms, which directly or
indirectly depend on food provided by producers. Consumers, depending on their food
habits, can be further classified into four types.

Herbivores,e.g. deer, rabbits, cattle, etc., are plant eaters and they feed directly on
producers. In a food chain, they are referred to as the primary consumers.

Carnivores are meat eaters and they feed on herbivores (primary consumers). They are
thus known as secondary consumers. They are animal eaters, e.g. lions, tigers.

Omnivores eat both plants and animals, e.g. pigs, rats, cockroaches and humans.

Decomposers digest the complex organic molecules in dead organic matter (detritus) into
simpler inorganic compounds. They absorb the soluble nutrients as their food. Some
examples are bacteria, fungi, and mites. What is important to note is that each ecosystem
will have certain representative organisms playing each of the above mentioned roles.

Nonliving components

Nonliving (or abiotic) components of an ecosystem include all the physical and chemical
factors that influence living organisms, like air, water, soil, rocks etc. Thus, it is an
assemblage of organic and inorganic substances present in an ecosystem. The various
climatic factors that affect the ecosystem functioning are also a part of this. The non-
living components are essential for the living world. Without sunlight, water, air and
minerals, life cannot exist. Some examples of non-living components of an ecosystem
include: Physical factors, Chemical Factors, Sunlight, Percentage of water and air in soil.

These components of the ecosystem are highly interdependent. As an example, a swamp

is good because it prevents from flood, is teeming for life that can sustain us as food, is
beautiful for our amusement, and so on. Forest is good for it gives us oxygen, for we have
a lot to learn about it or for our holidays; so many species can become future domestic
vegetables, and so on.

2.4. Ecosystem Services

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Ecosystem Services are the processes by which the environment produces resources that
we often take for granted such as clean water, timber, and habitat for fisheries, and
pollination of native and agricultural plants. Whether we find ourselves in the city or a
rural area, the ecosystems in which humans live provide goods and services that are very
familiar to us.

Ecosystems provide ―services‖ that: moderate weather extremes and their impacts;
disperse seeds; mitigate drought and floods; protect people from the sun‘s harmful
ultraviolet rays; cycle and move nutrients; protect stream and river channels and coastal
shores from erosion; detoxify and decompose wastes; control agricultural pests; maintain
biodiversity; generate and preserve soils and renew their fertility; contribute to climate
stability; purify the air and water; regulate disease carrying organisms; pollinate crops
and natural vegetation.

Ecosystems provide a number of goods such as food, timber, medicines, genetic

resources, etc. Ecosystems also serve a number of functions— ecological, economic,
recreational/aesthetic, as well as educational. Major ecological functions of ecosystems
include: meeting the habitat (shelter), food, water, air as well as breeding demands of not
just humans but also of the various other organisms; providing ecological services—clean
air, water, waste absorption—to the organisms living in it; regulating climate, flood
control, coastline stabilization, carbon appropriation, waste treatment, biodiversity
conservation, soil generation, disease regulation, and the provision of aesthetic and
cultural benefits. Thus, an ecosystem provides both products as well as services (the
ecological functions) to humans. Each ecosystem has a unique set of environmental
services provided and goods that it provides (for example, grasslands are usually the
fodder source for browsers and grazers, while wetlands recharge aquifers), what is
important for us is to understand that these ecosystem services can be provided to us only
when the integrity and overall wellbeing of the ecosystem is maintained. For example,
the moment we start looking at forests as timber and start cutting down trees for their

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economic value, we would be deprived of several other functions of the forests, like their
recharging of the water table, appropriation of carbon-di-oxide, prevention of top soil
loss.
It is further important to understand that ecosystems are both the source as well as the
sink of human activities. This means that human beings derive resources—from food,
fibre, timber to the various raw material for the industries, from ecosystems; and that all
the products and byproducts of human activities—from domestic to industrial, finally go
back to the ecosystems, which could be the rivers, the oceans or even the forests
Ecologists abstract the essential features of an ecosystem into two compartments, the
biotic and the abiotic. The biotic compartment consists of the community of species,
which can be divided functionally into plant producers, the consumers that feed on
producers and on each other, and the decomposers. The abiotic compartment consists of
organic and inorganic nutrient pools. Energy and materials move between these two
compartments, as well as into and out of the system. Ecosystem processes are quantified
by measuring rates of these movements (e.g., plant production, decomposition, nutrient
leaching or other measures of material production, transport or loss). Ecosystem
functioning, in turn, is quantified by measuring the magnitudes and dynamics of
ecosystem processes.

Lesson Three: Understanding Sustainable Development

The aims are to help you understand the theory and practice of sustainable development;
the problems associated with sustainable development.

Lesson Objectives

On successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Define and conceptualize the nature of sustainable development

 Understand the main dimensions of sustainable development.
 Know the interplay of economic, social and ecological interests/forces of
sustainable development.
 Offer explanations for historical development of sustainable development

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 Explain why a sustainable development can be a viable alternative to other

types of developments.
INTRODUCTION
The various issues that will be examined in this lesson include the concept of sustainable
development, the structure and the nature of sustainable development. The lesson will
introduce you to the components of sustainable development and rationale behind the
development of the concept. In the following pages, you will read of the origins of
Sustainable Development, its theoretical underpinnings, its major programs, and the
means by which it is implemented.

Activity 1

What is development? What are the differences between development and sustainable
development?

1.3.1 The Concept of Development

Great ideas are usually simple ideas. While the specific analysis of any important topic
will necessarily involve complexity and subtlety, the fundamental concepts which
underlie powerful paradigms of thought are usually relatively straightforward and easy to
grasp. Prior to the second half of the twentieth century, the idea of development as we
know it today barely existed. The structures of imperial and colonial power which
dominated the world in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries made little provision
for economic and social advance in what we now call the developing world.

By the end of the Second World War, perceptions and policy had changed drastically.
Economic and social improvement for the majority had become a major preoccupation of
governments, and with the crumbling of colonial power relations this goal was extended
to the poorer nations of the world. Economic development, with its social and

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institutional correlates, came to occupy an essential place in theory and policy, as well as
in the Cold War competition between capitalism and communism.

Development economics in its modern form did not exist before the 1940's. The concern
of development economics, as the term is now understood, is with countries or regions
which are seen to be under or less developed relative to others, and which, it is commonly
believed, should, if they are not to become ever poorer relative to the developed
countries, be developed in some way. Within formal neoclassical economic theory, an
effort has been made to achieve a positive rather than a normative perspective – that is, to
describe what is rather than positing what should be. The clear goal of economic
development policy was to raise living standards throughout the world, providing steadily
more goods and services to an expanding population. Globally, most countries have
made significant advances both in GDP and in Human Development Index measures. But
overall, the record of development on a world scale is open to two major criticisms:

• The benefits of development have been distributed unevenly, with income inequalities
remaining persistent and sometimes increasing over time. The global numbers of
extremely poor and malnourished people have remained high, and in some areas have
increased, even as a global middle class has achieved relative affluence.

• There have been major negative impacts of development on the environment and on
existing social structures. Many traditional societies have been devastated by
development of forests, water systems, and intensive fisheries. Urban areas in developing
countries commonly suffer from extreme pollution and inadequate transportation, water,
and sewer infrastructure. Environmental damage, if unchecked, may undermine the
achievements of development and even lead to collapse of essential ecosystems.

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1.3.2 Sustainable Development

Activity 2

The growing awareness of these challenges to traditional development thinking has led to
the increasingly wide acceptance of a new concept – that of sustainable development.
You may have heard people talking about Sustainable development – in public meetings,
on television and on the radio. Consultants talk about it, university professors lecture on
it, and at various levels of government, it may even be mandated. But what does
sustainable development really mean?

There is much debate over how to define the term environmentally sustainable
development with many definitions emphasizing some, or many, of the economic,
political, social and ecological dimensions associated with the term.

There are numerous definitions of sustainable development, and much debate about what
constitutes environmentally sustainable development. In the broadest sense, sustainability
refers to the capacity of socio-ecological systems to persist unimpaired into the future.
Environmental sustainability refers to the maintenance of the ecosystem and the natural
resource base. Environmental degradation signifies failure in this regard. It takes three
forms: depletion of resources; pollution, or overuse of the waste-absorbing capacity of
the environment; and reduction in biodiversity - a loss of some types of resources. Social
sustainability is the term used to refer to the social conditions necessary to support
environmental sustainability. This stresses the fact that natural resources are used within
a social context and that it is the rules and values associated with this context that
determine the distribution of resources within the present generation and the next. More
recently, there has been more emphasis on the notion of resilience. Ecologists have
reached a better understanding both of the processes involved in the ecosystem‘s capacity
to recover from shocks and stresses (such as drought) and of people‘s capacities to

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facilitate the recovery of the ecosystem and to diversify their livelihood activities from
natural resource-based to money or market-based activities.

The most commonly accepted understanding of environmentally sustainable development

(ESD) is encapsulated by the Brundtland definition: ‗meeting the needs of present
generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs‘. This definition emphasizes the need to protect future generations while also
improving the well-being of current generations, particularly the poor and vulnerable.
Thus sustainable development can be characterized as a pattern of development that
ensures a non-decreasing flow of well-being over time. Another often-quoted definition
of sustainable development is the one provided by Caring for the Earth: ―improving the
quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting
ecosystems‖. It is recognized that meeting essential needs requires economic growth and
equity facilitated by ‗political systems that secure effective citizen participation in
decision-making‘. It is a type of development that enhances rather than depletes
environmental capital or assets.

The concept of sustainable development is an important milestone in environmental

theory because it posits how society itself should be organized, not simply why certain
environmental protections should be adopted or how they can be best implemented.
Unfortunately, sustainable development is rather difficult to define coherently.
Sustainable development is structural change leading to enduring, widespread
improvements in the well-being of societies and their members. This process involves
self-sustaining economic growth, technological change, the modernization of institutions,
and changes in attitudes and values. From this characterization it follows that enhancing
individual and collective well-being is the central aim of sustainable development as well
as the key criterion for evaluating it. Sustainable development occurs as a series of
parallel and successive transitions to sustainability spanning different dimensions and
determinants of well-being.

In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an

integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it. All

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States and all people shall co-operate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an
indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the
disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of
the world for both present and future generations. This type of development has
concerned with economic growth, environmental protection and the health and the
happiness of the people of the system. The sustainable use of resources means the use of
components of resources of the environment in away and at a rate that does not lead to
the long term decline of the resources, there by maintaining its potential to meet the needs
and aspirations of present as well as future generations.

Regardless of varying definitions and different socio-economic contexts the pursuit of

sustainability, however, requires certain conditions. These conditions include:

• A good governance so that there is social equity and for the benefits of development to
be distributed throughout society;
• A political system that allows for effective citizen participation in decision making;
• An economic system that can generate surpluses and technical knowledge on a self-
reliant and sustained bases;
• A social structure that provides for solutions for the tensions resulting from
disharmonious development;
• A production framework that respects the obligation to preserve the ecological base for
development;
• A technical system that can search continuously for new solutions;
• An administrative system that is flexible and has the capacity for self-correction; and
• An international system that promotes sustainable trade and finance.
Tenets of Sustainable development
-Ensure renewable resource use where possible
-Work for substitution where resources are not renewable
-Maintain the integrity of wider ecosystem

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-Including ecosystem services to communities

-Reduce wastes; recycle materials, efficient use of energy

1.3.3. The Basic Dimension and Perspectives of Sustainable Development

Activity 3

Explain the three basic dimensions of sustainable development.

The many elements of sustainable development are often organized into three dimensions
or pillars: environmental, economic and social. There are different approaches to how
they relate to each other, whether they are pillars on the same level or three rather
different but closely linked dimensions of sustainable development.

• The environment is the necessary basis for sustainable development

• The economy is the tool to achieve sustainable development
• The social dimension (the good life for all,) is the target of sustainable development

[Link]. Environment - the Basis

The natural environment - the ecosystem - is under strain from human activity. Fulfilling
present needs while reducing the impact of human activity is a challenge requiring new
ideas. It is a fundamental part of this challenge to secure the living and physical
environment, including natural resources, processes and balances. Some simple, yet
fundamental, aims have to be formulated, such as:

• Limiting global warming

• Halting loss of biodiversity
• Controlling and limiting emission of persistent chemical pollutants
• Returning to natural nutrient cycles
The need to limit global warming clearly illustrates how the environment is the basis for
any sustainable development. The only logical way to control global warming is to
reduce the emissions of fossil carbon significantly over a relative short time. If the

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climate really comes out of its current balance, it may not be possible anymore to create
the good life of the social dimension with all economic and other tools available.
In an ecological perspective, then, sustainability must involve limits on population and
consumption levels. These limits apply to all biological systems. While humans may
appear to evade them for a time, they must ultimately accept the boundaries of a finite
planet. Clearly, a doubling of this demand, as might well be implied by a 33% growth in
population (to 8 billion) and a 50% growth in per capita consumption by 2050, would
leave little room for any other species on the planet. Sustainability, then, is more than
limits on population or restraint in consumption – though these are important. It means
that in our choice of goods and technologies we must be oriented to the requirements of
ecosystem integrity and species diversity.

However, this simple assertion of limits does not fully capture the contribution of
ecologists to the discussion of sustainability. The third axiom ―concerns process that
generates variability and novelty‖ – the generation of genetic diversity and the resultant
processes of evolution and change in species and ecosystems. Genetic diversity gives rise
to resilience in ecosystems. Resilience is a ―bounce-back‖ capacity which enables a
system to respond to disturbances or damage. For example, a forest ecosystem may
recover from a pest infestation through an increase in the population of predators which
control the pest, an expansion of species unaffected by the pest, and possibly a
development of pest resistance in affected species. The patterns of response will be
widely variable, but the essential integrity of the ecosystem will be preserved. The key to
resilience is the existence of a wide variety of species, interacting with each other and
providing a reservoir of genetic forms which provide the potential to adapt to changing
conditions.

For the ecologist, then, sustainability should be defined in terms of the maintenance of
ecosystem resilience. This view of sustainability is clearly different from the human-
centered conceptions put forward by the World Commission on Environment and

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Development and the consumption-based principles proposed by economic theorists. This

implies that there may be no close relationship between economic efficiency and
ecological sustainability.‖ The importance of the ecological perspective is increasingly
evident, as more of the critical problems facing humanity arise from failures of ecological
resilience. The resurgence of diseases due to the development of antibiotic resistance, the
disruption of ecosystems by introduced species, the formation of ―dead zones‖ in coastal
waters, and the multiple ecological threats related to climate change and increased
climate volatility, all testify to the impacts of expanding human economic activity.

An ecological economic approach requires that resources be allocated in such a fashion

that they threaten neither the system as a whole nor the key components of the system.
For the system to be sustainable it must serve consumption and production objectives that
are themselves sustainable. What is important is that an ecological economics of
sustainability privileges the needs of the system over those of individuals. Clearly, an
integration of economics and ecology is required, and this can only be achieved with the
assistance of the third element of the sustainability triad – the social perspective. If we
cannot rely on unregulated markets to solve our problems, we must turn to conscious
social action. An environmentally sustainable system must maintain a stable resource
base, avoiding over-exploitation of renewable resource systems or environmental sink
functions, and depleting non-renewable resources only to the extent that investment is
made in adequate substitutes. This includes maintenance of biodiversity, atmospheric
stability, and other ecosystem functions not ordinarily classed as economic resources.

[Link]. Economy - the Tool

Traditionally economic development has been seen as the target and the environment as
the tool through the use of resources. Economic prosperity is a very important element of
sustainable development; it allows combating poverty, to finance remediation of old
burdens, to make changes in our development, etc. However, not all economic growth
implies improvement for sustainable development. Only economic growth that reduced
environmental impact can be defended as being part of sustainable development. In other
words, economic growth and environmental impact must be decoupled through improved

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eco-efficiency. Economic policy and market mechanisms must be applied in support of

sustainable development, and not against it. Without denying the importance of tools
such as legislation, public awareness etc., and the economy is a very powerful tool for
sustainable development. Used in the right way, it provides efficient incentives to make
choices for sustainable development.

Making the economy into such an efficient tool implies that all the costs for any activity
must be taken into account when economic and business decisions are made. This
includes in particular long term environmental costs as well as social costs. These true
costs must be reflected directly in market prices. This can be achieved through fiscal
measures and through the establishment of markets where environmental goods and
services are traded at real cost. Carbon trading under the Kyoto agreement is an example
of an attempt to create such a market. The Polluter Pays Principle, which is reflected in
the Rules and Procedures of the EEA Grants, is fundamental part of both establishing
mechanisms reflecting a project‘s true costs as well as securing the financing of these
costs. Project promoters must take the Polluter Pays Principle into account whenever
relevant.

From the point of view of neoclassical economic theory, sustainability can be defined in
terms of the maximization of welfare over time. (This is assumed to be human welfare –
we will introduce the claims of the non-human world when we consider the ecological
perspective.) Most economists simplify further by identifying the maximization of
welfare with the maximization of utility derived from consumption. While this may be
criticized as an oversimplification, it certainly includes many important elements of
human welfare (food, clothing, housing, transportation, health and education services,
etc.) and it has the analytical advantage of reducing the problem to a measurable single-
dimensional indicator. According to standard economic theory, efficient resource
allocation should have the effect of maximizing utility from consumption. If we accept
the use of time discounting as a method of comparing the economic values of

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consumption in different time periods, then sustainability appears to mean nothing more
than efficient resource allocation – a concept already well established in economics.
When we consider issues such as soil erosion or atmospheric buildup of greenhouse
gases, where the most damaging impacts are felt over decades or generations, this creates
a strong bias against sustainability. Thus to achieve intergenerational equity, we must
either impose a low discount rate or some kind of sustainability rule regarding resource
use and environmental impacts.

None of these appear in the neo-classical economic model, where markets are presumed
to be the best resource allocators and the occasional correction of a ―market
imperfection‖ the only appropriate role for government. Much as the Keynesian
revolution validated the concept of government intervention to achieve macroeconomic
stability, the acceptance of sustainability as a valid social goal places a new complexion
on all policy issues concerning the relationship between human economic activity and the
environment. Markets may be valuable and essential means, but they cannot determine
the ends, which must be arrived at by a social decision process informed by different
disciplinary viewpoints. This will require an unaccustomed humility on the part of
economists, and a willingness to work together with other social and natural scientists.
An economically sustainable system must be able to produce goods and services on a
continuing basis, to maintain manageable levels of government and external debt, and to
avoid extreme sectoral imbalances which damage agricultural or industrial production.

[Link]. Social - the Target

The very essence of the sustainable development idea is to shift the focus from the
present needs to also include the future generations as well. Realizing a sufficiently good
life for all humans, within present and future generations, is therefore the target of
sustainable development. The social dimension is also important because sustainable
development can only be achieved by people who feel that they have a fair share of
wealth, safety and influence. The underlying assumption is not individual gain, but the
provision for, and involvement in equitable growth for all in the society. Therefore the
social dimension of sustainable development includes support of the civil society, its

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involvement in solving various types of issues and its participation in decision processes
on different levels. The social dimension also includes the fight against poverty through
employment, support to sustainable livelihoods, antidiscrimination work, and social
security for all.

Advocates of sustainable development, as we have noted, recognize the social component

of development as an essential part of the new paradigm. In doing so, they are validating
the importance of a much older perspective. A ―human development‖ approach
emphasizing issues of basic needs and equity is well grounded in the history of economic
theory. As we have noted, the focus on basic needs and equity in development has been
represented by the United Nations Development Program‘s series of Human
Development Reports. In addition to calculating the Human Development Index which
offers a different measure of development success from per capita GNP or GDP, the
Human Development Reports focus each year on a different aspect of social and
economic development, such as democratic governance, gender inequity, and poverty.
The HDI combines life expectancy, adult literacy, and school enrollment ratios with per
capita GDP in a weighted average to get an index between 0 and 1. The results clearly
show that development is a multidimensional process, and that higher GDP does not
necessarily mean higher overall welfare.

While the HDI does not explicitly include any environmental measures, the 1994 report
discussed the relationship between sustainability and equity: The concept of sustainable
development raises the issue of whether present life-styles are acceptable and whether
there is any reason to pass them on to the next generation. Because intergenerational
equity must go hand in hand with intra-generational equity, a major restructuring of the
world‘s income and consumption patterns may be a necessary precondition for any viable
strategy of sustainable development . . . Development patterns that perpetuate today‘s
inequities are neither sustainable nor worth sustaining.

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Clearly, the issue of environmental sustainability is intertwined with that of poverty and
inequity. It has frequently been noted that the causative relationship runs both ways –
increased poverty and loss of rural livelihoods accelerates environmental degradation as
displaced people put greater pressure on forests, fisheries, and marginal lands. If the
problems of environment and equity are clearly related, then so must be the solutions.
Third World critics of the standard, ―Western‖ development model see that model itself
as a significant cause of the problems. The sweeping optimism implicit in Rostow‘s
original stages-of-growth paradigm ignores social and cultural differences between
nations, as well as the fundamental power disparity between developed and developing
nations. A view of development as a one-way journey to improved conditions fails to
match the experience of many people whose livelihoods are threatened by globalization. .
. local experiences of western development in many localities of the third world have
been closely associated with the dissolution of indigenous cultural, political, and
economic systems; with increased inequalities in life chances between genders and
among classes, castes, and ethnic groups; and with deterioration in, and removal of access
to, the biophysical environment.

A sustainable development process will have to be democratized, decentralized, and

pluralistic. It will have to balance wealth-creation with wealth distribution. And it will
have to include a healthy skepticism about Western models and the modernizing effects
of global markets. It is not only radical critics who are aware of the need for significant
changes in the development paradigm. The World Bank has recently produced reports
stressing the importance of social capital, the role of the state, and the importance of local
government and non-governmental organizations in development.

Sustainable development aims to provide a long-term vision for the society. Activities to
meet present needs may still have short-term horizons, but they must in addition always
include a long term perspective. Sustainable development is an integrated concept
involving all human actions down to the local level, and:

• aims to improve the quality of life of both current and future generations, while
safeguarding the earth‘s capacity to support life in all its diversity;

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• is based on democracy, the rule of law and respect for fundamental rights including
freedom, equal opportunities and cultural diversity;

• promotes high levels of employment in an economy whose strength is based on

education, innovation, social and territorial cohesion and the protection of human health
and the environment.

Sustainable development has traditionally been focused on an environmentalism

framework that gives priority to the issue of ecological degradation. One can safely argue
that environmental concerns are the cornerstone of sustainable development. Until
recently, sustainable development was viewed solely through the lens of the
environmentalist but as the concept has matured, increasing emphasis has been placed on
its interconnection to social and economic dimensions of development. Indeed,
contemporary mainstream notions of sustainable development portray it as a tri-
dimensional concept featuring the interface between environment, economic, and social
sustainability‖.

• The original idea of development was based on a straight-line progression from

traditional to modern mass-consumption society. Within this framework, a tension
developed between the promotion of economic growth and the equitable provision of
basic needs. Development as it has proceeded over the last half-century has remained
inequitable, and has had growing negative environmental impacts.

• A concept of sustainable development must remedy social inequities and environmental

damage, while maintaining a sound economic base.

• The conservation of natural capital is essential for sustainable economic production and
intergenerational equity. Market mechanisms do not operate effectively to conserve
natural capital, but tend to deplete and degrade it.

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• From an ecological perspective, both population and total resource demand must be
limited in scale, and the integrity of ecosystems and diversity of species must be
maintained.

• Social equity, the fulfillment of basic health and educational needs, and participatory
democracy are crucial elements of development, and are interrelated with environmental
sustainability.

1.3.4. A Synthesis of the above Perspectives

Activity 4

Can we combine the economic, ecological, and social perspectives to provide a new
vision of development in the twenty-first century?

Clearly, these three elements of sustainability introduce many potential complications to

the original simple definition. The strongly normative nature of the sustainable
development concept makes it difficult to pin down analytically. Nonetheless, the three
principles outlined above do have resonance at a commonsense level. It is instructive to
examine the problem from different disciplinary perspectives. Certainly the goals set
forth require the insights of multiple disciplines.

Economists, one might assume, would tend to give greater weight to the economic
objectives, ecologists to the environmental dimension, and social theorists to the social
issues. The economic dimension of sustainable development (economic sustainability)
reflects the need to strike the balance between the costs and benefits of economic activity,
within the confines of the carrying capacity of the environment. Economic progress
should not be made at the expense of intergenerational equity. Therefore, resources
should not be exploited to the extent that their re-generative ability is compromised.
Social sustainability relates to the maintenance of political and community values. Social
values and norms, being largely intangible, relate to the ―ethics, value systems, language,
education, work attitudes, class systems‖ and so on, that influence societal relations.
Social sustainability also speaks to the satisfaction of basic human needs within the
society such as food, clothing, and shelter. The sustainability of social needs and values
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alludes to the quality of growth that occurs in the economy. Equity in the distribution of
resources is integral to social sustainability.

The foundation of sustainable theory lies first, in recognizing the biological limits to
growth, the ecological carrying capacity and the maximum sustainable yield – the
ecological sustainability view. Sustainability in this view means environmental
sustainability. The environmental and ecological base of sustainable development is very
strong (an eco-centric view). Ecologists and other scientists are concerned about the
irreversible exhaustion of finite resources. The second foundation is sustainable
economic growth. This refers to a situation where the economy is growing over a period
of time (measured by continual rise in GNP per capita) and surviving periods of relative
recession. Sustainable economic growth implies that if the economy is growing on its
own momentum then there is sustainable development. This view is referred to as
‗techno-centric‘ (believing in the technological capability of humans to control nature
and to achieve the best use of the environment). The concern for project sustainability is
also related to this view.

Ecological economists, however, favor the merging together of environmental and

economic concerns into one theoretical framework. The economic system dealing with
production and the question of distribution of goods and services is brought together with
the ecological system. Economic growth is necessary and possible, though such growth
should not irrevocably harm the environment. The social approach considers the poor
people and their basic needs first. Another key element of the social approach is an
emphasis on social equity, justice and liberation. This is the elimination of injustices and
major inequalities within a society, which includes, for example, division of society by
race, class or gender; the abrogation of basic human rights by rulers; or the existence of
extreme inequalities in wealth. Another key consideration in this view is the inter-
generational equity and the fair distribution and access to life-support systems between
generations and within the current generations.

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Each of the three areas is commonly referred to as a system: economic systems,

environmental systems, and social systems each have their own logic. The total system of
which human society is a part, and on which it depends for support, is made up of a large
number of component systems. The whole cannot function properly and is not viable and
sustainable if individual component systems cannot function properly . . . sustainable
development is possible only if component systems as well as the total system are viable.
Sustainable development then, is the merging of all three foundations: ecological carrying
capacity, sustainable economic growth and a sustainable society. Several writers have
defined sustainable development based on the three foundations discussed above. One
useful explanation of sustainable development is a process of change in which the
exploitation of environmental resources, the focus of investments, the orientation of
technological development, and institutional changes are made consistent with present as
well as future needs and is guided by a basic philosophy which emphasizes development
to improve the quality of life of the people (assuring equity in the distribution of benefits
flowing from development) and development that is environmentally appropriate, making
proper use (and sometimes non use) of natural resources and protecting essential
ecological processes, life support systems and biological diversity. Achieving sustainable
development entails a continuous process of decision making in which certain questions
are asked and whereby the ‗right‘ choices and decisions are made.

1.3.5. Historical Development and Origins of sustainable development

Even the term ―sustainable‖ must be defined, since on the surface it appears to be
inherently positive. In reality, Sustainable Development has become a ―buzz‖ term that
refers to a political agenda, rather than an objectively sustainable form of development.
Specifically, it refers to an initiative of the United Nations (U.N.) called the U.N. Known
around the world simply as Agenda 21, this initiative is ―a comprehensive plan of action
to be taken globally, nationally, and locally by organizations of the United Nations
System, Governments, and Major Groups in every area in which human impacts on the
environment.‖

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International organizations such as the U.N., and its accredited Non-Governmental

Organizations (NGOs), generally consider Sustainable Development and Agenda 21 to be
synonymous. Therefore, in order to avoid confusion and equivocation, Sustainable
Development will be the term used throughout this document to refer to both. Agenda 21
will only be used to refer to the actual document from the Rio Earth Summit.

Sustainable development entered the development discourse in the early 1970s. The 1972
UN Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment may be argued to be the first
international conference that brought the concept of sustainability to the international
arena. However, there is a general consensus in the literature that it was the 1987 World
Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) that was largely responsible for
providing the normative-conceptual bridge between environmental concerns and
development outcomes. Sustainable development was further legitimized following the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil in 1992 (known as Earth Summit); the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development held in 1993; and the World Summit for Sustainable Development which
was held in Johannesburg in 2002. These conferences facilitated the globalization of the
concept and the establishment of an international consensus on the concept of sustainable
development by the formulation of such action plans and guidelines such as the
Brundtland Report and Agenda21.

Sustainable development is at the forefront of the world‘s attention, with global

initiatives such as the 1972 World Conference on the Human Environment, the 1987
World Commission on Environment and Development, and the 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development. However, the 2002 World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD) to renew commitments for the implementation of the
Agenda 21 over the next decade confirmed that the world is far from the achieving
sustainable development. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs Division for Sustainable Development (UNDESA, 2002) 2 report to the WSSD

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reaffirms that: If current patterns of development continue, nearly half of the world's
people will suffer from water shortages within the next 25 years, the use of fossil fuels,
along with greenhouse gas emissions, will grow, and the world‘s forests will continue to
disappear. The UNDESA report highlights that despite over two decades of global efforts
to promote sustainable development; unsustainable resource use still continues and may
continue in the future posing threats to the livelihoods of nearly half of the world‘s
population.

Awareness about sustainable development can be traced from a report written in 1987 by
Brundtlund Commission titled Our common future. However the sequence starts much
earlier to the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) followed
by UNEP and UNCTAD s seminar on Patterns of Resource use, Environment and
Development Strategies (1974). IUCN and UN produced World Conservation Strategy in
1980. Subsequent effort has included UN Conference on Environment and Development
(Rio- Summit), in 1992, Commission on Sustainable Development (1992), World
Conference on Human Rights (1993), Conference on Population and Development
(1994), World Summit for Social Development (1995), UN conference on Human
Settlements (Habitat II) (1996), Earth Summit + Five (1997), World Summit on
Sustainable Development (Johannesburg (2002).

Taken together, these writings suggest several generalizations about how to plan for, and
progress towards, sustainable development. First, there must be a political system that has
both sustainability as a target to achieve, and allows for effective citizen participation in
decision-making. Second, the solutions for achieving sustainable development need to be
tailored to the social, ecological and economic realities of the locations where resources
are being managed. In addition, there is a need for a technical system that can search
continuously for new solutions, an administrative system that is flexible and has the
capacity for self-correction and an international system that promotes sustainable
development.

Lesson Four: Theories of Environmental Management and Sustainable

Development

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Introduction

Due to growing awareness of problems of environmental degradations such as resource

scarcity, drought, loss of biodiversity, deforestation, desertification and climate change
various theories which argue about the causes and the way outs of these problems of the
planet come to the surface. Generally, the theories of environment may put into two
broad categories. The first is anthropocentric (human-centered) which describes a world
view which sees environmental problems purely from the perspective of humanity‘s
quality of life and the services that get from the environment for the welfare of humanity
alone. The liberal and realist theories treat the environment as an external factor which
merely provides resources for human beings, rather than being important in its own right.
The second is eco-centric which attempts to prioritize and privilege nature and
acknowledge mutual interdependence among the various component of the environment
to exist.

The lesson will introduce you to the major theories of environmental management and
sustainable development. In the following pages, you will read of the main policy
prescription of various theories and be able to analyze the various issues of environment
and development accordingly.

Lesson Objectives

On successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Compare and contrast the position of various theories of environmental

management and sustainable development
 Distinguish the main differences between Deep ecology and shallow
ecology theories of environment.
 Differentiate which theory can best explain the conditions of the
environment in your locality.

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1.4.1. Neo-Malthusian Theory

Neo-Malthusians argue that population growth that exceeded the carrying capacity of the
environment is the basic cause of environmental degradation and resource scarcity. By
omission or commission people mismanage the environment for short term gains and this
misguided exploitation of resources with unwise methods and their transgression of
ecologically defined limits is the cause for environmental degradation. According to Neo-
Malthusians, each area has a carrying capacity beyond which it cannot be utilized without
causing damage, deterioration and decreasing productivity. As population pressure
increases, people degrade their environment in order to maintain food security which
inexorably leads to a spiral of land degradation, declining productivity and greater food
insecurity.

Consequently, unless some means is found to limit the growth of population and over
exploitation of resources, the environmental implications will be globally severing. If
human beings fail to take corrective actions against the impact of their size, misbehavior
and consumption patterns, nature will enforce the limit to population growth via disease,
starvation, famine, poverty, conflict to maintain equilibrium between demand and supply.
Central to Neo-Malthusian theory, is the argument that as populations growth; resource
degradation and depletion exacerbate poverty, inequality and undermine overall
economic productivity and finally lead to resource war. Hence, for this theory the way
out from the various environmental problems mentioned above is structuring
development and utilization of resources within the planet‘s ecological means- carrying
capacity. As the capacity of the planet to provide raw materials and absorb wastes is
limited, development programs and population growth should take this into account to
make the latter sustainable and conducive for life.

1.4.2. Deep Ecology

The term ―deep ecology‖ was introduced by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess and
Since its inception it has come to be somewhat of a banner for those who argue for a non
anthropocentric orientated way of life and stands in opposition to the ‗shallow‘ ecology
movement. Arne Naess coined the term ―Deep Ecology‖ in 1972 to express the ideas that
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nature has intrinsic value, namely, value apart from its usefulness to human beings, and
that all life forms should be allowed to flourish and fulfill their evolutionary destinies.
Naess invented the rubric to contrast such views with what he considered to be ―shallow‖
environmentalism, namely, environmental concern rooted only in concern for humans.
The term has since come to signify both its advocates‘ deeply felt spiritual connections to
the earth‘s living systems and ethical obligations to protect them, as well as the global
environmental movement that bears its name. His philosophical masterpiece puts
mankind back in its place: man is part of nature, not above, not separate from, nor can
mankind pretend that nature is there to serve. Deep Ecology, by some regarded as a
fundamentalist approach, offers an inclusive concept, an all-encompassing framework,
that prescribes that the Earth, Mother Earth is a unique system, a complex organ which
cannot be neither dissected, nor considered separate from any of its components.

Deep Ecology is an increasingly influential green spirituality and ethics that universally
recognized in environmentalist enclaves, and increasingly outside of such subcultures, as
signifying a radical movement that challenges the conventional, usually anthropocentric
ways humans deal with the natural world. Its influence in environmental philosophy has
been profound, for even those articulating alternative environmental ethics are compelled
to respond to its insistence that nature has intrinsic and even sacred value, and its anti-
anthropocentric challenge. Its greatest influence, however, may be through the diverse
forms of environmental activism that it inspires, action that increasingly shapes world
environmental politics. Not only is deep ecology the prevailing spirituality of
bioregionalism and radical environmentalism, it undergirds the International Forum on
Globalization and the Ruckus Society, two organizations playing key roles in the anti-
globalization protests that erupted in 1999.

Deep Ecologists argue that the increased domination over nature and the use of her
resources solely for the benefits of human kind without giving due regard for non-human
components of the planet is the major cause of environmental degradation and resource

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scarcity. For this theory, an eco-centric rather than an anthropocentric out look should be
put in place and the relationship between humans and other organisms of the planet
should be harmonized so as to overcome environmental problems. The anthropocentric
approach ignores the interdependence between humans and other organisms of the
environment, disregard respect for nonhuman species that causes environmental
degradation. For this theory, the state and the global institutions, current patterns of
consumption and production, erroneous intellectual approach and misguided behavior to
the natural world, modern science and technology viewed as the major causes of
environmental degradation and resource depletion across the globe. It argues that
resource crisis is part and parcel of the global environmental crisis that we are facing
today. It also argues that grave consequences of resource scarcity and environmental
degradation are not limited to national boundaries and will inevitably affect all
stakeholders in one way or another. Hence, resource scarcity is taken as an opportunity
for cooperation and a powerful inducement to promote peace across the globe.

Introducing the notions of limits to growth, sustainable development, integrated

approach, participation of all stakeholders, decentralization of power and environmental
security are very essential to solve the environmental problems of the planet. There
should be decentralization of power to local communities and also centralization of
power above the state up to the regional and global level. Because, the state is considered
as both too big and too small to deal effectively with environmental challenges of the
world. Thus, the principle of equity and fairness should be institutionalized at
transboundary level and the shared interests of states should be given priority so as to
solve the shared problems. The prescriptions of this theory are also very essential for
solving the environmental problems of the world. Because (as they argue), the problems
are not limited by political boundaries; problems are opportunities for cooperation; the
states are too weak to handle the problems unilaterally; the contribution and utilization
pattern is highly unfair and inequitable which affect cooperation between riparian states
and aggravates environmental degradation across the world.

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Thus, deep ecologists generally believe that only by re-sacralzing our perceptions of the
natural world can we put ecosystems above narrow human interests and thereby avert
ecological catastrophe by learning to live harmoniously with the natural world. It is a
common perception within the deep ecology movement that the religions of indigenous
cultures, the world‘s remnant and newly revitalized or invented pagan religions, and
religions originating in Asia (especially Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism), provide
superior grounds for ecological ethics, and greater ecological wisdom, than do Occidental
religions.

One crucial event early in deep ecology‘s evolution was the 1974 ―Rights of Non-Human
Nature‖ conference held at a college in Claremont, California. A corresponding
movement soon followed and grew rapidly, greatly influencing grassroots
environmentalism, especially in Europe, North America, and Australia. Shortly after
forming in 1980, for example, leaders of the politically radical Earth First! Movement
(the explanation point is part of its name) learned about Deep Ecology, and immediately
embraced it as their own, spiritual, philosophy. Meanwhile, the green lifestyle-focused
movement known as Bioregionalism became another physical embodiment of a deep
ecology worldview. Given their natural affinities it was not long before Bioregionalism
became the prevailing social philosophy among deep ecologists. As a philosophy and as a
movement, deep ecology spread in many ways. During the 1980s and early 1990s, for
example, Bill Devall and George Sessions published their influential book, Deep
Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered; Warwick Fox in Toward a Transpersonal Ecology
linked deep ecology with transpersonal psychology, thereby furthering the development
of what is now called ―ecopsychology‖; David Rothenberg translated and edited Arne
Naess‘s important work, Ecology, Community and Lifestyle; and Michael E. Zimmerman
interpreted Martin Heidegger as a forerunner of deep ecology, thus helping to spark a
trend of calling upon contemporary European thinkers for insight into environmental
issues. Many deep ecologists have complained, however, that the postmodern thinking

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imported from Europe has undermined the status of ―nature,‖ defined by deep ecologists
as a whole that includes but exists independently of humankind.

1.4.3. Shallow Ecology

The proponents of this theory believe that by resorting to international agreements,

persuasion and regulation, technological innovations, environmental and resource
problems can be solved without paradigm shift in present values or patterns of production
and consumption. This theory maintains faith in the ability of science, technology, and
human ingenuity to accommodate the world‘s population demand for resources,
particularly for water. For them environmental crisis is the consequence of inadequate
environmental management knowhow or technological underinvestment. So the problem
is not the physical scarcity of resources, but scarcity of managerial skills (second order
scarcities) or low investment for technological facilities for comprehensive and efficient
use of the existing resources. The solution for environmental problems, mainly resources
scarcity, is, therefore, improving technological and management techniques. As many
countries of the world are characterized by second order scarcity (mainly technical and
managerial, utilization and conservation problems) adopting this theory's position is also
valuable to solve the common problem of resources use inefficiency in the world.

Activity 1

What are the Distinctions between Deep and Shallow Ecology?

Comparison of shallow and deep ecology

Deep versus shallow ecology: shallow ecology is the fight against pollution and resource
depletion. Deep ecology is holistic; it takes a total field perspective Bio-centric Equality
is to recognize that all organisms and beings are equally members of an interrelated
whole and therefore, have equal intrinsic worth. In shallow ecology the Earth must be
preserved because it belongs to all present and future generations; according to deep
ecology mankind is owner of nothing. In deep ecology there is no central or best pattern.
Global equilibrium, variety and complexity of living species, ecosystems and cultures are
self-sustaining values. Words like ―growth‖ or ―decrease‖ are complements, in dynamic
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balance, with no good or bad value. Concepts like ―resources‖ or ―wastes‖ are not
necessary, because they admit changes that take something (resources) and cast away
something else (wastes), which means a not-cycled way, which damage and change
equilibrium condition. The so-called production eventually is a waste production.
Substantially, in deep ecology, the idea of environment is increased to become the
perception to be a component of a Psychophysic Unity, that is Nature, the maximum
variety, harmony or dynamic balance of species: a sort of self-improving Minded system.

Activity 2

What do you think about the major limitations of the above theories?

1.4.4. Market Environmentalism

It is an individualistic, utilitarian and anthropocentric thought which presents the market

as the most important mechanism for mediations between people and regulating their
interaction with the environment. According to this theory, the market is the only
efficient way to regulate human use of the environment and its resources. For this theory
environmental problems are seen to follow from the misallocation and mis-utilization of
resources. So, according to it, the further market exchange penetrates into the
environment, the greater the efficiency of environmental management and the lesser
environmental problems and resource scarcity. Economists argue that resource scarcity is
basically an economic problem which will be alleviated if nation‘s treat resources as an
economic asset- resource with a price. Thus, the solution for resources scarcity lies in the
application of market mechanisms, especially in terms of virtual resources trading. In this
context, countries of the world should have to recognize resources as scarce economic
good and they advocate the efficient utilization of the resources.

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1.4.5. Liberal Institutionalism

It believes that establishment of institutions and forums are needed in order to bring ever
lasting stability and facilitate cooperation among actors so as to solve common problems
and promote mutual interests. Environmental problems have been regarded as
manifestation of interdependence in international relations and another reason why states
are compelled to engage in cooperation to manage them. They were/are highly optimistic
about the possibility that guarding against environmental catastrophe and safeguarding
natural resources are examples of common interests that could lead to cooperation in the
search for solutions- the solution is cooperation not unilateral approaches. Today some
liberals argue that environmental problems like ozone depletion, water scarcity, climate
change, and deforestation are compelling states to engage in more cooperative strategies
among them and with non-state actors. In short as the problems are transboundary, the
solutions must also be transboundary that demands the cooperation of all concerned.

The above theories have been used to analyze environmental and developmental issues.
The Neo-Malthusian theory has been used to see the impact of population growth; Deep
Ecology, Shallow ecology, liberal institutionalism, realism and market environmentalism
have been used to examine the causes and consequences of environmental problems, the
current policy and management practices, challenges and opportunities of sustainable
development. Hence, in the following units, the major environmental problems mainly,
deforestation and soil erosion, flooding and siltation, climate change and drought and
their resultant food insecurity and poverty and their impact environment management and
sustainable development, development and management policies and practices, basic
challenges and opportunities for environment management have been presented and
analyzed based up on the above conceptual and theoretical frameworks.

Activity: 3

Which theory do you think that best explain the condition of the Environment in your
locality?

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Unit summary

The demand for just or more equitable resources utilization will continue to be a
contested issue in the world. And it will not abate until that time when sustainable
development and natural resources management put in place. We may not achieve the
goal of building a just or equitable resources utilization if an anthropocentric view
remains the prime factor in their utilization and management. In this unit, we have
defined the concept of environment, environmental management, approaches of natural
resources management, sustainable development, ecology and ecosystems. We discussed
the various theories on environment and sustainable development. We have seen also the
historical development and various perspectives of sustainable development.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. What role did sustainable development play to improve the utilization of natural
resources?

2. What are the differences between the environment and environmental management?

3. What do think about the basic benefits of an ecosystem?

4. What are the three basic dimensions of sustainable development? Explain how far they
are interrelated to each other.

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 UNIT TWO: ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES

UNIT TWO

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES

Introduction

This unit focuses on natural / environmental resources. The first section focuses on clarifying
and defining concepts that are being used in the following parts of the module. The second
section assesses the major components of natural resources which are found in our environment.
The aims are to help you know and understand the natural resources and the impacts of
realization of sustainable development and environmental management on their utilization and
sustainability.

Major text books

 Hanley, Nick and White, Ben (2001). Introduction to Environmental Economics. Oxford
University Press: New York.

 Anjaneyulu,Y.(2004). Introduction to Environmental Science. BS Publication: Giriraj

Lane.

 Owens, Susan and Owens, Peter L. (1991). Environment, Resources and Conservation.
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Unit Objectives

On successful completion of the unit, you should be able to:

 Define and conceptualize various types of natural resources

 Understand the main uses of various natural resources.
 Know the interplay of environmental management, sustainable development and natural
resources utilization.
 Offer explanations for various theories of environment and sustainable development
 Explain the inter play between environmental management and sustainable development.

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Lesson one: Understanding Natural Resources

Lesson Objectives

On successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Define and conceptualize natural resources

 Understand the main features of natural resources.

 Understand the nature of natural resources found in your locality.

 Explain the significance of natural resources for development.

Introduction

The various issues that will be examined in this lesson include the concept of natural resources,
the features and the nature of natural resources.

Activity1

What are natural resources? Can you mention some components of it, which are found in your
locality?

2.1.1 Natural Resources

Natural resources are essential to the economies of nearly to all nations of the world. Agriculture,
fisheries and forestry contribute greatly to economic production for countries throughout the
world. Such resource-dependent industries rely simultaneously on both the use and conservation
of natural resources. Natural resources are materials from the Earth that are used to support life
and meet people‘s needs. Any natural substance that humans use can be considered as a natural
resource. Oil, coal, natural gas, metals, stone and sand are examples of natural resources. Air,
sunlight, soil, water, animals, birds, fish and plants are also natural resources. Examples of flows
of services and amenities (i.e. ecological functions useful to mankind) associated with stocks of
natural capital include nutrient cycling, water cycling and carbon sequestration. They are used to
make food, fuel and raw materials for the production of goods and services for human beings.

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All of the food that people eat comes from plants or animals. Natural resources such as coal,
natural gas and oil provide heat, light and power. Natural resources also are the raw materials for
making products that we use everyday from our toothbrush and lunch box to our clothes, cars,
televisions, computers and refrigerators. Similarly, sustained economic growth depends on
sufficient, reliable and environmentally sound energy sources. However, such competing
demands for resources must be balanced to achieve long-term growth and sustainable utilization
of these scarce resources of the earth. The world in which human being lives contains a number
of resources. These resources make it possible for human beings to exist on the planet earth and
reproduce after its own kind, and produce goods and services to meet its needs. Human beings
did not create all these resources; we met them here, existing ―in nature‖. Consequently, these
resources have come to be known as ―natural resources‖, simply because they occur naturally.
These resources include the geophysical resources of water, soil and its productive qualities,
intermediate and long-term carbon stocks, biodiversity of the managed landscapes, and the
stability and resilience of the ecosystem of which agriculture is a part.

In the early ages, when human populations were low, there were more than enough of these
resources for each person; there was no shortage and presumably therefore, no conflicts over
these resources. Consequently, an erroneous impression was created that these resources were
infinite, indestructible and permanent, no matter how they were used or managed. That
impression is now known to be obviously false. Even more worrisome is the realization that that
these resources can be completely destroyed, while some elements of resources are prone to
extinction.

During the period 1990 to 2030 the world‘s population is likely to grow by 3.7 billion. Ninety
percent of this increase will occur in developing countries. Over the next four decades Sub-
Saharan Africa‘s population is expected to rise from 500 million to 1.5 billion, Asia‘s from 3.1
billion to 5.1 billion, and Latin America‘s from 450 million to 750 million. The distribution of
people between rural and urban areas has important implications for the types of stress placed on
the environment and its resources. While it is very difficult to forecast how per capita income
will change in the next 30 years, it is quite clear that the growing population aspires to a higher

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standard of living. This will often entail an accelerated use of natural resources, both as inputs to
the economy, and as recipients of waste.

However, the relationship between economic growth and environmental stress is not a linear one,
as growth also generates resources to better manage natural resources. How this affect the
environment is very much dependent on the structure of economic growth, the input output
efficiency in production processes, and the unit rates of pollutants emitted from these activities.
Higher income also means more resources to combat environmental damage. New technology
enhances efficiency and reduces the amount of NR needed for a given output, as well as the
pollution intensity per unit of output.

In response to this, there has been growing emphasis on the need to conserve and sustainably
manage our natural resources. The concept of natural resources management (NRM) recognizes
the need for a more conscious effort towards judicious and sustainable management of natural
resources. It also recognizes that natural resources are inter-related to one another within a
defined ecological system, and therefore need to be managed in an integrated fashion. This has
given rise to the concept of Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM), which drives
home the need to take a holistic integrated approach in dealing with natural resources, and to be
conscious of the interactions among the different components of the resource base. Within any
given ecosystem, stocks of natural resources (sometimes referred to as natural capital) exist and
yield useful flows of services and amenities at different spatial and temporal scales.
Consequently, the management of natural capital has impacts on a range of stakeholders, from
farmers to communities, to international concerns.

Nature has provided a large number of materials and services that are essential for life on earth.
These natural substances are known as natural resources and are the raw materials used to satisfy
human needs. Hence, any ting that can be transformed in a form that becomes valuable and
useful for human beings is termed as a resource. Natural resources (NR) provide fundamental
life support, in the form of both consumptive and public-good services. Ecological processes
maintain soil productivity, nutrient recycling, the cleansing of air and water, and climatic cycles.
Soils are the foundation of agriculture, which in turn is the basic building block in the livelihoods
of all people. At the genetic level, diversity found in natural life-forms supports the breeding
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programs necessary to protect and improve cultivated plants and domesticated animals. Wild
flora and fauna form the basis of traditional medicine and a significant part of the modern
pharmacological industry. The natural-resources foundation is coming under increasing pressure
from both increasing population and higher levels of per-capita economic activity.

Resources can be classified on the basis of their origin as well as their continual utility. On the
basis of their origin natural resources can be classified as biotic and abiotic resources. The
resources that are derived from the living world (either form plants or animals) are termed as
biotic resources (eg. Wood, humus, manure). On the other hand the abiotic resources refer to
resources that are derived from the non-living world (land, water, air, minerals, and power).

On the basis of their continual utility, natural resources can be classified into renewable and
non- renewable resources. The resources whose continual harvest is possible with proper
planning and management (plants, animals, solar energy, wind energy,) are known as renewable
resources. They are capable of being replenished by natural ecological cycles or by sound
management practices. Renewable resources are those natural resources such as trees, water, sun
and wind that can be replenished at about the same rate at which they are used. Renewable
resources, however, can be depleted if not properly managed or conserved. Renewable resources
are, by definition, able to sustain or increase their abundance through natural growth in excess of
natural mortality. Environmental goods and services may be classified as either renewable or
nonrenewable. A tree is an example of a renewable resource, because a new tree can grow in
place of an old tree that dies or is cut down. can regenerate if they are alive or can be replenished
by biochemical cycles if they are nonliving. However, a renewable resource is not necessarily
unlimited. Fresh water, for example, is a renewable resource that can easily become limited by
drought or overuse.

A non-renewable natural resource is one that cannot be replenished by natural processes. The
fossil fuels coal, oil, and natural gas are nonrenewable resources. Fossil fuels formed over
hundreds of millions of years from deeply buried organic materials. When these fuels are
depleted, they are gone forever. The classification of a resource as renewable or nonrenewable
depends on its context. Although a single tree is renewable, a population of trees in a forest
ecosystem—on which a community of organisms depends—may not be renewable, because that
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ecosystem may change forever once those trees are gone. Non- renewable resources are natural
resources ( eg. Coal, minerals, petroleum,) that cannot be replenished by natural means; these
resources, once gone, have very little chance of recovery or resynthesis. Nonrenewable
resources are those natural resources that are depleted more quickly than they can regenerate.
Fossil fuels like oil and natural gas were formed over millions of years. Once mined and used
completely, nonrenewable resources are gone forever.

Lesson Two: Types of Natural Resources

The aims are to help you understand the various types of natural resources; significance of each
type of resources for sustainable development.

Lesson Objectives

On successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify the various types of natural resources

 Understand the contribution of each resource for development.

 Know the challenges of each resource.

INTRODUCTION

The various issues that will be examined in this lesson include the various components of natural
resources, the contribution of these resources for sustainable development.

Activity1

Mention at least six natural resources found in your locality. What do think about the major
challenges of these resources?

2.2.1 Minerals

Minerals are natural occurring chemical compounds formed through inorganic processes under
the crust of the earth. Their presence in the earth‘s crust is the result of geological processes
operating over a long period of time. Minerals are not found everywhere. Each region has varied
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deposits of minerals. The distribution of these minerals resources is uneven thought the earth.
India is rich in 35 minerals such as iron, aluminum. Manganese, chromium, limestone, dolomite,
mica, etc. minerals are non renewable resources, i.e once mined and put to use, they can not be
restored or replaced again. They are exhaustible resources and may be diminished by use, their
regular exploitation and over use may completely exhaust the available deposits. Therefore, it is
an imperative duty of people to use the irreplaceable resources with care so that generations yet
unborn will get their share to the wealth. Minerals various types of minerals are coal,
magnesium, iron, limestone, gold, silver, lead, tin, diamond, platinum, and many more.

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a definite chemical composition and crystalline
structure that is formed through inorganic processes. A mineral resource is a concentration or
occurrence of diamonds, natural solid inorganic material, or natural solid fossilized organic
material including base and precious metals, coal, and industrial minerals in or on the Earth‘s
crust in such form and quantity and of such a grade or quality that it has reasonable prospects for
economic extraction. The location, quantity, grade, geological characteristics and continuity of a
mineral resource are known, estimated or interpreted from specific geological evidence and
knowledge. Mineral resources are sub-divided, in order of increasing geological confidence, into
inferred, indicated and measured categories.

Minerals are literally the foundations of our everyday world. Not only do minerals make up the
rocks we see around us in the Northeast, they are used in nearly every aspect of our lives. The
wide variety of minerals found in the rocks of the Northeast, are used in industry, construction,
machinery, technology, food, makeup, jewelry, and even the paper on which these words are
printed.

Types of minerals

Minerals resources fall in to the following three categories:

Metallic minerals
These minerals are associated with their ores. The ores are mined pure metal are obtained
through chemical process. About 11 metallic minerals are produced in India. Some of the
principle metallic minerals are iron ore, lead, zinc, copper, manganese, etc.

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Non-metallic minerals
These minerals are moulded after mining and given different shapes and sizes. These minerals
are used in their naturally occurring state. Important non-metallic minerals are diamond, marble,
granite, salt, mica, etc. of all the minerals found in India, about 52 are non-metallic minerals.
Principal non-metallic minerals include asbestos, dolomite, gypsum, etc.
Fuel minerals
The minerals that are utilized as fuel are known as fuel minerals. Coal, petroleum, natural gas.
etc. are important fuel minerals.
Activity1
Are there minerals in your locality?

2.2.2 Land Resources

Land is a resource that provides space for human communities and raw materials for industry.
Land also includes the soils in which crops are grown. If managed properly, soil is a renewable
resource. Soil, however, can be permanently damaged if it is mismanaged. Food crops grow best
in fertile soil, which is a mixture of sand, clay, rock particles, and humus (material from decayed
organisms). Most of the humus that makes soil fertile is in the uppermost layer of the soil, called
topsoil. Good topsoil absorbs and retains moisture yet allows excess water to drain. It is rich in
nutrients but low in salts. Such soil is produced by long-term interactions between the soil and
plants growing in it. Land is the upper layer of our planet earth. It is made up of soil and rocks.
Land stores water and provide a surface to live on. Soil contains nutrients and air to nurse germs
and plants. Fertility of the soil has been built up over hundreds of years. Land is most simply
defined as ‗the solid portion of the earth‘s surface‘ it is a significant natural resource which plays
an important role in the development of human society. The science dealing with land is known
as pedology.

The importance of land as a resource for humankind is highlighted by the following points :
• The human civilization has taken shape on land.
• Land is used for agriculture.
• Land contains huge amount of deposits.
• It is also contains water in the form of underground water.
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• Most of the animals find their habitat on land.

• Land provides, directly or indirectly, all the resources required fulfilling the basic needs- food,
cloth, and shelter- of human civilization

Feeding an additional 80 million people a year requires about 26 million tons of additional grain
annually. Soil fertility is the result of natural processes in healthy ecosystems, which include
maintaining forests, vegetative cover, and soil biodiversity. A 1990 global assessment of soil
degradation found that 1.2 billion hectares almost 11 percent of the earth‘s vegetated surface
have been significantly degraded by human activity over the past 45 years. Soil degradation
affects more than 900 million people in 100 countries, some of them among the least developed
nations. Erosion, salinization, compaction, and other forms of degradation affect 30 percent of
the world‘s irrigated lands, 40 percent of rainfed agricultural lands, and 70 percent of rangelands.
These figures should be seen against the backdrop of the challenge that lies ahead; production on
existing land will need to nearly double in the next 30 years. Land is becoming increasingly
scarce, and new land taken into cultivation is often marginal compared to what is removed by
degradation or urbanization. Protecting and enhancing this productive base requires a wide-
ranging agenda of efforts.
Protection of Land

Soil is likely to be washed away with rain water or blown away by wind, if it is not protected
under the cover of grasses, crops or trees. Deep roots of long lived grasses held soil in place
against rain and wind. Plowing the land removes the roots that hold the soil in place. This
increases the rate of —the wearing away of surface soil by water and wind. In certain parts of the
world with dry climates, a combination of farming, overgrazing, and drought has turned once
productive areas into deserts. There are, however, a variety of sustainable-development practices
that can guard against these problems. One practice is contour plowing, in which fields are
plowed across the slope of the land to reduce erosion. Other strategies include leaving the stems
and roots of the previous year‘s crop in place to help hold the soil and planting a field with rye
rather than leaving it unprotected from erosion.

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2.2.3 Forests Resources

Forests, a biotic community with predominance of trees, are important renewable natural
resources. They are one of the precious gifts of nature. They restore oxygen in our atmosphere
via photosynthesis besides providing solvents, medicines, fuels and many other products. They
also play a vital role in regulating climate, controlling water runoff and providing shelter and
food for wildlife. Earth‘s forests are an important resource for the products they provide and for
the ecological functions they perform. People use the wood from forests to make products
ranging from homes to paper. In many parts of the world, wood is still burned as fuel for cooking
and heating.

Forests are an important part of the environment, because trees clean the air and keep the
atmosphere cool. We cannot live without plants, because the oxygen need for breathing is
produced by plants. Trees absorb sunlight and reduce the heat. Plants provide fodder for animals,
firewood, timber, medicines, honey, wax, gum, lac and food for us. Tree roots penetrate deep
into the soil and from cavities in the ground. The dry leaves which fall on ground, cover the soil
and absorb more rain water, which slowly percolates through the soil. Thus, a large portion of
the rain water can be retained in the field, by planting more trees. Flooding or rivers can be
prevented by protecting trees in the forest.

But living forests also provide a number of important ecological services. Forests have been
called ―lungs of the Earth‖ because they remove carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Forests
also store nutrients, provide habitats and food for organisms, moderate climate, limit soil erosion,
and protect freshwater supplies. Whether a forest can be considered a renewable resource
depends partly on the type of forest. For example, the temperate forests of the northeastern
United States can be considered renewable. Most of these forests have been logged at least once
in the past and have grown back naturally. However, today‘s forests differ somewhat in species
composition from the forests they replaced. Other forests, such as those in Alaska and the Pacific

Northwest, are called old-growth forests because they have never before been cut. Worldwide,
about half of the area originally covered by forests and woodlands has been cleared. Because it
takes many centuries to produce old-growth forests, they are in effect nonrenewable resources.

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Old-growth forests often contain a rich variety of species. When logging occurs in these forests,
the species they contain may be lost. Deforestation or loss of forests has several effects.
Deforestation can lead to severe erosion as soil is exposed to heavy rains. Erosion can wash
away nutrients in the topsoil. Grazing or plowing after deforestation can cause permanent
changes to local soils and microclimates that in turn prevent the re-growth of trees.

Activity2

Forests are extremely useful for life on this planet. They benefit human beings directly as well
as indirectly. Can you mention some of the direct and indirect benefits of theses resources?

Grasslands, wetlands, and forests provide resources directly to billions of poor people living in
rural areas, including timber, fuel wood, fiber, medicine, and food. Forests and wetlands also
regulate floods by absorbing rain and recharging aquifers. Flooding exacerbated by deforestation
destroys settlements and crops and contaminates water supplies. Siltation accelerated by
upstream deforestation clogs dams and reservoirs, rendering many of them useless before they
can pay for themselves and contributing to poverty and displacement. Forest and woodland areas
are shrinking at a rate of about 4 million hectares per year in Sub-Saharan Africa. In East Asia
deforestation rates per annum range up to a high of 4 percent. Similar patterns can be seen
worldwide. More than one-fifth of the world‘s tropical forests have been cleared since 1960.
Global rates of forest-loss increased from about 12 million hectares per year in the 1970s to over
15 million hectares (0.8 percent of total natural forest cover) per year in the 1980s. During the
1990s deforestation continued at about 13 million hectares per year. Although the global loss of
forests is still very high, data suggest that the rate of deforestation may be slowing. There are a
variety of sustainable-development strategies for forest management. In some forests, mature
trees can be harvested selectively to promote the growth of younger trees and preserve the forest
ecosystem. In areas where forests have already been cut, foresters today often plant, manage,
harvest, and replant tree farms. Tree farms can now be planted and harvested efficiently, making
them fully renewable resources. Tree geneticists are also breeding new, faster-growing tree
varieties that produce high-quality wood.

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2.2.4. Water

The blue planet, that is our fragile and precious home, has vast water resources( salt(97%) and
fresh(3%)), but only a fraction of the total amount of water on the earth‘s surface( less than 3
percent )is fresh( the water which can be used for drinking) and out of it about 0.3 percent is
found in rivers and lakes (Yearly, 1996: 50). Water -, mobile, multi-functional natural renewable
resource, a basic human need and precious national asset- is scarce, underdeveloped and
unevenly distributed at local, national and international level (Tesfaye, 2001: 1; Yearly, 1996:
50). It is impossible to have a clean and sanitary environment; to underpin and sustain biological
diversity; ensure health, social and economic development without an adequate and wholesome
water supply (Gabre-Emanuel, 1977: 17). The same author (1977: 17-18) has pointed out that ‗It
takes about 10 liters of water to produce one liter of petrol; it takes about 40 liters of water to
produce one can of vegetables; it takes about 100 liters of water to produce one kilogram of
paper; it takes about 600 liters of water to produce one kilogram of woolen cloth; it takes about
3500 liters of water to produce one kilogram of dry cement.‘

From this, it is clear that the availability of a plentiful supply of water in both quality and
quantity is the basic requirements for developing the natural resources of any country, and
sustaining and improving the life of the people. Livelihoods and life itself depends on the volume
and quality of available water that make water scarcities and securities a concern of every
country. Life began in water; it is the basic components of every living cell. Water plays a key
role in determining the weather; it helps to shape land surface and regulate the climate. Water
has played a predominant role in governing the distribution of humans across the surface of the
earth. In fact the earliest civilizations such as the Mesopotamia, the Egyptian, and the Harappan
civilization arose on the banks of perennial rivers.

People of the world use billions of liters of fresh water daily for everything from drinking and
washing to watering crops and making steel. Although water is a renewable resource, the total
supply of fresh water is limited. For this reason, protecting water supplies from pollution and
managing society‘s ever-growing demand for water are major priorities. Pollution threatens

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water supplies in several ways. Improperly discarded chemicals can enter streams and rivers.
Wastes discarded on land can seep through soil and enter underground water supplies that we tap
with wells. Domestic sewage, which is the wastewater from sinks and toilets, contains nitrogen
and phosphorous compounds that can encourage the growth of algae and bacteria in aquatic
habitats. Sewage can also contain microorganisms that can spread disease among humans and
animals. In this country, most cities and towns now treat their sewage in order to make it safer.

One way of ensuring the sustainable use of water resources is to protect the natural systems
involved in the water cycle. For example, wetlands can help to purify the water passing through
them. As water flows slowly through a swamp, densely growing plants filter certain pollutants
out of the water. Similarly, forests and other vegetation help to purify the water that seeps into
the ground or runs off into rivers and lakes. As demand for water grows rapidly in many parts of
the world, water conservation is becoming an increasingly important aspect of sustainable
development. There are many strategies for conserving water—in homes, industry, and
agriculture. More than three-quarters of all water consumed in the world is used in agriculture, so
conservation in this area can save large amounts of water. For example, drip irrigation delivers
water directly to plant roots. This reduces the amount of water lost through evaporation.

Hydrological cycle is the process by which water from the land and the oceans vaporize into the
atmosphere by the solar energy; the vapour, in turn, condenses as the result of cooling and
returns to land in the form of precipitation. Water moves through different biotic and abiotic
components of in this water cycle.

Activity3

What are the basic sources of water? Explain the differences between them. What are water
related calamities?

The most important source of water on earth is rainfall. Of the total water reserve, about 3% is
fresh water. The two most important sources of water are either ground or surface. Most of the
fresh water on land is not in rivers and lakes. It is hidden underground in spaces between soils
and rock particles as groundwater. As rainwater seeps into the ground, some of it clings to
particles of soil or to roots of plants. This moisture provides the plants with the water they need
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to grow. The rest moves deeper in to the ground .most usable groundwater occurs up to a depth
of 750 m . Ground water supplies water to wells, spring, and even to rivers and streams.
Groundwater has a number of advantages when compared to surface water. Groundwater
reservoirs do not suffer seepage losses such as surface reservoirs, e.g, streams and lakes the
chances of pollution are also less, and less water is lost due to evaporation.

After precipitation, the amount of water that does not percolate down into the ground or does not
return to the atmosphere as evaporation or transpiration and enters the rivers, streams, lakes,
pounds, wetland or artificial reservoirs constitutes surface water. A number of calamities are
related to fluctuation in water supply of a region. These may be caused both by abundance and
deficiency of water. Floods and droughts are the most common problems occurring due to
variation in water supply of an area.

Flood

Flood refers to the presence of an unusually large amount of water at any place or more water
than what can be handled by the drainage of the area. During floods, water inundates and that is
normally dry. Occurrence of flood depends on many factors such as climate. Nature of the
collecting basin, streams, soil, vegetative cover, amount of snow melt, and overall rainfall the
annual rainfall in India experiences a huge variation from region, and this variation in the
occurrence of rainfall makes the country prone to wards situations such as floods and droughts.

Drought

A drought is the condition in which a region suffers a deficiency in its water supply. Generally,
this condition arises when a region receives consistently below-average rainfall. Droughts lead to
adverse effects on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region. Although droughts can
persist for several years, even a short-duration drought can cause significant damage and harms
the local economy. In 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in
100years.

Water is one of the most important natural resources, and is at the same time becoming an
increasingly scarce commodity in many parts of the world. In 1990, 28 countries with a total
population of about 335 million experienced ―water stress.‖2 This figure is expected to grow,
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according to some predictions, to around 50 countries, affecting some 3 billion people, by

[Link] affected by ―water scarcity‖ numbered 20 in 1990; this number is expected to
grow to25 by 2025. The affected population could increase from 131 million in 1990 to between
800million and 1.1 billion people by 2025. According to regional estimates water available per
capita dropped from 3,500 cubic meters in 1960 to about 1,500 cubic meters in 1990. This
problem is expected to intensify in the coming years due to population growth. By the year 2000
water demand in 14 of the 19 countries in the region is likely to exceed available renewable
freshwater supplies. By the year 2025 estimates indicate that water availability will be down to
700 cubic meters per capita. To promote adaptation to increasing water scarcity, the World Bank
recommends that countries in the region increase water prices to encourage conservation and
mobilize financial resources for investments, strengthen institutions to mediate water-based
conflicts, and introduce integrated water-resources planning and management.

In addition to water scarcity, the problem of access to safe water supplies and sanitation is also
intensifying. Currently, one-fifth of the Earth‘s population does not have access to safe drinking
water, and about one-third lacks adequate sanitation. Between 1990 and 2000 it has been
estimated that an additional 900 million people will be born in regions without access to safe
water and sanitation. The World Health Organization estimates that more than 5 million people
die each year from diseases caused by unsafe drinking water and lack of water for sanitation and
hygiene. In all countries, poorer populations are the most vulnerable to water-borne diseases.

Average annual rainfall and its average seasonal distribution, existence of perennial streams and
ground water determine water availability or supply. On the other hand population growth
coupled with high standard of living, economic activities and the environmental consideration
determine the demand for water in quantity and quality for the provision of water to various uses.
When there is a gap between demand and supply of water the condition is known as scarcity of
water. Water scarcity is a concern for all actors and is a highly politicized issue in the world.
David Sckler (1999) has stated that ‗water scarcity is now the single greatest threat to human
health, the environment and the global food supply‘. According to Mitchell and Cleveland ,
scarcity may be inadequate supply; a reduction in the size of a stock; a situation where the

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demand for a resource exceeds its supply at zero prices. Some other have defined water scarcity
as a situation where the annual supply of renewable freshwater is less than 1000 m3 per person.

There are three forms or sources of environmental or water scarcity. The first, is demand induced
scarcity which arises from increase in demand due to population growth, urbanization and
industrialization. The second, is supply induced scarcity which arises from reduction of total
availability and deteriorating water quality due to environmental degradation or depletion,
pollution, over consumption, climate change and drought. The third, is structural scarcity which
arises from the unequal distribution of or access to, resources which results in some groups
receiving disproportionately large slices of the resource pie, while leaving others with
progressively smaller portion and absence of any alternative source for it. Allan(2001) has also
classified water scarcity in two forms: ‗first order scarcity‘ is the shortage of the water resource
itself and ‗second order scarcity‘ which relates to the scarcity of social, administrative,
managerial and technical capacity to address successfully the first order fresh water scarcity and
ameliorate it. When there is a simultaneous existence of both a first order resource (water) and a
second order resource (social adaptive capacity) scarcity within a given social entity there is
water poverty. In addition, the world is running out of easy options for alternative water
resources projects. Water scarcity discourse, therefore, touches issues of economics,
development, environment, security and human rights across the globe.

Water scarcity can be measured by the physical availability of water in a country or by the
amount of water that is withdrawn compared to the available amount of internal renewable and
inflowing water from other countries. According to UN (1997), states that withdraw external
sources of water less than 10%; between 10-20%; between 20-40%; and more than 40% of their
available internal fresh water are considered as low water stressed, moderately water stressed;
medium water stressed and highly water stressed respectively. In this case Ethiopia is a low
water stressed, which receives almost null water supply from external sources, while the Sudan
and Egypt are a highly water stressed states, which receives almost 70% and 97% of their water
consumption from external sources( mainly from Ethiopia). States with 1000-1700m3 of
water/capita are considered as water stressed (Ethiopia), while those with less than 1000m3
/capita are considered as water scarcer (the Sudan).

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Another indication of water scarcity is the ratio of imported ―virtual water‖ in relation to the
availability of internal renewable water resource. Those states with high ratio of virtual water to
internal renewable resources are water stressed. According to the Japan Journal (2009b: 30),
virtual water has been defined as the water used to produce the goods that a country imports
from other countries. In other words, it refers to the water that a country would require to
produce domestically the goods that it imports. By importing food, states also import water in
virtual form so as to fill the gap of water supply, which indicates the growing interdependence in
terms of food and water supply across the globe. Consequently, international virtual water trade
can result in global water savings when water –intensive commodity is traded from an area
where it is produced with high water productivity to an area of lower water productivity.

All types of water scarcities are being observed in the world today. Water supply varies
seasonally and water shortage is costly and problematic. For example, the first order scarcity of
water (demand, supply and structural factors) is realized due to high rate of population and
economic growth that induced high demand on the limited resources, the fluctuation of water
both in space and time and sever environmental degradations which seriously affect both the
quality and quantity of water. The second order water scarcity is also manifested in operation and
maintenance problems in irrigation infrastructures, absence of sustainable development,
management and utilization of the scarce resource, problems of efficiency, inadequate data
gathering and information exchange, inability to manage demand.

Generally, water scarcity is a real phenomenon in the world where there is high demand on the
limited water resource and many people of the world are suffering from recurrent and deep
problems of poverty, famine, and drought. Food security in the world is threatened either by
demographic pressures or scarcity of land/ water or lack of capacity to withstand shocks such as
drought and flood. But why water resource scarcity?

Conservation of Water

Water is our line. With water, plants grow well, crops yield more and the atmosphere remains
cool. Flowing water is also a source of energy and mode of transport. Rain is the main source of
water. It is absorbed by soil and stored under the ground. A Part of this water, which is not

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absorbed, flows into rivers and finally reaches the sea. Being salty, sea water is neither fit for
human consumption nor plant growth. It is necessary to keep the water clean fro drinking
purpose and conserve it for growing crops and trees.

2.2.5 Fishery Resources

Fishes and other animals that live in water are a valuable source of food for humanity. For
example, consider the food provided by the Chesapeake Bay and its watershed, which includes
the saltwater bay itself and the freshwater rivers and streams that flow into it. This complex
ecosystem supplies people with fishes such as striped bass and American shad, and shellfishes
such as crabs and oysters. The recent history of fisheries, or fishing grounds, is an example of the
tragedy of the commons. Fortunately, it also shows how ecological research can help people
begin to correct an environmental problem.

A major part of the world‘s population depends on fish as food source. Other aquatic organisms
such as crabs, prawns, shrimps, etc are eaten by some sections of the society. Artificial
production of these may be done in freshwater- based system (aquaculture) or marine- water
based system (mariculture).

Overfishing

World marine-capture fisheries production reached a new record of 87.1 million tons in 1996. As
in previous years, however, the rate of increase continued to slow. Overall, exploitation of the
main fish stocks (in fisheries for which assessment information is available) has remained more
or less unchanged since the early 1990s, despite continued technological improvements. Recent
reviews estimate that 44 percent are fully exploited, with no room expected for further
expansion. About 16 percent are overfished, and there is an increasing likelihood that catches
might decrease if remedial action is not undertaken. Another 6 percent appear to be depleted,
with a resulting loss in total production, and 3 percent seem to be recovering slowly. Based on
total inland capture for the period 1984-96, it is clear that increasing use is being made of inland
fisheries resources, although the outlook for inland aquatic resources is not [Link]
average annual increase is about 130,000 tons (about 2 percent per year). Exploitation of
freshwater fisheries is most intensive in Asia and Africa.
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Overfishing, or harvesting fish faster than they can be replaced by reproduction, greatly reduced
the amount of fish in parts of the world‘s oceans. Between 1950 and 1990, the world fish catch
grew from 19 million tons to more than 90 million tons. The fish that were caught helped feed
the world‘s people. But as the catch increased, the populations of some fish species began to
shrink. By the early 1990s, populations of cod and haddock had dropped so low that researchers
feared these fishes might disappear from the sea. The declining fish populations are an example
of the tragedy of the commons. People from several countries were taking advantage of a
resource—fisheries—but no one took responsibility for maintaining that resource. Until fairly
recently, fisheries seemed to be a renewable resource, one that could be harvested indefinitely.
But overfishing threatened to destroy what was once a renewable resource.

2.2.6 Biodiversity

Biological diversity is an index of a nation‘s wealth. It is the basis of human survival and
economic well being. Biological diversity is variety and variability among living organisms and
ecological complexes in which they occur. Diversity can be defined as the number of different
items and their relative frequency. For biological diversity, these items are organized at many
levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to the biological structures, the genes that are the
molecular basis of heredity. Thus, the term encompasses different genes, species, ecosystems,
and their relative abundance. It can also be defined as the diversity of life, which includes the
full range of variety and variability within and among living organisms and the ecological
complexes in which they occur, and encompasses ecosystem or community diversity, species
diversity, and genetic diversity. It is the variety of life and its processes; and it includes the
variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, and the communities and
ecosystems in which they occur.

Biodiversity can be defined as the diversity among living organisms from all sources including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes which they are
part. Life on earth is supported by interdependent communities of plants, animals and
microorganisms interacting with each other within in the ecosystems and with the physical
environment. Biodiversity sustains life on earth by maintaining atmospheric quality, regulating
local climates, absorbing pollutants, protecting watersheds and generating and maintaining soil
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fertility and they have economic values for human beings such as source of food, medicines,
chemicals, fibers, structural materials, fuel; source of recreation and beauty; release oxygen to
the atmosphere for animals, clean water, and plant pollination by insects and nitrogen fixation. If
these ecosystems are disrupted, the richness and variety of the natural world are reduced. In
short, biodiversity is a crucial indicator of planetary health.

One of the most striking features of the earth‘s biota is its extraordinary diversity, estimated to
include about 10 million different species. One of the most conspicuous aspects of contemporary
global change is the rapid decline of this diversity in many ecosystems. The decline is not limited
to increased rates of species extinction, but includes losses in genetic and functional diversity
across population, community, ecosystem, landscape, and global scales. The term biodiversity
refers collectively to all these aspects of biotic diversity. The wide-ranging decline in
biodiversity results largely from habitat modifications and destruction, increased rates of
invasions by deliberately or accidentally introduced non-native species, over-exploitation and
other human-caused impacts. On a global scale, even at the lowest estimated current extinction
rate, about half of all species could be extinct within 100 years. Such an event would be similar
in magnitude to the five mass extinction events in the 3.5 billion year history of life on earth. On
local and regional scales, biodiversity declines are already pronounced in many areas, especially
where natural ecosystems have been converted to croplands, timber plantations, aquaculture and
other managed ecosystems.

The diversity of these managed ecosystems is often low, and species composition very different,
compared with those of the natural systems they have replaced. What are the consequences of
such declines in biodiversity and how might they affect human welfare? The earth‘s living
organisms contribute to human welfare in a variety of ways. First, humans derive from them
goods and products essential to life, including food, medicine, and industrial products, genetic
resources for crop breeding, and natural pest control services. Such benefits can be viewed as the
market values of biodiversity because they are readily tied to our economy and often can be
assigned a dollar value in the marketplace. Second, biodiversity has nonmarket values that can be
expressed in terms such as knowledge, aesthetic, existence and other values. These non-market

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values of biodiversity are difficult to quantify, but are, for many, sufficient justification for
preserving biodiversity independent of market values.

The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is fundamental to achieving sustainable

development and sustainable livelihoods. Natural habitats and their component species and genes
provide both goods for consumption and ecological services to maintain healthy environments
and economies. The poorest rural people are most dependent on biodiversity and natural
resources for their livelihoods, and it is they who suffer first and most severely when those
habitats are simplified, degraded, or otherwise impoverished. Biodiversity, however, provides
two special challenges for NRM: (1) most of its benefits continue to be considered as economic
externalities, and (2) benefits tend to accrue over the long term.

Biodiversity is often regarded as a global issue; its widespread decline has cumulative impacts
and consequences at the global level. Many of the benefits of improving biodiversity
conservation and its sustainable use such as new medicines developed as a result of access to
new genetic resources; accrue to mankind as a whole. Nevertheless most of the costs resulting
from biodiversity degradation, and those associated with its conservation and sustainable use;
accrue primarily at the local and national levels.

Many of the world‘s species are gravely threatened. Various projections suggest that between
1975 and 2015, from 1 to 11 percent of the world‘s species per decade will be committed to
extinction. If current rates of loss of tropical forests (about 1 percent per year) continue for the
next 30 years, the projected number of species that the remaining forest could support would be
reduced by 5−10 percent, relative to forests in the absence of human disturbance. This rate of
decline would represent 1,000 to 10,000 times the expected rate of extinction without
deforestation by humans . Coastal ecosystems also face a great risk. About 34 percent of the
world‘s coasts are potentially at high risk of degradation, and another 17 percent are at moderate
risk . Fifty-eight percent of the world‘s reefs are at risk from human activity—about 27 percent
are at high or very high risk . Coral reef systems eroded from destructive fishing practices expose
coastal zones to more severe damage from storms Natural disasters are often amplified because
of poor natural resources management. The loss of coastal and inland forests aggravates damage
caused by hurricanes and cyclones. Numerous examples demonstrate that the effects of natural
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disasters can be mitigated if certain ecological services, such as maintenance of forest cover and
wetland conservation, are preserved. A major challenge remains, however, since conserving
these habitats is often perceived as an externality to the economic development process.

Climatic Services

Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas
(resulting in about 6 million tons of carbon released per year) and land-use practices, particularly
deforestation (amounting to 1 to 2 billion tons of carbon released per year), are changing the
atmospheric concentrations of green-house gases that shape our planet‘s climate. As a result of
these human activities, the Earth‘s temperature has increased by about one-half degree
Centigrade this century, and is projected to increase another 1 to 3.5 degrees Centigrade over the
next century if atmospheric concentrations of green-house gases continue to increase according
to the current pattern. It will also be accompanied by a rise in sea level of 15 to 95 centimeters.‖
These events will cause serious problems for the world‘s poor, including significant increases in
the incidence of malaria and dengue, increased risk of hunger and famine for many who depend
on isolated agricultural systems, and displacement of tens of millions of people by rising sea
levels.

Biodiversity can be represented as having two broad dimensions: wild biodiversity, and
agricultural biodiversity. The former represents the biodiversity that is present in natural,
uncultivated ecosystems (e.g. forests), while the later involves biodiversity that is used within
agriculture. This indeed is a very simplistic division; there is a lot of interaction across the two
domains. It needs also to be stressed that biodiversity exists and operates at three different levels.
Intra-specific diversity refers to the diversity at genetic level within species; inter-specific
diversity refers to the diversity between or among species; while diversity can be assessed on
ecosystem basis, as the diversity of different ecosystems. All these three levels are important,
and all are prone to genetic erosion. Biodiversity, in its broadest dimension is considered as one
of the top five priority sectors in ecosystem management.

Agricultural Biodiversity

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According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), agricultural biodiversity comprises

those elements at all levels of the biological hierarchy, from genes to ecosystems, involved in
agriculture and food production. Thus, it includes all trees, fish and livestock, and all interacting
species of pollinators, symbionts, pests, parasites, predators and competitors . The diversity
present in any agricultural production system depends on the biological characteristics of the
species and their interactions, the effects of the physical environment and the ways in which
people manage the system. In particular, the degree of intensification of agricultural
management, including the substitution of biological functions by manufactured inputs, has a
dramatic impact on system diversity. Specific examples include the use of pesticides for pest
control or the use of inorganic fertilizers to supplement nutrient cycles. These changes result not
only from the direct actions of farmers and communities in rural areas, but also from the
influences of local and national governments, private agricultural industries, consumer demands
and international policies. Thus agricultural biodiversity, and biodiversity generally, can suffer
through human induced actions. Agricultural practices therefore can influence not only the
biodiversity within agriculture, but also can have effects on wild biodiversity, especially those in
the peripheries of agricultural ecosystems. In discussing biodiversity in relation to agriculture we
can identify three broad domains within global biodiversity; 1) biodiversity that is unaffected by
agriculture, 2) biodiversity that is affected by agriculture but has no implications for
sustainability of agriculture systems, and 3) agro-biodiversity, which is biodiversity that is
affected by agriculture and other factors, which has impact for long-term sustainability of
agriculture.

As indicated by the graded boundaries in the schematic above, the boundaries between the three
broad domains of biodiversity are not clear cut. For example, there are many species that are
affected by agriculture that have unknown potential effects on sustainability of agriculture
systems and thus it is unclear if they fall into domains 2 or 3. Nevertheless, the above framework
form is useful and could be used to identify the interactions between agriculture and biodiversity
(John Gibson, pers. Comm.). The importance of the different components of agricultural
biodiversity, and the contribution they make, to sustainable production, livelihoods and
ecosystem health are now widely appreciated. Thus, crop and tree diversity (within and between
crop variation) can be used by farmers for risk avoidance, increased food security and income
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generation, as well as to optimize land use and help adapt to changing conditions (Brush,1995).
The importance of the different components of agricultural biodiversity, and the contribution
they make, to sustainable production, livelihoods and ecosystem health are now widely
appreciated. Thus, crop and tree diversity (within and between crop variation) can be used by
farmers for risk avoidance, increased food security and income generation, as well as to optimize
land use and help adapt to changing conditions.

Livestock and fish diversity has been shown to have the same functions and to provide the same
benefits in many farming and aquatic systems. Soil organisms contribute a wide range of
essential services to the sustainable function of agro-ecosystems through their actions in nutrient
cycling, their regulation of the dynamics of soil carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas
emission, their effect on soil physical structure and water regimes, and influence on plant life
(e.g. nitrogen fixation and the interactions in the soil of pests, predators and other organisms).
Pollinators are essential for seed and fruit production and their number and diversity can
profoundly affect crop production levels. However, knowledge is still limited on the interactions
and synergies among these different systems (crop, livestock, and aquatic) and their associated
biodiversity (e.g., soil organisms, pollinators) that sustain the functions and productive capacity
of the agro-ecosystems for sustainable agricultural and human well-being.

The diversity of plant and animal species maintained in traditional farming systems over many
centuries and the knowledge associated with managing these resources constitutes key assets of
the rural poor. The management and use of these assets, and the practices that maintain
pollinators and associated below ground diversity, provide the natural capital of their livelihood
strategies. In marginal and difficult farming conditions these materials are especially important.
In these circumstances, diversity management can become a central part of the livelihood
management strategies of farmers (particularly pastoralists) and communities in stress prone
production areas. Historically, a substantial decline in biodiversity in agro-ecosystems has been
observed with agricultural intensification and development, and these trends continue. The
consequences of such a decline for small-scale farmers in developing countries can be
devastating. These consequences amount to a substantial decrease in the resistance and
resilience within farmers‘ agro-ecosystems and a consequent increase in farmers‘ vulnerability.

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This therefore negatively affects the stability of the farmers‘ production base and of the agro-
ecosystems within which they operate. Resilience is ‗the capacity to absorb shocks while
maintaining function. When change occurs, resilience provides the components for renewal and
reorganization. The resistance within a system is a measure of its ability to counter perturbation
and disturbance. In a system that has lost its resilience, adaptation to change is not possible and
therefore, all change is potentially disastrous. Inability to cope with risks, stresses and shocks, be
they economic or environmental, or vulnerability, undermines small-scale farmers‘ livelihoods
substantially. These two concepts, resilience and resistance, are of fundamental significance to
biodiversity, and agricultural biodiversity, in particular,. The loss of agricultural biodiversity
potentially puts the agro- ecosystem at risk.

Valuing Biodiversity

Biodiversity carries additional values because of its role in providing further ecosystem services.
These services are conventionally not given any value, and are often regarded as ‗free‘ resources.
Such ecosystem functions, such as nutrient cycles and water regimes, biological control of
diseases and pests and the regulation of greenhouse gases are exploited by humans for their
benefit. These services, which are biologically controlled, can also be sustained in biodiverse
agricultural systems. The biodiversity maintained by farmers is not therefore only of benefit to
them but also to society as a whole, because of its role in maintaining ecosystem services such as
erosion or disease control. It can therefore be asserted that the benefits for farmers of retaining
biodiversity will only be fully realized and rewarded when other sectors of society accept and
pay full value for them. Over the last ten years the importance of maintaining agricultural
biodiversity has been increasingly recognized by international agencies and in international
agreements.

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Activity4

How do you evaluate the status of biodiversity in your locality?

Improving knowledge and understanding

To be able to conserve agricultural biodiversity effectively, and use it to enhance agriculture and
natural resources management, all the available information on all its components and associated
interactions must be understood, collated and used. Information is needed on the extent and
distribution of species and populations at local, national and regional levels so as to provide an
integrated picture of agricultural biodiversity in order to plan sustainable futures. A fuller, more
coherent and more rigorous understanding must be developed, not only of the available
agricultural biodiversity, but also of the relationships and synergies among different
components (crop, livestock, fish, and associated biodiversity), agricultural production, agro
ecosystem health and the provision of ecosystem services. The focus will need to be on
understanding the interactions between different components of the production systems studied.

The INRM Research Approach

INRM incorporates and builds upon participation of all stakeholders (research disciplines, policy
makers / decision makers, community members and leadership, development actors: Government
Agricultural Extension Agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations, and Community-based
Organizations (CBOs). It involves interventions and relationships across different scales and
levels of decision making, and requires application of participatory methods and processes. It
focuses on human well-being in the many dimensions affected by the management of natural
resources. This is meant to include both economic production as well as environmental services.

2.2.7 Air Resources

Air is a common resource that we use every time we breathe. The condition of the air affects
people‘s health. The preservation of air quality remains a challenge for modern society. If you
live in a large city, you have probably seen a mixture of chemicals that occurs as a gray-brown
haze in the atmosphere. Smog is primarily due to automobile exhausts and industrial emissions.
Because it threatens the health of people with asthma and other respiratory conditions, smog is
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considered a pollutant. A is a harmful material that can enter the biosphere through the land, air,
or water. The burning of fossil fuels can release pollutants that cause smog and other problems in
the atmosphere. Potentially toxic chemicals, like nitrates, sulfates, and particulates (pahr-
TIKyoo- lits), are especially troublesome in large concentrations.

Particulates are microscopic particles of ash and dust that can enter the nose, mouth, and lungs,
causing health problems over the long term. Today, most industries use technology to control
emissions from factory smokestacks. Strict automobile emission standards and clean-air
regulations have improved air quality in many American cities, but air pollution is an ongoing
problem in other parts of the world. Many combustion processes, such as the burning of fossil
fuels, release nitrogen and sulfur compounds into the atmosphere. When these compounds
combine with water vapor in the air, they form drops of nitric and sulfuric acids. These strong
acids can drift for many kilometers before they fall as Acid rain can kill plants by damaging their
leaves and changing the chemistry of soils and standing-water ecosystems. Acid rain may also
dissolve and release toxic elements, such as mercury, from the soil, freeing those elements to
enter other portions of the biosphere.

Clean air is colorless and is composed of the following gases: - Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%),
Carbon dioxide (0.034%), Hydrogen (TREES), Argon (Traces), Methane (Traces)), Ozone
(Traces). Air is thick at sea level and as we go above sea level, the air layer becomes thinner
with less oxygen. Beyond 12 kilometers above sea level, the composition of the air changes.
This layer contains more ozone. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet rays present in sunlight, which
otherwise would reach the earth and cause injury to plants and animals. Air is the carrier of
sound. In the absence of air, we cannot hear. When the volume of sound increases, it causes
noise. This can frighten animals and irritate people. Continuous exposure to noise may lead to
loss of hearing. Therefore, quietness is essential to improve the environment

2.2.8 Animals

People and animals around us are part of our environment. Plants and animals are the sources of
our food. Animals also provide manure through dung, needed fro plant growth. It is ideal to
have a smaller number or animals and people, because they compete for land, water, food and

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other necessities. Overpopulation can exhaust these resources in a short period and cause
scarcity.

Lesson Three: Need for Ecological Balance

The aims are to help you understand the interplay between natural resources management and
sustainable development; the problems associated with sustainable natural resources utilization.

Lesson Objectives
On successful completion of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Understand the main challenges of natural resources.
 Know the interplay between integrated natural resources management and sustainable
development.
Introduction
The various issues that will be examined in this lesson include the contribution of sustainable
development for the sustainable utilization of natural resources, the challenges of natural
resources and the need for an integrated approach of natural resources management.

Activity1

To what extent natural resources are interrelated to each other. How the institutionalization of
Sustainable development prevents the erosion of natural resources?

Different plants and animals are found in different environments, suitable to them. Any change
in that environment may affect their living. Study of plants and animals in relation to one another
and to their surroundings is ecology. In an ideal condition, we can live together with plants and
animals, without disturbing each other. This is known as ‗ecological‘ balance. Plants are basic
for all. Some small animals feeding on plants are eaten by larger animals. Plants or animals
which serve as food for others become a part of the food chain.

Destruction of theses plants or animals may affect the lives of others in the food chain. We can
locate several food chains around us. Several such chains are shown in the Food Chain chart.
Existence of different plants and animals in sufficient number to support the food chain is an
indication of a good ecological balance. Let us now look at the reasons for the break in food
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chains. Mosquitoes lay eggs in still water. Frogs eat mosquito larvae and other insects. Frogs are
eaten by snakes. Snakes are eaten by mongoose and eagles. If a large number of frogs are
collected from paddy fields by people for food, the frog population of mosquitoes and other
insects will increase. This may cause damage to the crops and spread diseases like malaria. In the
absence of adequate number of frogs, snakes will come to residential areas in search of alternate
food like rats, eggs and small birds.

In the same way, when the number of tigers and lions decrease, the population of deer and bisons
will increase and these animals who depend on vegetation will destroy forests. When elephants
do not get adequate foliage and bamboo shoots in the forest, they will move to nearby villages to
graze in agricultural fields. With increasing population, more and more people have to live on
the same piece of land, and this will lead to an ecological imbalance. In the olden days, a large
number of people died of diseases caused by germs. With the advancement of science, vaccines
were developed to prevent diseases like small pox, cholera, diphtheria, typhoid, tuberculosis, etc.
Hence, most of the people now survive deadly diseases and live long. This has resulted in
overpopulation. Arrow indicates that insect is the food for frog. With more people, we need
additional houses, more food, fuel and other commodities. But, we cannot create additional land.
We need to produce more on the available land itself.

2.3.1. Sustainable Development and Natural Resources Management

Activity 2

How can we provide for our needs while maintaining ecosystem goods and services that are
renewable?

The concept of sustainable development is one answer to this major question. is a way of using
natural resources without depleting them and of providing for human needs without causing long
term environmental harm. Human activities can affect the quality and supply of renewable
resources such as land, forests, fisheries, air, and fresh water. Ecological research can help us
understand how human activities affect the functioning of ecosystems. To work well, sustainable
development must take into account both the functioning of ecosystems and the ways that human
economic systems operate. Sustainable strategies must enable people to live comfortably and
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improve their situation. Natural resources used for the first time are considered virgin resources
and their extraction, processing and use require a great deal of energy and can create pollution.
Resource recovery is a practice that conserves natural resources by extracting material (e.g.,
paper, glass, aluminum and steel) from the waste stream and recycling it into other materials or
using it to produce energy. More and more companies are developing new and innovative
technologies that use recycled materials in the manufacturing of products. Many steel mills, for
example, use a manufacturing process that uses virtually 100 percent recovered steel as the raw
material. Here‘s another example. A company can create plastic from oil, a virgin natural
resource, or it can use recovered plastic from recycling programs. If a company uses recovered
plastic, it is recycling material that would otherwise become waste, helping prevent the depletion
of natural resources, conserving energy and preventing pollution that would have been created in
the extraction and processing of oil from the ground. There are many ways each of us can
conserve natural resources. Reducing our consumption – that is reducing what we buy, buying
products with less packaging, reusing what we can, composting and recycling – is one of the
easiest ways.

2.3.2. Challenges of Natural Resources

Extracting, processing and using natural resources can cause environmental problems such as:
air, land and water pollution; disruption or destruction of ecosystems; and a decrease in
biodiversity. For example, carbon dioxide – which is produced from burning coal, oil and natural
gas (fossil fuels) – is a critical greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases absorb and retain heat from the
sun. Examples of greenhouse gases include methane, ammonia, sulfur dioxide and certain
chlorinated hydrocarbons. Many scientists believe that the build up of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere can cause global climate change (change in the average global temperature of the
atmosphere near the Earth‘s surface). Over time, this condition could pose dangers around the
world such as flooding, drought and disease.

Extracting and using natural resources also can disturb relationships within ecosystems. What are
ecosystems? Ecosystems, which include ponds, wood lots and fields, are self-regulating
communities of plants and animals that interact with each other and their non-living
environment. For example, trees cleared from a field can destroy habitats used by many animals,
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forcing them to find homes elsewhere. If these animals leave the ecosystem, further disturbances
can occur within plant and animal populations that depend on these species. Extracting and using
natural resources – along with other human activities – may decrease biodiversity – that is the
variety of organisms that live on the Earth. Diminishing the Earth‘s biodiversity has a substantial
human cost because wild species and natural ecosystems are important resources.

Unit summary

The demand for just or more equitable resources utilization will continue to be a contested issue
in the world. And it will not abate until that time when sustainable development and natural
resources management put in place. We may not achieve the goal of building a just or equitable
resources utilization if an anthropocentric view remains the prime factor in their utilization and
management. In this unit, we have defined the concept of natural resource, and explained their
types and various uses. We discussed biodiversity and its dynamics, the renewable and non-
renewable natural resources. We noted the various ways of natural resources management.

Self-assessment questions

1. Account for the factors responsible for the preservation of natural resources in your locality.

2. How can the realization of sustainable development improve the condition of natural
resources?

3. Suggest strategies that can enhance sustainability of natural resources in your locality.

4. Enumerate the Different Types of Natural Resources

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UNIT THREE
THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGE
Introduction
Dear learner, in the contemporary world there is a great concern for the earth and for the future
human condition. For many people, the realization that we are the cause of the deterioration of
our planet is a recent discovery. Our problems are related to growth in human numbers, to our
voracious use of natural resources, and to economic decisions seeking short-term gains that do
not carefully consider social and environmental implications. Changing directions involves
making ethical economic decisions that create enormous problems for us all. Answers are
required to such fundamental questions as what is our responsibility to future generations of
humans, to our own generation, and to other earth bound organisms.

Humanity seemed to be approaching at lightening speed the pinnacle of technological

accomplishments with an extraordinary list of achievements and more coming daily. Its ability to
control and shape the human environment to human needs seemed to be with out limit. Yet we
were beginning to discern all about us signs of a steady and seemingly inexorable deterioration
of both human and natural environment. Evidence is easy to find: streams and rivers are drying
and those left are polluted; pals of smog shrouded the cities; garbage and ugliness are common
place, as are urban decay and associated with violence, poverty, glaring inequality and hunger in
many of the third world states. We wonder if these evidences are symptoms of a deeper and more
pervasive malady: a dominating involvement with the here and now, and a resultant loss of
harmony between the goals of our species and the laws of nature. Human kind might be subtly
but cumulatively destroying the very life-support systems upon whose functions all humans are
ultimately dependent.

On the brighter side, the younger generation’s fumbling but perceptive rebellion is forcing a re-
examination of our philosophy toward natural and human sources. Questions are being raised
about our future, our failure to appreciate the interrelatedness of our species to all other
organisms and to the natural cycles, and our failure to calculate the real costs we must pay for
altering our environment. Did not environmental alterations made for the presumed good of
human kind often lead to a withering of the very amenities necessary for a dignified life?

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Throughout the world, societies have made concerted efforts to lessen human impacts on the
environment. Through legislation, international agreements, and individual and corporate
actions, a massive effort has been made to improve the quality of our air, water, food and life in
general. Environmental awareness and sophistication have grown: and the achievements have
been impressive.
Unfortunately, despite this welcome progress, environmental and social problems now appear
graver. The gap between wealthy and poor countries has widened and world hunger has grown.
In many countries crime and drug use are major concerns. A wave of environmental problems is
viewed as being out of control. In many of the less developed areas of the world, population
growth and increased expectations have brought about more contacts with the developed world,
greater pressure on limited natural resources, and more pollution, with little improvement in the
general quality of life. Even in wealthy countries, economies geared towards profits and
satisfaction of personal wants is too often coupled with deterioration of both human and natural
environments.
The global environmental deficit has arisen from a wide diversity of economic activities and
ethical choices. It results from the collective and mostly from unanticipated impact of
humankind’s alteration of the earth’s atmosphere, water, soil, biota, ecological systems and
landscapes. The global environmental deficit exists because the longer term ecological, social
and economic costs to human welfare are greater than the shorter term benefits flowing from
these alterations. Anthropogenic alteration of global life-support systems produces not only
climate change and toxification of air, water, land and food but also an extraordinary loss of
species, as well as an appalling soil loss, forest destruction and desertification. These changes, in
turn, will certainly have long-term negative impacts on the development of human societies and
on humankind’s aspirations and well being. The following are among the most pressing
environmental crisis/problems that seek immediate human attention if men as well as the entire
ecosystem are to have any hope of survival. This unit is divided in to two broad lessons; each
covering a range of environmental problems that need urgent human attention and it is presented
as follows.
Major sources
 Durant, F. Robert. et al, Environmental Governance Reconsidered: Challenges, Choices,
and Opportunities. Eds (2004). The MIT Press, Massachusetts
 Boersema, J. Jan and Lucas Reijnders. Principles of Environmental Sciences. Eds.
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(2009). Edward Elgar Publishing, Aldershot, United Kingdom

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit students are expected to:
 Identify the challenges against the environment
 Explain the interdependence between these environmental problems and human activity
 Enumerate the possible causes of environmental challenges

Lesson One: Environmental Problems

At the end of this lesson students are expected to:
 Explain the link between Population Growth, Poverty and Inequality
 Discuss the limits against increased food supply
 Identify the causes of Deforestation and its impacts
 Elaborate on the causes and possible effects of Climate Change and pollution

3.1.1. Population growth, poverty and inequality

Dear student, it is argued that the world’s population, currently around 6 billion, has grown from
around 2 billion in 1920 and 3 billion in 1960. At the present time, it increases by some 90
million each year, and is expected to exceed 8 billion by the year 2020 unless the use of birth
control methods increases dramatically. Much of the projected increase in global population is
expected to occur in developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa. It is argued that these
countries will likely double their present population in the next 30 years.
The population increase together with the world’s unsustainable consumption pattern is putting
ever-increasing stress on the land, water, air, energy and other essential resources of the planet.
Rapid population growth is usually accompanied by serious environmental degradation,
including soil erosion, desertification and deforestation. It can put a region well beyond its
economic and natural resource limits or carrying capacity—threatening its long-term ability to
support life.
Rapid population growth can put great stress on political institutions and stability, particularly in
regions where there are established ethnic differences. Also there are many links between
population growth and social conflict. Declining health and living standards lead to unrest and
civil war.
There are enormous differences in rates of population growth, wealth, education, employment
opportunities, health and sanitation, and general standards of living between the so-called

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developed and less developed nations of the world. Thus there are serious differences in levels of
environmental stress and degradation. Such differences can be addressed only by extensive
international co-operation and defrayment of the Third World Debt.
☻Activity 1
1. Do you think that population increase is a major concern for the developed states of the north?
Which part of the globe is more affected by environmental stress caused by population increase?
Give reasons.
2. Explain the social and environmental problems that result from population growth and suggest
possible solutions to it.

3.1.2. Growing demand for food; limits to increasing supply

Each year, many million people die from hunger and hunger-related diseases. A large number of
the world’s populations do not consume sufficient calories for a normal active working life. At
the same time grain production per person is declining at a serious rate in Latin America, Africa
and India. It is argued that land degradation is a serious cause of this. Soil erosion is seriously
degrading croplands in many of the world’s most important agricultural regions, and so grain
acreage is diminishing.
Other negative environmental impacts are leading to serious decline in productivity of food-
producing areas. In addition to soil erosion, salination, water logging and loss of soil fertility are
increasing through out the world. Inefficient or inappropriate crop irrigation is depleting
underground water supplies and damaging soils in a number of places. Increased ultraviolet
radiation resulting from thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer may also reduce food
production.
The amount of food lost to pests has been estimated at 25 per cent of world harvests. Chemical
control of food pests has been widely used but is a very costly method and is harmful.
Agricultural chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides) are polluting groundwater and surface
waters and harming both people and wildlife in many locations. Each year, hundreds of
thousands of accidental pesticide poisonings are reported world-wide.
As the availability of fertile cropland declines under pressure from increasing populations,
nations depend more and more on genetic manipulations of plants and animals to provide enough
food. The genetic base needed to improve crops and livestock is found in the natural and
bredgenetic diversity of local and wild species or varieties. These crucial genetic resources are
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rapidly disappearing as a result of habitat destruction, as well as reliance on a few highly inbred
livestock and crops. Social and economic factors have major impacts on the world’s food
production and distribution systems. In many locations, pressures from increasing populations
have already diminished the land’s carrying capacity.
☻ Activity 2
1. Explain the reason why there is a mismatch between the growing demand for food and the
available supply. State the factors that limit the supply of food?
2. Do you think Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa are affected by the problem of food scarcity? In
your opinion what are the causes of this problem?

3.1.3. Tropical deforestation

The earth’s tropical rainforests cover a very small per cent of its land surface, yet contain over
two-thirds of all plant and animal species. They are a tremendously rich and essential source of
food plus the raw materials upon which agriculture and medicines depend. They also yield a
variety of products that have commercial or industrial value.
A good half of the world’s original area of tropical forest land has now gone, and each year
some further tens of million hectares are destroyed. Tropical forests are removed for the creation
of farm land, for logging, cattle-ranching, and large-scale development projects. Pressures on
many forests are increasing rather than decreasing.
Deforestation causes the near or complete extinction of numerous plants and animal species,
plus the loss of many valuable forest products, including fuel wood, timber and other products
available for human development. Deforestation affects the lives of hundreds of millions of
people. It causes soil erosion, increased flooding and silting of waterways; shortages of timber
and fuel wood; drought; and the displacement of whole societies and cultures. Deforestation may
alter both regional and global climate. It reduces the number of trees that can retain carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas.
There are a number of ways of slowing down or halting the practice and consequences of
deforestation, including establishing forest reserves, preventing unsustainable development
projects, improving the management of vulnerable forests for sustainable use, reducing pressures
for deforestation by making appropriate social and economic changes, and increasing rates of
reforestation.

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☻Activity 3
Consult your Woreda agriculture and rural development officials and answer the following questions
1. Do you think deforestation is a major environmental problem in your locality? If yes,
A. What do you think are the causes of deforestation?
B. What measures are being taken to reduce or overcome the problem?
2. If no, what are the good practices in your locality that kept deforestation from happening?

3.1.4. Climate change and Pollution

Dear student, this is acknowledged by most scientists as the most serious environmental problem
facing the planet. The earth’s temperature is maintained by the ‘green house effect’- a layer of
gases in the atmosphere that traps a small percentage of the sun’s radiation- but the burning of
fossil fuels increases the green house effect, with the result that sea levels will rise due to the
melting of the ice caps, with some fairly obvious consequences for low lying land areas. At a
certain point, if the problem of global warming continues unabated life forms will be threatened.
The Earth’s atmosphere is under increasing pressure from pollutants. These include the so-called
‘greenhouse gases’ that may change the climate of the planet, and also from chemicals that
reduce the ozone layer.
The modern complex, industrial society in its endeavor to produce the necessities of life, have
negatively affected the environment through land, water as well as air pollution. The increase in
the level of pollution can cause serious problems on the life forms that are supported by these
resources.
Chlorofluorocarbons and other pollutants entering the atmosphere are depleting the Earth’s
protective ozone layer. In some locations, this depletion is causing an increase in the amount of
harmful ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface. Depletion of the ozone layer can
reduce agricultural crop yields; damage human health by suppressing the immune system,
causing skin cancer and cataracts; disrupt ocean food chains; and cause significant changes to the
Earth’s climate.
The continuing increased combustion of fossil fuels leads to a related increase in the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This trend, together with ever-increasing concentrations of
other heat-absorbing gases in the atmosphere, is leading to a gradual but steady increase in global
temperatures. The planet is likely to suffer serious alterations in weather patterns, increased
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storms, the destruction of natural systems, and consequent disruption of agriculture. Many
scientists predict that, ultimately, global warming will lead to a melting of polar ice caps,
subsequent rises in sea levels, and flooding of low-lying coastal environments.
Other air pollutants cause ‘acid rain’. Nitrogen and sulphur oxides and other pollutants from
burning fossil fuels are inflicting serious environmental damage, including acidification of
streams, lakes and soils damage to buildings and materials. Together with ozone these pollutants
are also implicated in the death of trees. Such pollution is airborne and may travel long distances
through the atmosphere, causing far-reaching damage to both terrestrial and water environments.
Numerous toxic gases and other pollutants entering the air have been shown to cause serious
damage to human health. For example, sulphur and nitrogen oxides damage lungs and cause
respiratory diseases; carbon monoxide from motor vehicles can impair the ability of blood to
carry oxygen, and affects cardiovascular, nervous and pulmonary systems; ozone, from
atmospheric reactions between nitrogen oxides and organic compounds, can cause eye irritation,
asthma, possible damage to lung tissue and reduced resistance to infection.
☻Activity 4
1. Some people argue that the issue of climate change is simply a myth, not a reality. Do you agree
with this position? Give concrete evidence in support of your answers.
2. If you say that climate change is a reality, what do you think is the major cause of the problem?
What are the barriers that are holding people back from finding solution to the problem?

Lesson Two: Impacts of Environmental Problems

At the end of this lesson students will be able to:
 Discuss the challenges of managing solid waste and sewage
 State the impact of hazardous substances on the environment
 Enumerate the reasons for decline in biological diversity
 Elucidate the factors for desertification and its linkage to drought and famine
 Indicate the problem regarding adequate supply of water and its declining quality

3.2.1. The challenge of managing solid wastes and sewage

Dear learner, the planet Earth has an ever-growing volume of sewage and solid waste to dispose
of and the quantities could increase over the coming years.
Solid waste includes garbage, refuse and sludge as well as solids and liquids from industrial,
commercial, mining, agricultural and community activities, but excludes solid or dissolved

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material in domestic sewage. This rapidly expanding quantity of waste (solid and sewage)
particularly from cities, poses serious threats to human health and the environment.
Each year, millions of people, the majority of whom is children, die from diseases caused by the
improper disposal of sewage and solid waste. Solid waste disposal is also causing serious
pollution of groundwater, surface water and the air in many locations.
In developing countries, a very small per cent of urban wastes are treated, and only a small
proportion of that treatment meets acceptable standards. At the start of the twenty-first century,
around half of the urban population in developing countries did not have adequate waste disposal
facilities.
To manage this growing volume of solid waste, it will be necessary to rely on a combination of
approaches to dealing with it: waste reduction, recycling, composting, use of landfills, and
incineration. One method alone will be insufficient. Municipal solid waste and sewage volume is
exceeding disposal capacity.
☻Activity 5
1. Why do you think is solid waste and sewage considered as environmental challenges?
2. What are the major problems in managing solid waste and sewage?

3.2.2. Hazardous substances (including nuclear waste)

Hazardous substances—including toxic waste, industrial chemicals, pesticides and other toxic
agricultural substances, and nuclear waste—are entering the environment in unprecedented
quantities. Hazardous substances are affecting both human health and the environment. When
they are released into the environment as waste, they may contaminate the air, soil, surface water
or groundwater, and may harm people and ecosystems. They pose both short- and long-term
threats to health and the biosphere in general.
The term ‘hazardous substance’ includes any substance that poses a threat to human health or the
environment, and encompasses a broader range of materials than those that have toxic qualities.
Hazardous substances include materials that are flammable, explosive, corrosive and/or toxic.
There are no reliable estimates of how much hazardous waste is produced in the world, but all
agree that the quantity is constantly increasing.
The chief producers of hazardous wastes (other than nuclear) are the chemical and petrochemical
industries, which contribute some the lion’s share of such wastes in industrialized nations. The

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majority of hazardous wastes in industrialized nations are disposed of on land—into landfills,

injection wells, or surface impoundments such as pits and ponds. Such disposal sites are subject
to leaks that can contaminate both soil and groundwater. Other wastes are discharged into sewers
or directly into streams and rivers. A minority of the waste is recycled or processed to reduce its
toxicity before final disposal.
Human exposures to pesticides and similar toxic chemicals are commonplace—through direct
contact on farms or industrial sites, or through contaminated food and drinking water. Serious
health threats result, including increased likelihood of developing cancer, gastrointestinal or
neurological diseases. Each year millions of pesticide poisonings occur in the world, the majority
being among farmers in developing countries.
Nuclear waste presents the most significant challenge of all. The substances involved are
extremely dangerous, many of them have no known technological detoxifiers, and they will
remain life-threatening for thousands of years. As yet, no completely satisfactory programme for
safe, long-term nuclear waste disposal has been devised and implemented.
The radiological and safety risk from radioactive wastes varies from very low for short-lived,
‘low level’ wastes, to very high for ‘high level’ wastes. At present, each year the nuclear power
industry creates many tens and hundred thousands cubic meters of low level, intermediate level
waste and high level waste and used nuclear fuel. The amount of such waste is increasing, and as
some nuclear power plants shut down, more start up. On the other hand, the cost to a country of
managing and disposing of radioactive waste is very high, though variable according to the
technology used.
☻Activity 6
1. Describe some of the challenges that make the management of hazardous substances difficult,
especially in the context of developing countries.
2. Nuclear power is increasingly being seen as an environmentally friendly source of energy.
Explain the risks associated with nuclear power by referring to Fukushima nuclear crisis.

3.2.3. Decline in biological diversity

The normal rates of extinction of many of the world’s biological resources have accelerated, and
still are rapidly accelerating—as a result of the ongoing destruction of tropical forests and other
biologically rich habitats; plus over-harvesting, pollution, and inappropriate introduction of

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foreign plants and animals. Some resources, such as fish, are, with careful stewardship, naturally
replenished; other resources, such as coal and gas, are not. Both types of resources are threatened
by excessive demand and so over production. Particularly, the multiple uses that forest wood
provides to human beings become the cause for large scale deforestation which subsequently
results in desertification, land degradation, loss of wild life due to migration etc. Although the
effects of species loss- or decline in bio-diversity-are unclear, any ecologist would argue that the
loss of species is bad in itself regardless of its wider impact. The use of agricultural chemicals
and the genetic modification of crops are identified by some environmentalists as the cause of
the decline in bio-diversity. It is estimated that a decade from now on, a million or more species
of plants, animals and other micro-organisms will be lost from the planet.
Biodiversity is essential for human survival. Biological resources provide food, medicines,
clothing, housing and a wide range of raw materials. They are important for the future
improvement of livestock and crops, and for the development of new medicines and products.
Plants and animals are also essential in the maintenance of soil productivity, the degradation of
waste, and pest and flood control.
So far around 1.4 million living species have been identified and named. Some of these include;
insects, vertebrates (mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish) and plants. The remainder
includes other invertebrates, algae, fungi and micro-organisms. Estimates of the true number of
species on the planet range from 5 to over 30 million. It is estimated that the world may be losing
biodiversity at the rate of one species per day. Habitat loss by human activities, notably
destruction of tropical forests, is the major cause of species extinction and planetary loss of
biodiversity.

☻Activity 7
1. What do you think primarily causes the decline in biodiversity?
2. Could the loss of biodiversity have been averted if humans followed environmentally sensitive
development approaches?

3.2.4. Desertification and drought

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Land degradation in the forms of soil erosion, desertification, and loss of soil fertility is having
the most serious impact on food production, and on the levels of poverty and starvation.
Desertification is the process of land degradation caused by human impacts, notably the use of
unsustainable agricultural methods, and variations in climate. Dry lands of the world that are
already ecologically fragile are particularly vulnerable. The key short-term impacts of
desertification and drought are degradation of grazing lands and decline in food production. It is
argued that almost seventy per cent of all the world’s dry lands, which amount to a quarter of the
world’s land, are already affected by degradation.
From time to time, notably when rains fail for several consecutive years, the problem becomes
extremely serious. Drought conditions along with land degradation contributed to severe famine
in sub-Saharan Africa over the past decades and it is affecting millions of people in the region at
the moment. Drought has caused the death of millions of people in the same region since the
1980s. Further it became one of the major causes of involuntary migration in the region.
It is understood that much of the land at high risk of desertification is in Africa and Asia, but
there are substantial at-risk areas in the south-west of the USA, northern Mexico, Australia and
South America. Desertification is caused almost entirely by human misuse and overuse of land.
Major causes are overgrazing by livestock and deforestation for fuel wood. Other important
factors include over cultivation of marginal lands and salinization from poorly managed
irrigation. Even in areas of moderate rainfall, overgrazing and the production of livestock feed
can lead to serious losses of topsoil from water erosion.

☻Activity 8
1. Do you think Ethiopia is affected by drought and desertification at the moment? If yes explain, its
major causes by giving examples from your practical experiences?
2. Identify one community organization in your locality that is active in the area of environmental
protection and write on the measures it takes to overcome drought and desertification

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3.2.5. Growing water demand and Decline of Water Quality

Fresh water is essential for the maintenance of life on Earth. It is vital for drinking, sanitation,
industry, food production, urban developments, power generation, transportation, inland fisheries
and recreation. Adequate supplies of fresh water are available to satisfy projected world-wide
demands into the twenty-first century if the resource is used efficiently. However, in many parts
of the world there are widespread shortages of water, coupled with gradual destruction and
increased pollution of supplies.
The main causes of current and projected lack of availability of adequate amounts of fresh water
include poor management, linked to lack of adequate conservation, inadequately treated sewage
and industrial waste, loss of natural water catchment areas, deforestation, dams, river diversions
and irrigation schemes; pollution, linked to poor agricultural practices which release pesticides
and other harmful chemicals into ground water; and rapid local increases in demand in some
areas.
In developing nations, it is argued that less than half of the population has access to safe drinking
water and sanitation. Many million deaths occur each year in the world as a result of water-borne
intestinal diseases. This is particularly true for the developing world, where an estimated 80 per
cent of all diseases and one-third of deaths in the developing world are caused by drinking
contaminated water. In industrial nations, surface and underground water supplies are being
polluted by industrial and municipal wastes as well as by surface run-off of toxins from
agricultural and urban activities.
☻Activity 9
1. Consult the water and sanitation authority of your locality and write on the state of access to safe
drinking water. Indicate the challenges that impede the achievement of this goal in your locality.

Lesson Three: The Trends in Consumption and its Effects on the Environment
At the end of this lesson students will be able to:
 Clarify the depletion of marine resources and its effect on the environment
 Point out the relation between nuclear power, global security and environment
 Indicate the growing demand for energy and its continued unsustainable use

3.3.1. Oceans, coasts and degradation of marine resources

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Oceans cover more than two-thirds of the Earth’s surface and, like tropical forests, are vital for
the maintenance of biodiversity. Areas such as coral reefs, mangroves and estuaries are among
the most highly diverse and productive of the planet’s ecosystems.
Marine fisheries yield millions of tons of fish and shellfish each year. Fishing has increased
greatly over the past few decades. There have been significant increases world wide in
overfishing, unauthorized fishing, ecosystem degradation and in the use of inappropriate
equipment that catches too many fish. Furthermore, there has been too little co-operation among
nations to prevent overfishing and related problems.
Oceans and coastal zones are delicately balanced ecosystems. As well as overharvesting, they are
threatened by construction and development; and by pollution from oil, municipal and industrial
wastes, and other land- and sea-based sources. Oceans influence climate, weather and the state of
the atmosphere. They provide not only food, but many other resources for the world’s
population.
A large per cent of marine pollution comes from sources on land, including towns, cities,
industry, agriculture, forestry, construction activities and tourism. The main pollutants include
sewage, chemicals, sediments, plastics, metals, oil and radioactive wastes. Many of these
substances are toxic; they may be very slow to break down in the water environment, and may
accumulate in living creatures, thus entering food chains.
Many pollutants are deliberately dumped at sea, including radioactive materials. Hundreds of
thousands tons of oil enter the oceans each year as a result of regular shipping, accidents, and
illegal discharges. There is currently no global scheme to address marine pollution from land
based sources.

☻Activity 10
1. State some of the most serious problems against the oceans and marine resources?
2. What were the causes of the BP oil spill that caused huge damage to the environment and human
life around the coast of Atlantic in the recent past?

3.3.2. Growing energy demand, unsustainable use, pollution of the environment

Energy stands as one of the most essential of all the Earth’s resources. Human life would not
exist without the heat, light and food that depend on it. The world’s consumption of energy has

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quadrupled in the past five decades. There has been a very great increase in the use of non-
renewable energy sources, notably fossil fuels, yet most energy is used inefficiently.
Air pollution from the increased use of fossil fuels is harming human health, causing acid rain,
which in turn damages whole ecosystems, and increases the build-up of atmospheric carbon
dioxide and the likelihood of global warming and climate instability. Accessing and developing
adequate and affordable energy supplies in the long term presents serious economic and
environmental problems for both developed and developing nations. Patterns in world energy use
are characterized by sharp contrasts and inequalities.
Oil accounts for almost half of the world’s commercial energy production, coal and other solid
fuels account for almost one third, while natural gas and electricity from nuclear and hydropower
accounting for the remainder of energy production. It is estimated that around two billion people
in developing countries rely on diminishing fuel wood supplies for energy.
Until recently, the traditional and simplistic approach to energy supply and consumption policies
in most nations of the world was to meet increasing demands by expanding supply. Various
factors have combined to change this approach, notably the vulnerability of the world economy
to oil supply disruptions, fluctuating oil prices, anti-nuclear arguments, greatly increasing
environmental damage caused by fossil fuel use, and realization that many resources being used
are non-renewable. As a result of these various factors, policies are gradually shifting towards
consideration of sustainable energy production, at the lowest cost, and with the least
environmental damage.
The increase of nuclear power as an energy source has highlighted its potential for nuclear
accidents, its high costs, technical and waste disposal problems. This trend has also expanded the
world s stock of nuclear weapons and potential for nuclear terrorism.
It is apparent that because of the complex costs and risks associated with energy obtained from
traditional sources such as oil, gas, coal and nuclear materials, it is essential that all nations strive
to increase energy use efficiency and conservation, and develop a variety of renewable energy
sources.
☻Activity 11
1. What were the problems related with the use of fossil fuels as a primary source of energy and
how does it affect the environment?
2. What does sustainability mean with regard to the production and use of energy?

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3.3.3. Nuclear weapon, Global security and the Environment

Warfare is destructive of sustainable development; excessive military spending diverts resources
from other security priorities. This will not of course be a direct environmental problem unless
nuclear weapons are actually used (although nuclear weapons’ testing has had environmental
consequences). In the 1980s, when consciousness about the threat of nuclear wars was much
higher than it is today, scientists speculated that the use of intercontinental ballistic missiles
could result in a nuclear winter: atmosphere pollution caused by dust, soot, smoke and ash which
would prevent the sun rays from penetrating for a period of time long enough to eradicate plant
life and create a new ice cage. Since the 1980s there has been a proliferation of states with
nuclear weapons.
The world spends a vast amount of money on military activities—almost one trillion dollars a
year. This is greater than the total income of the least wealthy half of the world population.
Military spending absorbs a disproportionate share of critical resources and technical skills in
most nations. This preoccupation with military matters has led to the neglect of urgent social,
economic and environmental problems. Low-income countries spend more on military
establishments than on health and education together.
The ‘arms race’ is likely to gain a momentum and life of its own, even though it may be an
outward entity distracting the world from underlying tensions and conflict. Military solutions to
non-military problems are inappropriate and ineffective—human tensions and conflict are often
related to such matters as environmental degradation, population pressures, lack of basic human
needs, and economic decline. The term ‘global security’ should be broadened to include far more
than military and economic aspects of national security. True security, including security at both
national and personal levels, relates to environmental, demographic and natural resource issues.
A preoccupation with military factors distracts attention from the underlying causes of insecurity
and conflict.
☻Activity 12
1. Discuss the ramifications of nuclear weapons on the environment.
2. Do you think global insecurity and environmental problems are related in any way? If yes, how?

3.3.4. Development, the environment and unsustainable development

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Perhaps this issue should be incorporated into the above list or perhaps it should have come
first—certainly the problem of ‘development and the environment’ is integral to and is a
common link between all of the environmental issues so far described. In various and complex
ways, as the above snapshot view of issues indicates, development in both ‘rich’ and ‘poor’,
developed and developing nations is seriously degrading the Earth’s land, air and water
resources.
During the past half century, very great effort and massive amounts of cash have been devoted to
so-called economic development around the world. However, the gap between Third World
‘poor’ and Western, industrialized ‘rich’ nations is large and is ever widening, and the impact of
development on the environment is ever increasing. During the past decade, many developing
countries paid out more in debt repayments to developed nations than the total amount they
received from exports and development assistance. These developing nations had to reduce
imports, investment and consumption, and they were less able to fight poverty at home. In some
cases, the financial drain resulted in cuts in health care, education and environmental protection.
Thus there is a net flow of money from developing to industrialized countries.
Industrialized countries have unsustainable patterns of consumption and production. Such
excessive demands and unsustainable lifestyles among the wealthy sectors of humanity
contribute significantly to environmental degradation. These patterns actually worsen poverty
and degradation in the Third World, where basic human needs often remain unmet. The
particular problems of developing countries may be summarized as: foreign debt; the need to
export in order to acquire foreign currency; overpopulation; unmet basic human needs; poverty;
inadequate or misconceived government policies; overuse or misuse of natural resources; and
environmental degradation. Industrialized nations are also in a continual state of development.
Problems associated with this ongoing process include serious environmental damage resulting
from use of energy, resources and the generation and disposal of wastes; depletion of finite
resources and unmet basic human needs of significant elements of the population.
☻Activity 13
1. It is argued that unsustainable patterns of production, consumption and lifestyles by the
industrialized north cause significant damage to the environment. In view of this it is argued that
the north has to compensate for the lack of development in the south. Do you support this
argument? Why?

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Review Questions
1. Which of the following environmental challenges does not pose a serious concern for
Ethiopia?
A. Land degradation
B. Deforestation
C. Nuclear Waste
D. Drought
2. One of the following is not among the hazardous substances that cause significant damage to
the environment?
A. Pesticides
B. Compost
C. Hazardous substance
D. Toxic substance
3. Explain the link between environment and sustainable development.
4. What is the impact of growing energy demand on the environment?
5. Elaborate the relation between nuclear power, global security and the environment.

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UNIT FOUR
THE MANAGEMENT OF ENVIRONMENT: PRINCIPLES, INSTITUTIONS AND
AGREEMENTS
Introduction
This unit deals with the management of environment in general and the principles that inform
institutions in their endeavor to manage the environment. Moreover, it also discusses the major
multilateral environmental agreements and conferences, the problems involved in reaching at
common agreement, and their success and failure stories.

Major sources
 Barrow, C.J. (1999). Environmental Management: Principles and practice. Routledge,
London
,
 May, J. Peter, Raymond, J. Burby etal.(1996). Environmental Management and Governance
Intergovernmental Approaches to Hazards and Sustainability. Routledge, London

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit students are expected to:
 Discuss the principles that guide the Management of environment
 Explain the role of institutions in environmental management
 State the functions of MEAs in the management of environment

Lesson One: Principles of International Environmental Management

Introduction
A number of important principles inform and guide Inter-governmental Organizations, States and
environmental NGOs and activists in their effort and action to solve the problem of the
environment or at least to improve its situation to a significant degree. Some of these principles
might entail legal obligation on states to observe them while others might impose moral
obligations and as such their observance might create a favorable condition between states to
work together. In this lesson we are going to discuss some of these principles.

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Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson students will be able to:
 Define the principle of state responsibility
 Explicate the precautionary principle
 Elaborate on the polluter pays principle
 State the principle of sustainable development
4.1.1. The Principle of State Responsibility
The increased sophistication in appreciating the risks to the earth‘s environment, and the
irreversible damage which may be caused by human activity, has resulted in a conscious effort,
both by governments acting collectively and also by non-governmental organizations, to invoke
legal protection of the environment. The resulting agenda is very extensive and includes the
problem of trans-boundary air pollution, the risks created by reliance upon nuclear power, the
protection of Antarctica, the protection of endangered species of flora and fauna, and the control
of the disposal of industrial waste. The policy issues generated by such an agenda are difficult to
resolve because inevitably the issues do not concern the environment per se, but relate to human
and social priorities, systems of loss distribution and the right to development.
The legal underpinnings of the protection of the environment continue to be the institutions of
general international law. This is immediately apparent from the content of the major works
devoted to legal protection of the environment, which invoke the principle of state responsibility
relating to the liability of the territorial sovereign for sources of danger to other states which are
created or tolerated in its territory.
For instance, principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration of 1972 stipulates that, in addition to the
sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies,
states have the responsibility to ensure that activities with in their jurisdictions or control do not
cause damage to the environment of other states or of areas beyond the limits of national
jurisdiction. As such maintaining the correct balance between development and environmental
protection is now one of the major challenges facing the international community and reflects the
competing interests posed by the principle of state sovereignty on the one hand and the need for
international co-operation on the other.

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Likewise, article 192 of the Law of the Sea Convention of 1982, provides that states have the
obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment, while article 194 notes that states
shall take all measures necessary to ensure that activities under their jurisdiction and control are
so conducted as not to cause damage by pollution to other states and their environment. In this
regard, it is sometimes argued that the appropriate standard for the conduct of states in the field
of environment is that of strict liability. In other words, states need under an absolute obligation
to prevent pollution and are liable for its effects irrespective of fault. While the advantage of this
is the increased responsibility placed upon states, it is doubtful whether international
environmental regimes have in fact reached such a high level of acceptance.

In fact one of the major reasons for the lack of interest to make commitments, to solve
environmental problems, especially, by the great powers, and for the slow implementation of
those already agreed is that they are primarily dependent up on the good will of nation states.
However variable treaty practice is, most treaties take the form of requiring the exercise of
diligent control of sources of harm, so that responsibility is engaged for breaches of obligations
specified in the particular instruments.
☻Activity 1
1. Discuss the effectiveness of the principle of state responsibility in providing solutions to
environmental problems?

4.1.2. The Precautionary Principle

The practice of states and the literature provide support for a number of emergent, but still
evolving principles on the issue of environment. Probably the best known of these is the
precautionary principle. This principle receives a clear support in the 1992 Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development. Principle 15 of the Declaration states that, in order to protect the
environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by states according to their
capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific
certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation. In general, the point which stands out is that at least some
applications of the precautionary approach, which is based upon the principle of foreseeable risk
to other states, are encompassed within existing concepts of state responsibility.

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The test of due diligence is in fact the standard that is accepted generally as the most appropriate
one. Article 194 of the Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982, for example, provides that states
are to take all measures…that are necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the
marine environment from any source, using for this purpose the best practicable means at their
disposal and in accordance with their capabilities.
☻Activity 2
1. Explain why the precautionary principle is considered as the most appropriate principle
for managing the environment.

4.1.3. The Polluter-Pays Principle

This is seen as a general guideline and has been provided by the Rio Declaration, article 16,
which states that national authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of
environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that
the polluter should, in principle, bear the costs of pollution, with due regard to the public interest
and without distorting international trade and investment. Some observers argue that it is
doubtful whether it has achieved the status of a generally applicable rule of customary
international law. The content of the polluter-pays principle also appears to be vague, but involve
strict liability. Doubts are expressed by reputable authorities about its legal status, and in this
context, and in order to avoid confusion, it is necessary to recall that the ordinary principles of
state responsibility are applicable if damage affects the legal interests of another state.
Recognition has also emerged of the special responsibility of developed states in the process of
environmental protection. In this regard, principle 7 of the Rio Declaration stipulates that states
have common but differentiated responsibilities. In particular, it is emphasized that the
developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of
sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment
and of the technologies and financial resources they command. Article 3(1) of the convention on
climate change provides that the parties should act to protect the climate system on the basis of
equity and in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective
capabilities so that the developed countries would take the load in combating climate change.
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change, for example, commits developed country parties
to individual, legally binding targets to limit or reduce their green house gas emissions, adding

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up to a total cut of at least 5 per cent from 1990 levels in the commitment periods of 2008-
[Link] countries are obliged simply to meet existing commitments.
☻Activity 3
1. Why did the US congress declined to ratify the Kyoto protocol after the government
initially agreed to its requirements?
2. In view of this, can the polluter–pays principle be effectively applied in real world
situation?

4.1.4. The principle of International Co-operation

A developing theme in the management of international environmental problems, founded up on
the general principles, relates to the requirement for states to co-operate in dealing with trans-
boundary environmental problems. Principle 24 of the Stockholm Declaration of 1972 noted that
international matters concerning the protection and improvement of the environment should be
handled in a co-operative spirit, while principle 7 of the Rio Declaration of 1992 emphasized that
states shall co-operate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health
and integrity of the earth‘s ecosystem. Like wise, principle 13 of the Rio Declaration refers both
to national and international activities in this field by stating that states shall develop national
law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental
damage. States shall also co-operate in an expeditious and more determined to develop further
international law regarding liability and compensation for adverse effects of environmental
damage caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control areas beyond their jurisdiction.
International co-operation on the issue of environment might take various forms including a duty
to inform other states of known environmental hazards; a duty to exchange emergency plans; and
also a duty to transmit immediate warning.
This point is emphasized in a large number of international agreements including the Rio
Declaration of 1992. Principle 18 of the Declaration provides that states shall immediately notify
other states of any natural disasters or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden
harmful effects on the environments of those states, while principle 19 stipulates that states shall
provide prior and timely notification and relevant information to potentially affected states on
activities that may have adverse trans-boundary environmental effect and shall consult with those
states at an early stage and in good faith.

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☻Activity 4
1. Explain how international cooperation benefits Ethiopia to mitigate environmental
problems?

4.1.5. The Principle of Sustainable Development

The definition provided in the report of the Brundtland Commission states that, ‗in promoting
development, states should always be guided by the notion of sustainable development,
propounded in many treaties and declarations. The notion intends to cover development that
meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future
generations to meet their own needs (this is the definition offered in the report made in 1987 to
the UN General Assembly by the World Commission on Environment and Development).
Many scholars have made the effort to present the separate elements which compose the concept
of sustainable development. The elements identified include the following:
1. The integration of environmental protection and economic development. This element reflects
principle 4 of the Rio Declaration which provides that environmental protection shall
constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation
from it.
2. The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and
environmental needs of present and future generations. This is stated in principle 3 of the
Rio Declaration.
3. Although it is not directly reflected in the Rio Declaration, the idea of sustainable utilization
and conservation of natural resources also ranked as an element of sustainable development.
The concept provides available standards, which, when they appear in a precise treaty
context, will have a concrete meaning.
4. The issue of inter-generational equity also forms a policy datum which falls within the
notion of sustainable development and underlies a number of global environmental treaties.
5. Finally, an element that has no legal status and that lie outside the sphere of environmental
concern as such, but, one that has significance to the concept of sustainable development, is

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the issue of intra-generational-equity, which tries to reduce inequity within the existing
economic system.

☻Activity 5
1. Explain how sustainable development impacts on the management of environmental
problems.

Lesson Two: The Role of Institutions in Environmental Management

Introduction
Environmental concerns were gaining increasing attention and traction during the late 1960s and
1970s. Young activists rallied behind the environmental cause as a symbol for their fight against
the capitalist establishment, wasteful use of natural resources and indiscriminate employment of
modern technology. The environmental movement also gave them an outlet for protest against
national borders. Conservatives, some what surprisingly, were also supporters of environmental
concerns as they professed a more traditional and less wasteful lifestyle. Disasters such as
massive oil spill further sharpened public concern and attracted attention to reports about the
impending death of the oceans, the creeping cross-border pollution from smoke stack in other
jurisdictions, the impending depletion of natural resources and food sources and the treats of
nuclear testing. The issues were thus ripe for international attention, although governments
continued to deny any occurrence of environmentally irresponsible behavior. However, a broad
range of international participants began involve themselves in confronting this challenge of the
environment.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson students are expected to:
 Enumerate the role of the state in the management of the environment
 Identify the roles played by intergovernmental organizations on environmental
management
 Discuss the roles of NGOs in environmental management
4.2.1. Role of State/Government in the Management of Environment

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Management of environment is possible only through concerted efforts of all the components of
society such as government and non-governmental organization, industrialists, agriculturists,
voluntary social welfare organizations as well as the general public.
The final controlling authority in most of the issues related to environmental management is the
government itself. For example, most of the forest areas are owned by the government, only the
government can build dams, roads, railways, etc. industrial or any other related activity cannot
start without the approval of the government. Similarly, government is directly or indirectly
responsible for meeting the costs of floods, droughts, epidemics, and other environmental
disasters. Therefore, the government has to apply various checks and controls so that the
environment is managed properly.

However, the management of environment cannot be successful until and unless everybody takes
interest in it. It is difficult for the government to directly involve the masses in general. Here the
role of non-governmental agencies becomes vital. They do not have to follow the formalities,
which a government department has to do. Further, they have the additional advantage of being
in direct contact with the masses. Let us took at these aspects in a little more detail.

In most states of the world both national and local governments own, control and develop
almost all these countries forests, dams, major irrigation system, power stations, railways ports,
roads, mines and even industries. In recognition of their responsibility in preserving the
environment, governments create different institutions responsible for coordinating and
implementing environmental activities. The names of such institutions may differ from country
to country and may be called the Department of Environment, the Ministry of Environment or
the Bureau of Environment, etc. but they are the major institutions entrusted with the task of
planning, protection, coordination of environment, implementation of environmental policies and
programmes.

Most of these institutions are involved in conservation and survey of flora, faun, forests and
wildlife, prevention and control of pollution, afforestation, regeneration of degraded areas and
protection of overall environment. To accomplish these tasks, these institutions undertake
various measures including environmental impact assessment about a particular environment

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prior to implementing any project. This is simply a study made to evaluate its possible impact on
environment and steps are suggested so that least damage is caused to environment when the
project is implemented. For example, if a dam has to be built on a river, assessment is made as to
the type of environmental problems that the dam will cause when built.

Moreover, these institutions are also mandated with setting up of environmental standards
regarding many of these environmental problems. They also undertake eco-regeneration
programmes, provide assistance to organizations implementing environmental and forestry
programmes, promotes research related to environment and forestry and implements
programmes concerning extension, education and training.

Governments also take care of detractors of environmental laws and standards. Local
governments may set up their own departments to look after environment. In their own
jurisdiction, they implements programmes related to environmental protection, environmental
awareness, pollution control, eco-regeneration, etc.

States usually create international institutions through adopting treaties, which serve as the
organizations‘ constitutions, in order to ensure permanent cooperation in addressing matters of
international concern. Nearly all such organizations are composed of states only, although some
organizations call for the delegations to include representatives of non-governmental interests.
Some of these institutions were created for specific environmental purposes, usually in order to
facilitate and monitor the implementation of a specific environmental treaty, such as those
concerning the protection of wild fauna and flora, the preservation of the stratospheric ozone
layer, the control of water quality of an international river or a part of the oceans.

☻Activity 6
1. What do you think are the irreplaceable roles of the state that are in the management of
the environment? Enumerate them and explain why?

4.2.2. The Role of Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)

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The discussion of global organizations concerned with environmental protection must begin with
the United Nations. Nearly all organs of the United Nations, including the Security Council and
General Assembly, have been involved in decisions related to the environment. In addition, the
General Assembly has created subsidiary organs whose mandates are specifically devoted either
wholly or in part to environmental protection. The most important of these organs are the UN
Environment Program, the Commission on Sustainable Development, the International Law
Commission, and the UN Economic Commission for Europe.

The ECOSOC, for example, raised the matter in its 45th session through a convincing
memorandum outlining the purpose of the conference to help governments and the public in
countries around the world understand the seriousness of environmental problems. The
environmental debate at the time was vigorous and well informed about concrete issues such as
water and air pollution, acid rain, erosion and possible climate change. The interconnectedness
between these problems, however, was not yet fully comprehended. Moreover, the economic,
social and political consequences were unclear to the public as well as to policy makers. The
memorandum thus emphasized the need for a forum where governments and international
organizations could debate the issues and come to a collective decision about concrete action.
In the subsequent resolution 1346 (XLV), ECOSOC underlined the need for intensified action at
the national and international levels to limit and where possible to eliminate the impairment of
the human environment.

The General Assembly decided (Resolution 2398 (XXIII)) to convene a United Nations
conference on the human environment in 1972 and accepted the proposal of the Swedish
government to host the event. The main purpose of the conference was to serve as a practical
means to encourage, and to provide guidelines for action by governments and international
organizations designed to protect and improve the human environment and to remedy and
prevent its impairment, by means of international co-operation, bearing in mind the particular
importance of enabling the developing countries to forestall the occurrence of such problems
(General Assembly Resolution 2581 (XIV)).

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In 1972, after and with the recommendation of the Stockholm Conference, the UN General
Assembly created a subsidiary organ, the UN Environment Program (UNEP), to address
environmental issues. As a subsidiary organ of the General Assembly, UNEP has no independent
legal basis (or personality). Its mandate is to serve as a catalyst for action by other international
institutions. It has proved a particularly important organization in the evolution of conventions
and instruments in the field of environmental protection. It is based in Nairobi and consists of a
governing council of fifty-eight members elected by the General Assembly. UNEP has been
responsible for the development of a number of initiatives including the 1985 Vienna
Conventions for the protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal protocol and the 1992
Convention on Bio-diversity. It studies environmental problems and elaborates programs, but
implementation usually is undertaken by the United Nations as a whole, with the aid, if
appropriate, of regional governmental and non-governmental organizations, as well as individual
states.

One of UNEP‘s most important functions is to provide the secretariat of multilateral

environmental conventions, including the 1973 Washington Convention on the International
Trade of Endangered Species and the1992 Convention on Biological Diversity.
The UN General Assembly also created, following the 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and
Development, a Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), the tasks of which are to:
monitor the integration of environmental and developmental goals throughout the UN system,
coordinate intergovernmental decision making on environmental and developmental goals, and
make recommendations on any new arrangements needed to advance sustainable development.
The CSD also oversees state implementation of Agenda 21, the action program adopted by the
Rio Conference.

The 34-member International Law Commission, established by the UN General Assembly in

1947 for the codification and progressive development of international law, has considered
several topics important to environmental protection. In its early years, it helped codify the law
of the sea. Later, it elaborated the Convention on the Non-Navigational Uses of International
Watercourses and submitted it to the UN General Assembly, which adopted the ILC draft on
May 21, 1997. In 2001, the Commission completed Draft Articles on Prevention of Trans

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boundary Harm from Hazardous Activities and in 2006 it adopted Draft Articles on International
Liability in Case of Loss from Transboundary Harm Arising Out of Hazardous Activities.
The UN Economic Commission for Europe, created in 1947 in the perspective of post-war
economic reconstruction, was one of the first organizations to be involved in environmental
problems. It has elaborated several important international environmental treaties, such as the
1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, and the 1998 Convention on
Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in
Environmental Matters.

The larger UN system also includes specialized agencies, global institutions that have their own
constitutions and independent legal personality. The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) was one of the first specialized agencies to be active in the domain of
environmental protection. In 1970 it launched the Man and Biosphere Program (MAB),
commissioning a study on the interactions between humans and the environment, the impact of
human activities on different sectors of the environment, and the conservation of natural areas
and the genetic resources they contain. The establishment of biosphere reserves was one of the
main components of the program; more than 425 sites have been recognized as such reserves, in
almost 100 countries. UNESCO has also elaborated two major conventions: one on the Wetlands
of International Importance, the other on the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World
Heritage Convention aims at the conservation of cultural or natural sites (monuments,
particularly interesting parts of cities, protected natural areas). Over 830 items have been
included in the World Heritage list, including more than 162 natural and 24 mixed natural and
cultural sites.
☻Activity 7
1. Enumerate Ethiopia‘s cultural heritages and natural sites recognized by UNESCO and
briefly explain why they are included in the world heritage list.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has as its mission to promote investment in
agriculture, better soil and water management, improve yields of crops and livestock, and incite
the transfer of technology to and the development of agricultural research in, developing
countries. The FAO has contributed to the development of international environmental law by

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elaborating a series of instruments concerning soil quality, the use of pesticides, international
fishing conservation and management measures, and plant genetic resources for food and
agriculture. It also participated in drafting numerous international conventions. Its activities are
the source of legislation in numerous countries, above all developing ones, regarding agriculture,
forests, fishing, and soil conservation.

Another specialized organ of the UN that conducts significant activities regarding the
environment is the WHO. The principal mandate of the World Health Organization (WHO) is
international cooperation in the interests of human health and, in particular, the elimination of
epidemic, endemic, and other illnesses as well as improving housing and hospitals. At the
beginning of the 1970s WHO developed a Global Strategy for Health and Environment. The
problem of achieving the supply of safe drinking water has been a crucial issue to WHO. In
addition, in cooperation with FAO, WHO established a Code proposing safety criteria for food.
WHO also sponsored the Anti-Tobacco Convention adopted in 2004. Created in 1947, the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) also, established a system of monitoring and rapid
exchange of meteorological information, coordinated research, standardized observations, and
encouraged applications of meteorological science, including prediction and modification of
weather. These activities permit the observation of pollution and its persistence in the
atmosphere. In addition, WMO is well placed to assess reduction of the stratospheric ozone layer
and its consequences. WMO actively participated in the creation of a world system of continuous
monitoring of the environment (GEMS). The legal office of WMO has helped elaborate
international instruments on artificial weather modification, protection of the ozone layer, and
long-range atmospheric pollution.

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was created in 1956 in order to hasten and
increase the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity in the entire world. It
has never had the mandate to prohibit utilization of nuclear power. Its functions include the task
of establishing and overseeing implementation of norms designed to protect health and reduce to
a minimum the dangers to which persons and property are exposed from radiation. Thus, for
projects that the Agency assists or for any other arrangement where interested parties invite the
Agency to apply its standards, the Agency seeks to ensure that the projects conform to its norms.

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It can require application of any safety measures it prescribes. The Agency adopts norms for
nuclear safety and codes of proper procedure, including radioactive waste management, which it
proposes to member states. It has adopted guidelines for monitoring and preventing radiological
contamination of personnel and the environment, safe handling and the transport of radioactive
materials, treatment and disposal of radioactive wastes, and containment and safety of nuclear
power plants. In 1961, it published a regulation on transportation of radioactive materials, which
it has revised several times.

After the Chernobyl nuclear accident of April 26, 1986, IAEA drafted two international
conventions, one on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident, the other on Assistance in the
Case of Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency. The treaties were adopted September 26,
1986, by the IAEA general conference meeting in extraordinary session. The organization
continues to be involved in standard-setting and in verification of nuclear safeguards.
☻Activity 8
1. Evaluate the role and effectiveness of the IAEA in mitigating the recent Fukushima
nuclear crisis.
2. On the basis of your evaluation, do you think nuclear power can be taken as a healthy
source of energy?

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) was established in 1948 for the regulation of
international commercial navigation. IMO‘s first important responsibility was safety at sea, and
it adopted a number of legal instruments on this topic, most importantly, the 1960 International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), updated and replaced in 1974. By the late
1960s, the increasing amount of oil being transported by sea in ever-larger oil tankers became a
particular concern, especially after a number of major tanker accidents. In response, IMO
adopted a series of measures designed to prevent accidents and to minimize marine pollution due
to oil. It also has tackled the major environmental threats caused by routine maritime operations,
such as the cleaning of oil cargo tanks and the disposal of engine room wastes. Measures
introduced by IMO also address the safety of containers, bulk cargoes, liquefied gas tankers, and
other ship types. Special attention has been paid to ship crews, including the adoption of a
convention on standards of training, certification, and watch-keeping.

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The adoption of maritime legislation is IMO‘s most visible responsibility. The Organization has
sponsored approximately 40 conventions and protocols, most of which have been amended on
several occasions to ensure that they keep up with changes in world shipping. IMO‘s mandate
has included establishing a system to ensure redress for those who suffer financially as a result of
pollution. It adopted treaties in 1969 and 1971 to enable victims of oil pollution to obtain
compensation simply and quickly, later followed by conventions on liability and compensation
for other shipping hazards.

The International Labor Organization (ILO) has a constitutional mandate to assist countries in
improving the working environment. Since 1919, the ILO has devoted a significant proportion of
its efforts in that direction, especially through standard-setting activities. The extensive list of
ILO instruments that concern occupational safety and health include the Working Environment
(Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention (No. 148) and Recommendation (No. 156)
(1977) as well as the Safety and Health in Construction Convention (No. 167) and
Recommendation(No. 175), adopted in June 1988. The ILO also adopted conventions on
chemicals in the workplace (1990), and agricultural work (2002), which contain provisions
directly concerned with environmental protection.

On January 17, 1995, ILO signed a Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Establishment

of the Inter-Organization Program for the Social Management of Chemicals (IPCS), which
created a framework for coordinating chemicals-related policies and activities with UNEP, the
FAO, the WHO, the UN Industrial Development Organization, and the OECD; the MOU was
revised in 1996 to add ethical considerations as an integral part of the IPCS‘s work. In 1994, the
ILO launched an Interdepartmental Project on Environment and the World of Work. Since that
time, environmental issues have become integrated in all programs and activities of the
organization.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) initially focused its efforts on aircraft
noise, and nuisance the public experience from civil aviation. In addition to securing quieter
aircraft, ICAO also has insisted on the importance of compatible land-use planning and control,

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in order to avoid offsetting the gains of reduced engine noise with further residential
developments around airports. In the early 1980s, in response to concerns regarding air quality in
the vicinity of airports, ICAO established standards to control aircraft engine emissions through
an engine certification scheme. These standards, contained in Volume II of Annex 16 to the
Convention on International Civil Aviation, establish aircraft takeoff and landing emission limits
for nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide, and unburned hydrocarbons. The development of a
new emissions parameter that would take into account technical performances, climb and cruise
emissions, new communications, navigation, surveillance, and air traffic management could be a
further effective means to reduce fuel burning and avoid unnecessary emissions.

The Agreement Establishing the WTO, signed in Marrakesh, incorporates the original GATT and
adds new undertakings on five main subject matters that have impacts on environmental
protection. They are the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, the Agreement on Sanitary
and Phytosanitary Measures, the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, the
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property, and the General Agreement on
Trade in Services. States joining the WTO undertake to comply with all these agreements. The
WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding is another important feature of the organization; it
establishes procedures for resolving trade disputes and creates a Dispute Settlement Body
consisting of panels and an Appellate Body. The WTO also has a Committee on Trade and the
Environment (CTE) whose mandate is to identify the trade-related aspects of environmental
measures and, if necessary, to make recommendations for modification of the rules of the
multilateral trading system or attempt to resolve problems of policy coordination while
upholding the principles of the multilateral trading system.

In particular the CTE looks at the relationship between the trade rules and the use of trade
measures for environmental purposes; the use of environmental charges and taxes and
environmental standards for packaging, labeling, and recycling; the effect of environmental
measures on developing country‘s market access and the environmental benefits of removing
trade restrictions and distortions.
☻Activity 9
1. Explain the major contributions made by the specialized organs of the UN regarding

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environment

4.2.3. The Role of Non-Governmental organizations

Non-governmental organizations have played a vital role in environmental issues since the
1960s. While the number of environmental NGOs has grown, as has the number of NGOs
generally, their interests are diverse. On the issue of population, zero population growth
advocates strongly worked for population limitations, while others like the Catholic Church
opposes artificial birth control. On the issue of natural resources, the Nature Conservancy and the
Rainforest Action Network lobby for land protection while the Earth Island Institute and the
Global Climate Coalition, the latter an industry-sponsored group against limitations in green
house emissions, are concerned with pollution issues.

NGOs serve a number of key functions in environmental affairs. Some of which are listed as
follows:
1. First, they serve as specialized international critics, often using the media to publicize their
dissatisfaction and to get environmental issues onto the international and national agendas.
For example, the Rainforest Action Network launched an initiative against Amazon
deforestation precipitated by cattle ranching, targeting Burger King for buying the beef.
Green peace‘s indictment of Brazil‘s unsustainable cutting of Mahogany trees led that
country to stop all shipments until forestry practices could be improved.
2. Second, NGOs may function through inter-governmental organizations, working to change
the organization itself. For example, NGOs did this with the International Whaling
Commission when they transformed it form a body that limited whaling through quotas in to
one that banned whale hunting altogether.
3. Third, NGOs can aid in monitoring and enforcing environmental regulations, either by
pointing out problems or by actually carrying out on-site inspections. For example, the NGO
TRAFFIC, the wild life trade monitoring program of the world wild life fund and ICUN- the
World Conservation Union, is authorized to conduct inspections under the Washington
Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species.
4. Fourth, NGOs may function as part of transnational communities of experts, serving with
counterparts in inter-governmental organizations and state agencies to try to change practices

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and procedures of an issue. One such epistemic community was formed around the
Mediterranean Action Plan of the UN Environmental Programme. Experts gathered in
meeting to discuss ways to improve the sea‘s water quality, data was shared, and monitoring
programs established. These same individuals also became active in domestic bargaining
processes, fostering learning among government elites.
5. Finally, and perhaps most important, NGOs can attempt to influence state environmental
policies directly, by providing information about policy options, some times initiating legal
proceedings, and lobbying directly through a state‘s legislature or bureaucracy.
Activity 10
1. Explain the major strengths of NGOs with regard to environmental management
2. What do you think are the main problems that NGOs face regarding their action on
environment?

Lesson Three: Multi-lateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and the Management of

Environment
Introduction
Despite the daunting list of environmental challenges, the news is not all bad. Starting in the
1970s and 80s governments and others did begin the quest for planetary stewardship. It is
important to acknowledge what has been accomplished. An agenda of the principal large
scale environmental concerns was forcefully identified for governmental action. In response to
this agenda, there has been an upsurge of international conferences, negotiations, action
plans, treaties, and other initiatives. New fields of international environmental law and
diplomacy have been born. There has been a vast outpouring of impressive and relevant
scientific research and policy analysis. In academia, international environmental affairs have
become a major subject of intellectual inquiry and teaching.
An ever stronger international community of environmental and conservation groups has
flourished. Both national governments and multilateral institutions, from the United Nations
to the international development banks, have recognized these concerns, creating major units
to address global environmental issues.
The first of these, the 1972 Stockholm conference on the Human Environment, was followed by
others, notably the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in

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1992 (otherwise known as the Earth Summit) and the World Summit on Sustainable
Development held in Johannesburg in [Link] gatherings of governments, nongovern-
mental organizations (NGOs), business leaders, the media, and others provide useful points of
reference to follow the unfolding responses to the global agenda.

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson students will be able to:
 Mention the different declaration and conventions on the environment
 Identify the contributions of these conventions towards environmental management
 Explain the success and weaknesses of these declarations
4.3.1. The Stockholm Conference
Held in Stockholm, Sweden, the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment (UNCHE) was the first concerted effort of the international community to focus
on the environment as a major topic of international concern and attention. The Stockholm
conference was the product of a number of factors, but it is best seen as the international
expression of the huge surge of environmental concern then occurring at the national level,
especially in key industrial countries.

The broader international political context was also changing in the 1960s. New countries,
especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, were emerging as independent entities
unshackled from colonialism. Acutely aware of their histories of colonial economic
exploitation, these countries were anxious about preserving their sovereignty and
demonstrating control over their own governance and resources. Poverty, lower life
expectancies, illiteracy, lack of basic health amenities, and high population growth rates
meant that national priorities in these countries were firmly oriented to ward economic and
social objectives.

The global ―South,‖ as these nations came to be known, considered their development priorities
to be imperative; they wanted to catch up with the richer nations. They also asserted that the

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responsibility of protecting the environment was primarily on the shoulders of the richer
Northern nations, who were the big polluters in the first place. Indeed, it was Sweden that
initiated the original call for an international conference on the environment. Six months
before the Stockholm conference, developing countries passed a UN General Assembly res-
olution stressing that escalating concerns for the environment should not undermine their
economic objectives.
This interplay of environment and development concerns provided the backdrop to the
Stockholm conference. The UN General Assembly directed that the conference provide
guidelines for action by governments and international organizations to protect and improve
the environment. It also highlighted the need to forestall environmental problems in developing
countries. In preparing for the conference, the developing countries had their first opportunity to
formulate their international environmental agenda. The Group of 77—the bargaining bloc
within which the developing countries have coordinated their positions at the United Nations—
stressed an agenda that highlighted issues of poverty and economic development.

The stage was thus set for the longest running tug-of-war in international environmental politics:
North vs. South, environment vs. development, the pollution of the affluent vs. the degradation
of poverty. The ongoing struggle to bridge this divide had its first engagement in the little
town of Founex, near Geneva. Discussions there among representatives from both industrial
and developing countries gave rise to the possibility of a North–South bargain on the
environment. This compromise took the form of the doctrine of environment and
development—the forerunner to the current mantra of sustainable development—in which
governments agreed (1) that environment and development are two mutually reinforcing
sides of the same coin, and (2) that the industrial world would accept the principle of
―additionality‖ by which they would pay some or all of the additional costs of environmental
initiatives in the developing world with new and additional development assistance resources.
Altogether, 114 government representatives met at Stockholm and debated the environment and
development issues of the day. The dominant concerns of countries both North and South were
domestic. Many NGOs participated in unofficial meetings (parallel events), and the presence
of journalists and other media made the event a tangible symbol of emerging environmental
awareness.

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The conference produced considerable results. The most important of these was the Stockholm
Declaration, a list of 26 principles highlighting a new ethic intended to govern future behavior
of societies toward the environment. The preamble of the declaration called for a common
outlook and principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and
enhancement of the human environment. Principle 1 for example, stated that there was a
fundamental right to freedom, dignity and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of
quality and that all had a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for
present and future generations. Principle 21 affirmed the sovereign right of states to exploit
resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, but it also proclaimed the
responsibility of states to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause
damage to the environment of other states. Principle 22 called upon states to cooperate in
developing international environmental law on liability and compensation for the
international environmental consequences of domestic actions.

Another important output was the Stockholm Action Plan, a set of 109 policy
recommendations in six areas: human settlements, natural resource management, pollutants,
environment and development, the social context underlying perceptions of environmental
issues, and international organizational behavior. The Action Plan confirmed that
environmental problems did not exist in isolation and that an integrative approach that looked at
different sectors and actors and the links among them would be the only way to understand why
environmental problems existed and how they could be solved.

Perhaps the most tangible and enduring legacy of the Stockholm conference was the creation of
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).The need for an international entity to act
as a catalyst for environmental action within the UN system was clear, and UNEP was the re-
sponse. Key tasks envisaged for UNEP included developing environmental information and
assessment programs and exchanging and disseminating data on the seriousness of particular
problems. UNEP was also to further international cooperation toward solutions for shared
environmental problems, such as transboundary pollution issues.

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Stockholm will also be remembered as among the first global conferences where the stirrings of
civil society—private, non governmental interests and groups—found resonance. For the first
time, NGOs and other nongovernmental actors were prominently engaged in and around the
conference. Their influence in environmental decision making would grow exponentially from
this date.
In retrospect, the Stockholm conference helped make the environment a legitimate cause for
both international and domestic attention and action. It aided the passage of national
environmental legislation and the formation of environmental ministries and departments in
many countries. It launched basic principles of international environmental law, a discipline
without much previous history. It created UNEP, which proved to be unexpectedly influential
in shaping the emergence of global environmental governance. Although Stockholm did not
dwell extensively on global environmental concerns, much less force them onto an agenda
requiring international action, it did provide a framework for international progress and thus
paved the way for future efforts.
☻Activity 11
Explain some of the most important contributions of the Stockholm conference. What do you
think were the limitations of this conference?

4.3.2. The Rio Earth Summit

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was held in
Rio de Janeiro from June 5 to June 18, [Link] conference was attended by 178 nations,
with 118 heads of state or government, official delegates, NGOs represented by accredited
observers, journalists, and visitors. The scale of the conference, soon dubbed the Earth
Summit, was unprecedented. With the adoption of several environmental conventions since
the Stockholm conference, the legitimacy and seriousness of the environment as a global
issue were no longer in question. The political setting at Rio seemed ripe to translate the idea
of sustainable development into practical policy solutions that many nations could implement
both collectively and individually.

As at Stockholm, Rio dealt extensively with the relations between nations of the
industrialized North and the underdeveloped South. Countries such as Malaysia asked tough
questions of the industrialized nations, particularly the United States. How should the costs of
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environmental restoration and future protection in the developing world be shared? Who was
more to be blamed for the rise in pollution and drawdown of natural resources: the rich nations
because of their profligate consumption? or the poorer nations because of their population
explosion? Which environmental issues deserved immediate priority: global environmental
issues such as climate change and biodiversity? or livelihood issues such as access to
freshwater, desertification, and food security? These debates informed the output of the
UNCED deliberations. In the end, the results of Rio were wide ranging and comprehensive.
The answer to hard questions was, inevitably, all of the above.

The Rio Declaration elaborated 27 principles that should govern the future of environmental
decision making, building on the Stockholm Declaration before it. These principles were the
result of political compromises among nations of competing positions and interests, and one
can see in most of them two view-points, often North and South, competing for dominance.
The principles nonetheless represented collective international affirmations. Although they are
guiding principles, which are not binding on nations, they can also be seen as reflections of
emerging international environmental law.

In addition to the Rio Declaration, the conference approved a path breaking document called
Agenda 21, which was a detailed blueprint for putting sustainable development into practice.
This nonbinding document, hailed as the most significant contribution of Rio, had 40
chapters and 115 program areas laid out over 800 pages and set forth a policy framework for
all actors to implement sustainable development in everyday life. The document itself
consisted of four broad areas:
 Social and economic development Highlighting international cooperation and assistance,
poverty reduction, overconsumption, population trends, health, human settlements, and
policymaking for sustainable development;
 Conservation and management of resources for development Addressing the issues of
energy use, integrated land resource use, deforestation, desertification and drought,
mountain ecosystems, agricultural needs and rural development, biodiversity,
biotechnology, oceans, freshwaters, toxic chemicals, and hazardous and radioactive
wastes;

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 Strengthening the role of major groups Focusing on actors other than governments:
women, youth, indigenous peoples, NGOs, business and industry, scientists,
communities, workers, trade unions, and farmers;
 Means of implementation Addressing how international and national support should be
organized, including a transfer to the South of financial resources and environment-
friendly technology; building capacity through technical assistance, environmental
education, an scientific information; creating better environmental databases to
bridge the data gaps between nations; and improving international environmental
organizations, coordination, and legal processes.

Looking back on Agenda 21, two interesting trends appear. The first was the linking of
poverty alleviation and official development assistance (ODA) with the broader goals of
environmental protection. The Earth Summit called for a doubling of the industrial world‘s
assistance to poorer countries to support the implementation of Agenda 21. The second trend
was the linking of the local and the global. Local actions in different parts of the world,
facilitated by international organizations, governments, and businesses, were to be part of the
collective response.

Although Agenda 21 was impressive, its scope and comprehensiveness resulted in a very
ambitious agenda for governments that made the whole enterprise heavily dependent on strong
leadership from major countries, adequate financing, and effective institutional arrangements
for follow-up. Unfortunately, none of these materialized in the years after Rio. To help
implement Agenda 21, a new institution, the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD),
was created by the United Nations shortly after Rio. Part of the UN‘s Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC), the CSD was charged with the task of monitoring the implementation of
Agenda 21. Headquartered in New York, this institution was to consider information given by
governments, act as a forum for exchange, and enable coordination among the various groups
mentioned in Agenda 21. However, like ECOSOC itself, the CSD has proven to be long on
dialogue and speech making but short on stimulating action.

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In addition to Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration, several important treaties were initiated at
Rio. In the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), nations agreed that
protecting climate was a common concern of mankind and established a goal of preventing dan-
gerous anthropogenic interference with the global climate system. Industrial countries were
exhorted to return their climate-altering emissions to 1990 levels and to have plans of action to
this end.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was another framework treaty focused on
protecting biodiversity. Nations agreed on the need for conservation of biodiversity,
sustainable use of resources, access to genetic resources, fair and equitable benefit sharing,
and transfer of technologies. Southern nations were able to express their concerns about
patenting of life forms found in their borders, such as the use of tropical plants as the basis
for pharmaceuticals in the industrialized counties, and northern countries were able to note
their concerns for the conservation and sustainable use of endangered and threatened species.
Nonbinding Forest Principles and commitments to develop international conventions on
desertification, fishing in the high seas, and land-based sources of marine pollution were also
agreed to at Rio.

Major financial support was needed for developing countries to comply with new treaties.
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was set up before Rio in 1990 with a goal to provide
financing for global environmental objectives, and the Earth Summit gave it strong support.
Though broader today, the original principle for GEF funding was that financial assistance
was to be given to meet the global incremental costs of specific projects—those costs required
to realize global environmental benefits that are over and above what a country would spend
to reap purely national benefits. GEF funding was therefore not meant to substitute for normal
development aid or for the host country‘s own financing but to supplement it by paying the
costs of going beyond traditional development to realize global environmental benefits.

These results at the Earth Summit seemed tangible evidence of international commitment.
Yet critics cite what could have happened but did not. No Earth Charter was agreed to. There
was no forestry convention, only the nonbinding set of principles that were wholly
inadequate to deal with growing threats to forests. The treaties on climate and biodiversity
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were only frameworks, requiring subsequent efforts if they were to have teeth to them. The
commitment to support Agenda 2 1 with major new funding remained to be implemented
(and in the end was not).And the Earth Summit gave scant attention to measures needed to
ensure follow-up action post-Rio.

Yet the Earth Summit, even with its failures and controversies, did offer some promise of a
new era of global cooperation. Non state actors, from NGO groups to businesses, were involved
in creating strategies and discussing avenues of common endeavor. Sustainable development
was now articulated and given political legitimacy as a defining concept for national and
global progress. Principles of partnership and assistance between rich and poor were agreed.
☻Activity 12
What are the issues that raised controversy among the global north and South? Why the
controversy arose? Explain the successes and failures of the Rio earth summit

4.3.3. From Rio to Johannesburg

The decade after the Earth Summit saw the momentum of treaty development continue
unabated. Building on the commitment at Rio, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification
(1994) provided an innovative framework for national planning aimed at desertification and
drought, particularly in Africa. The Rotterdam Convention (1998) on Prior Informed
Consent established a procedure by which trade in hazardous chemicals and pesticides could
be regulated by ensuring that receiving countries approved the imports in advance. The
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001) provided a mechanism for
prohibiting or regulating the release of POPs that have the potential to cause severe health
threats such as cancers, immune deficiencies, and hormonal disruption. The Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety (2000) under the convention on biodiversity, aimed to regulate trade in
living genetically modified organisms (GMOs), also uses the prior informed consent
approach. It requires risk assessment studies and prior information procedures before
nations import such products.

Perhaps the most well known of the treaties negotiated in the years following the Earth
Summit was the Kyoto Protocol (1997) to the UN Frame-work Convention on Climate

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Change. The Kyoto Protocol called for individual commitments by industrial nations to reduce
emissions of six greenhouse gases by 2008–2012, which were expected to lead to an overall
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to levels 5 percent below 1990 levels by 2008–2012, the
so-called first commitment period.
However, the decade after Rio saw a breakdown in the international leadership called for at
the Rio Earth Summit. Progress was at best slow, and efforts overall fell short of expectations.
It took 13 years to move from the signing of the Climate Convention at Rio to the entry into
force in 2005 of the Kyoto Protocol (and the United States, the largest emitter of green -house
gases, has refused to ratify the Protocol). Even less progress has been made under the
biodiversity and desertification conventions and in forging effective agreements to protect
marine fisheries and world forests. Many observers believe that much of the ground gained at
Rio was lost.
☻Activity 13
1. What are the factors that impeded the progress in implementing the environmental
conventions after the Rio summit?

4.3.4. The Johannesburg Summit

In December 2000, eight years after the Rio Earth Summit, the United Nations called for a
new summit, to take place in Johannesburg in 2002, to review the commitments of Rio and
hopefully to rekindle fresh political and financial commitments for sustainable development
and Agenda 21. In the run-up to what became the World Summit for Sustainable Devel-
opment (WSSD) in September 2002, almost everyone accepted the proposition that the Rio
agreements had not been effectively implemented and that this failure was due in part to the
industrial countries not fulfilling the expectation created at Rio, including the expectation that
ODA would be greatly increased to help implement Agenda 21. For many, therefore, WSSD
was to be about implementation. From the outset, however, Johannesburg lacked the
leadership and skillful preparation seen at Rio. In the end, the outcomes of WSSD bore little
resemblance to the specific, monitorable plans of action hoped for by many. The United States
and several other governments successfully resisted proposals for strict targets and timetables.

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Instead, broad, general agreements were reached to endorse the 2000 UN Millennium
Development Goal aimed at cutting in half the proportion of the world‘s people lacking access
to basic sanitation by 2015, to minimize the adverse affects of toxic chemicals by 2020, to
restore fish stocks where possible, not later than 2015, and to achieve by 2010 a significant
reduction in the current rate of loss of biodiversity.
The major discussions at Johannesburg were less about concrete environmental goals and
commitments and more about bringing together the three dimensions of sustainable devel-
opment— the economy, environment, and society. Here also the results were not viewed as
impressive. The social and economic dimensions of sustainable development tended to dominate,
and Johannesburg accurately reflected a world badly divided on key issues: corporate
accountability, globalization and the WTO, trade and trade subsidies, energy and climate,
development priorities and aid, and many others. In the end delegates could agree mostly on
platitudes and on-the-one-hand, on-the-other-hand.

In sum, the WSSD failed to embrace new verifiable goals or to advance significantly efforts
for the protection of the global environment. On a more positive side, it did initiate, haltingly,
a new approach to global governance based on the notion of partnerships between different
actors. Governments at WSSD presented specific national plans for sustainable development
projects, referred to as Type II initiatives that would involve participation by some
combination of national actors, international business, and NGOs. Such intentions were
fraught with political undercurrents. Some observers saw Type II initiatives as a means of
avoiding Type I initiatives such as the time-bound governmental commitments they had
hoped Johannesburg would generate. Governments refused to define clearly who could be
their counterparts for development projects, leaving the door open for state-created NGOs.
Also, a disappointingly small number of new specific partnerships were actually unveiled at
the conference.

The international NGO community turned out in force for Johannesburg, reflecting its
growing vitality. The business community was deeply involved, often quite positively,
building on the start at Rio. The developing countries (and development assistance

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organizations) and the business community left Johannesburg far more pleased than the
environmental community, which saw little of positive note at Johannesburg.

☻Activity 14
[Link] on the major contribution and weaknesses of the Johannesburg summit

To sum-up, the story of developments from Stockholm to Johannesburg is one that cries out
for explanation. The story begins with the excitement of a new beginning at Stockholm in
1972, moves strongly forward with hope and expectation through the defining of an agenda of
global challenges a decade later, and on to the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 where what needs to
be done to meet those challenges is rigorously and comprehensively defined. But then, after
Rio, momentum begins to flag, progress becomes slow and halting, promise fades and hopes
go unrealized—yet the problems sketched in unit 4 persist, growing in both scale and
urgency.

Review Questions
1. Which of the following conventions can be considered as a pioneer in the multilateral
environmental management
A. Kyoto Protocol C. Rio Earth Summit
B. Stockholm Conference D. Vienna Convention
2. Which of the following is not among the contributions of the Stockholm conference
A. The establishment of UNEP
B. The rise of environment as a global agenda
C. The convergence of interests between the North and South
D. The Stockholm Declaration
3. One of the following is not the result of the Rio Earth Summit
A. The Rio Declaration
B. Agenda 21
C. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
D. The Millennium Development Goals
4. The Johannesburg Summit was officially known by
A. The World Summit on Sustainable Development

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B. The Convention on Environment and Development

C. The Earth Summit
D. The Millennium Development Summit

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UNIT-FIVE
ENIVIRONEMNT AND SUSTENABLE DEVELOPMENT IN
ETHIOPIA
Introduction
Ethiopia is the oldest nation in Africa. It has more than 3000 years of existence. The
country is the origin of human beings and the cradle of civilization. Maintaining its
independence from the scourge of colonialism, Ethiopia has often been regarded as the
pride of Africa. Ethiopia is also endowed with all forms of natural resources including
vast resource of fertile land, water, forest and timber, minerals etc. The country is also a
mosaic inhabited by 80 and more different nations and nationalities.

Nevertheless, despite its long existence and huge resource potentials, the country
paradoxically remained poor and was plagued with frequent draughts and famine. Indeed,
since the 1980’s, the image of the country has been paralleled with draught and famine.
For a considerable number of people in the west, the name of Ethiopia has been
synonymous with disastrous famine.

In a move to reverse this image and lift Ethiopians out of poverty, Ethiopia has embarked
on various development projects since the early 1990’s. Such efforts have started bearing
fruits. In recent years, Ethiopia has begun achieving some record level economic
progress. According to the African Development Bank (2010), Ethiopia has experienced
strong economic growth in recent years with real GDP growth at or near double digit
levels since 2003/04. The country has consistently outperformed most other countries in
Africa and expanded much faster than the continent-wide average. Recent Trend in Real
GDP analysis shows an economic growth averaged 11.2% per annum during the 2003/04
and 2008/09 period, placing Ethiopia among the top performing economies in Sub-Sahara
Africa. Given this economic performance, Ethiopia is well positioned to meet the
millennium development goals (MDGs) of halving poverty by 2015.

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To be able to keep the momentum of the economic growth, in 2010, Ethiopia has also
developed the growth and transformation plan. All these development endeavors,
however, put pressure on the environment and hence development projects need to be
harmonized with environmental policies of the state. That is development projects and
efforts by the Ethiopian state have to be environment friendly and consistent with the
principles of sustainable development. Environmental protection is very crucial for
countries like Ethiopia that are highly dependent on the on agricultural and natural
resources. In addition, environmental stresses in Ethiopia have often caused political
instability and violent conflict in Ethiopia..

In recognition of the importance of the environment, there have been efforts made by
governments in Ethiopia to incorporate principles of environmental protection and
sustainable development in the development efforts and programs of the country. The
purpose of this unit is to introduce you with the development efforts (polices, programs
and strategies) and the condition of the environment in Ethiopia.

Major Text
 Hancock, Graham (1985). Ethiopia: the Challenge of [Link] GollnczLtd:
London
 The Forum for Environment (2002). Ethiopian Civil Society Preparation for
Rio+10. Heinrich Boll Foundation: Addis Ababa.
 Getahun Bikora (2001). The Food Security Challenges in Ethiopia. UN
African Institute for Economic Development and Planning: Dakar (Senegal).
 EPA(1997). Environmental Management policy of Ethiopia. EPA: Addis
Ababa.

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Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit students will be able to
 Elaborate the geographical features of Ethiopia
 Identify the natural resources of Ethiopia
 Analyze the development polices and strategies of Ethiopia
 Explain environmentalism under the three regimes of Ethiopia
 Identify the environmental challenges Ethiopia is currently facing
 Familiar with environmental policies and institutions of the post 1991 Ethiopia

Lesson One: Geography and Natural Resources Of Ethiopia

Introduction
The geography of Ethiopia is one of the most fascinating. The country has strategic location
in the horn of Africa. It has different climatic conditions. The Great Rift Valley is located in
the country. In addition, Ethiopia is gifted with different kind of natural resources such as
fertile land, favorable environment, water, minerals and various endemic species etc. In
addition to these physical resources, Ethiopia is also a home of different nations and
nationalities. It is a land of diversity. The various nations and nationalities of Ethiopia have
their own culture, tradition and useful customs. The culture, history and customs of nation
and nationalities of Ethiopia have been a source of income and strength to Ethiopia.
There is no doubt that the socio- cultural resources of the country are equally important as the
natural resources of the country. Nevertheless, the emphasis of this module is on the physical
resources of the country and the way these resources have been managed. Here below we will
briefly see the natural resources of Ethiopia.

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able
 Understand the geographical settings of Ethiopia
 List down the natural resources of Ethiopia
 Explain the level and magnitude of these resources in the country
 Explain the extent these resources have been utilized and the challenges to the utilization
of these resources

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5.1.1. The Geography of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is located between 3oN and 15oN latitudes and 33oE and 48oE longitudes. The
size of Ethiopia is roughly of 1,130,000 km2. In terms of population size, Ethiopia is the
second largest country in Africa. According to the 2007 census of the country, the current
number of the Ethiopian populations is 77.1 million. The topographic features range from
the highest peak, Ras Dashen, (4,550 meters above sea level), in the north east down to
the Affar Depression at 110 meters below sea level in the east.
The climatic condition of the country varies with the topography, ranging from 470C
(116.60F) to 100C (500F). Ethiopia is a home to about 80 ethnic groups that vary in
population size from 1000 to about 18 million persons. In terms of ethnic diversity,
Ethiopia is probably the second diversified country in Africa next to Nigeria.

5.1.2. Natural Resources of Ethiopia

Undoubtedly, Ethiopia is a country of huge natural resources. The Ethiopian conservation
strategy, volume 1 lists down the resource base of Ethiopia. In the discussion below, we will
refer to the conservation strategy and outline the natural resources of the country.
Activity 1
Identify natural resources and their extent of availability in your area. Could you list down
some of the natural resources we have? To what extent do you think Ethiopia has utilized its
natural resources?

[Link]. Geographic Location

Geographical location is a resource in its own right. Climate, agriculture, trade, access to
coastal resources, is all influenced by the location of a country. Ethiopia is located
between 3oN and 15oN latitudes and 33oE and 48oE longitudes. In spite of being
landlocked, it is the hinterland for all the coastline of Eritrea on the Red Sea, and of
Djibouti and Somalia on the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Its location near the
equator, together with its extensive altitudinal range, has rendered the country suitable for
human settlement based on a big range of crop production systems and pastoralism.

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[Link]. Topography
Ethiopia is a country of great geographical diversity. Altitudes range from the highest
peak at Ras Dejen, 4620 m above sea level, down to the Afar Depression about 110 m
below sea level. Much of the country consists of high plateaus and mountain ranges with
precipitous edges dissected by numerous streams which feed major rivers including the
Abay (Blue Nile), Tekeze, Mereb, Awash, Omo, Wabi Shebelle, Baro and Akobo. The
Great Rift Valley separates the Western and Northern Highlands from the South-eastern
and Eastern Highlands, and on their other sides, these highlands give way to vast
semi-arid lowland areas in the east and west, and especially in the south of the country.

[Link]. Climate
Climate influences all human endeavours and is thus an important resource. Ethiopia has
diverse climatic conditions and this has provided the country with different magnitudes of
rainfall and temperature. In general, the highest mean maximum temperatures of around
40oC occur in the peripheral lowlands of the country from March to June, whereas the
lowest mean temperatures of around 0oC or lower are observed at night in the highland
areas between November and February. This varied rainfall and temperature is quite
useful for the production of agricultural products. It provides us the opportunity to utilize
the varied climatic condition and the temperature of the country and produce different
agricultural products.

[Link]. Land
Ethiopia has a total land area of about 113,000,000 hectares. The highlands above 1500
m constitute around 45 per cent (52,589,000 hectares) of the total area and are inhabited
by four-fifths of the population (Central Statistics Office, 1984; Ethiopian Mapping
Authority, 1988). Here, the volcanic soils are relatively fertile and deep, and 75 per cent
of the area has a growing period which exceeds 180 days. The highlands reach up to 4620
m in altitude and provide a big range of environments suitable for the growth of a wide
range of tropical, subtropical and temperate crops. An equally wide range of farming and
land use systems has thus developed over several millennia in response to this diversity.

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Below 1500 m are found the lowlands in the northwest, east and south, which are more or
less free from tsetse fly. But they are semi-arid and arid, and support nomadic and
semi-nomadic pastoralists, who also cultivate maize and sorghum on plains watered by
flash floods. In the southwest and west, the tsetse infested humid and sub-humid
lowlands are sparsely populated by groups of shifting cultivators and partial hunter-
gatherers. There are some large-scale irrigated farms in some of these areas.

[Link]. Forest Resources

For its needs of wood for construction, industry and fuel, Ethiopia relies mainly on its
natural forest resources. In addition to the natural forests, the country has also human
made forest resources. Studies have indicated that a century ago, 40% of the country was
covered by forest. However, this number had dwindled overtime and today’s forest
coverage is less than 3%.

[Link]. Mineral Resources

Ethiopia has significant deposits of gold, silver and tantalite. Other metal deposits include
iron ore, manganese, nickel and platinum. Small deposits of uranium have recently been
discovered in the Bale Mountains. The country also produces a number of industrial
minerals such as brick clay, diatomite, and feldspar, gemstones such as opals, granite,
gypsum, kaolin, limestone, pumice, sand, scoria, soda ash, talc and salt. Salt deposits in
the Afar Region are significant. Other industrial mineral deposits in the country include
apatite, bentonite, dolomite, potash, quartz and sulphur. However, production of mineral
commodities faces several constraints including insufficient infrastructures, unpredictable
world market conditions and limited domestic demand. Gas reserves have been
confirmed in the Ogaden basin region but remain to date unexploited. Despite
potentialities, Ethiopia remains totally dependent upon imports to meet its demand for
petroleum.

[Link] .Water Resources

Ethiopia has a vast water resource potential. It has trans-boundary Rivers, lakes and
ground water resources. Ethiopia is indeed the "water tower" of Northeastern Africa.

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Except for the Awash and the Omo, all the large rivers originating in Ethiopia flow into
neighbouring countries. Ethiopia is rich not only in rivers but also lakes and underground
water. The total surface of the 18 natural and artificial lakes in Ethiopia is about 7,500
km2. Seven of the eight major natural lakes are found in the Rift Valley. Ethiopian lakes
are rich in fish. Ethiopia has huge underground water. A preliminary water resources
master plan study of the various basins estimates it to be 2.9 billion cubic meters. So far,
only a small fraction of this resource is in use, mainly for local water supply purposes.
Though not yet exploited well, Ethiopian river basin is also said to have huge potential of
hydro electric power generation and irrigation potential. The Ethiopian Conservation
Strategic (CSE) paper states that Ethiopian river basins have the potential of generating
135,311 watt per year. From this potential, it is only 1.25% that has been used so far.
Similarity, Ethiopia has an irrigation potential of 3,495,795 hectares of land and from this
huge potential, it is 4.6% that has been used so far.

[Link]. Live Stock Resources

Ethiopia has a livestock population which is the largest in Africa and the tenth largest in
the world. In 1984/1985, the total live stock population of the country was estimated to
be 30 million. In 1995/97, the total live stock population of Ethiopia was estimated to be
142.05 million. Most of the cattle are owned by the cultivators. In 1984, for example, the
majority of the livestock, about 74 per cent, were owned by cultivators and the
remaining, about 26 per cent, by pastoralists. In contrast to this, most of the grazing land
is located in the low lands. Of the 66 million hectares of grazing and browsing land, 66
per cent is in the lowlands where only 20 per cent of the livestock are located.

[Link]. Fishery Resources

Ethiopia has also significant fish resources which largely remains unexploited. The
maximum sustainable annual yield of fish (MSY)of Ethiopian lakes is estimated to be
about 60,300 tons although present average annual production is only 4000 tons (Beyene
Kebede and Lambourne, 1985 quoted in CSE). The Rift valley lakes basin has over 25
fish species and accounts for about 50 per cent of the total inland fish production. Some
of the rivers have also a large potential for fisheries development. According to the

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Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (1989), Ethiopian fresh water bodies are
known to contain 101 species of fish among which four are endemic to the country. The
most important commercial types of fish are Tilapia, Nile Perch and Cat Fish.

[Link]. Apiculture /Bee Keeping

Ethiopia has very rich resources for the production of honey and beeswax as the large
variation in the physical environment produces an equally large variation in plants and
thus also in flowers for foraging by honey-bees. According to the Ethiopian Valleys
Development Studies Authority, 1991, quoted in CSE, an estimate indicates that over 4.2
million traditional hives, 60 per cent occupied by bees, exist in Ethiopia giving the
country the largest bee population in Africa, where the total is estimated to be more than
5 million colonies. The Central Statistical Authority gives the number of occupied
beehives in1986/87 & 1987/88) as 3.2 and 3.1 million respectively. The annual honey
and beeswax productions have been estimated at 3,300 and 3,500 tons, respectively. This
makes Ethiopia one of the eight leading producers in the world. More than 90 per cent of
the honey produced is used within the country. Even so, over 500 tons have been
exported to large world markets in recent years and the income from bee honey and wax
has become a considerable source of hard currency for the country.

[Link]. Floristic and Faunistic Resources

The large diversity of ecological conditions determined by topography ranging from 110
m below sea level at Kobar sink in the Afar depression to a peak of 4,620 m above sea
level at Ras Dejen, have created diverse and conducive environments for the
development of a wide variety of fauna(animals) and flora(Plants) in Ethiopia. The flora
of Ethiopia is very heterogeneous and has a rich endemic element. It is estimated to
contain between 6500 and 7000 species of higher plant, of which about 12 per cent are
endemic. Endemism is particularly high in the high mountains and in the Ogaden.
According to Brenan (1978qouted in CSE) Ethiopia has the fifth largest flora in tropical
Africa. The Semien and Bale Mountains have been identified as areas of plant endemism
of continental importance and provide the best examples of high altitude vegetation in
Ethiopia. Their flora is diverse and show affinities to South African, Eurasian and

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Himalayan elements. The south-western broad-leaved evergreen forests show affinities to

the Congolian forests of western Africa. The faunistic diversity of Ethiopia is also high,
reflecting the diversity in climate, vegetation and terrain. Although the highland regions
have fewer species of spectacular game animals than their lowland counterparts and the
rest of lowland tropical Africa, they have, on a unit area basis, a larger number of
endemic birds, mammals and amphibians. The eastern low-lying parts of the country
have some species in common with Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Djibouti. The western
and south western parts share their fauna largely with southern Sudan.

According to information obtained from the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation

Organization, at present 240 species of mammals and 845 species of birds have been
identified, of which 22 species of mammals and 24 species of birds are endemic. This
makes Ethiopia the richest in avifauna (species of birds) in mainland Africa. The endemic
avifauna is dominated by highland species with at least 19 being normally found above
1000 m. Although very little study has yet been done on the groups, six reptile and 33
amphibian species are known to be endemic. Even less is known about insects and the
other groups of invertebrates, but they are likely to contain at least the same proportion of
endemic species.

[Link]. Wild Life Resources

Ethiopia is also a home of various wild animals in which many of them are endemic to
Ethiopia only. The list of endemic animal in Ethiopia includes Walya Ibex, Semien
Jackal and Mountain Nyala. For the protection of these animals, Ethiopia had established
a number of parks and sanctuaries including the Semien park (recognized as a UNESCO
heritage), Bale park, nech Sar park, Abayata and Shala park.

[Link]. Energy Resources

Ethiopia has both non-renewable sub-surface energy resources and renewable energy
resources. In recent years, the search and discovery of non renewable sub surface
resources has been steeped up. Natural gas deposits of over 25 billion cubic metres have
been discovered in the Somali Region; and geothermal energy resources totalling 700

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MW have also been found. Nuclear energy has not been a subject of serious
consideration in Ethiopia. Despite this, certain radioactive materials have been recorded.
Renewable energy resources in Ethiopia include solar energy, wind energy and biomass
energy. The largest renewable energy resource, primary solar radiation, is estimated to be
nearly 1.8 billion teracalories (Tcal) per year. The exploitable potential of the total
primary solar radiation represents by far the largest portion (23 per cent) of renewable
energy resources, with the Harari region and the eastern part of Oromiya Regional State
accounting for over 26 per cent of the total. Regional solar energy potential is directly
related to surface area and sunshine hours and thus to the occurrence of substantial areas
of lowland characterised by low rainfall and relatively low cloud cover. The potential for
wind energy is estimated to be some 4.3 million Tcal/year, of which 5 per cent is deemed
exploitable. A significant amount (49.8 per cent) of this exploitable potential is located in
two regions: Harari (29.7 per cent) and Bale (20 per cent).

The three types of biomass energy resource in use in Ethiopia are wood, animal waste
and crop residues. According to sources quoted CSE Vol-1, the possible annual
production of energy from these sources is 896.6, 92.6, and 77.1 thousand Tcal,
respectively, or a total of 1.066 million Tcal. Although they constitute only about 14 per
cent of the total exploitable renewable energy resource, they are the most important in
view of practical utilization dictated by the socio-economic and technological realities of
Ethiopia.
Activity 2
Despite having huge potential of resources, Ethiopia has not yet exploited and used its natural
resources? Why do you think Ethiopia has not been able to utilise it natural resources so far?
Consult books and professionals in the area and compile a report.

Lesson Two: Environmental Challenges/ Problems in Ethiopia

Introduction
What do you think are some of the environmental challenges Ethiopia is currently facing?
Environmental problems are serious challenges to the efforts of development in the third
world in general and the African continent in particular. Poor states such as Ethiopia are

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highly exposed to environmental hazards since they disproportionately depend on the

environment. Efforts to improve the condition of poverty and underdevelopment on the
other hand inject pressure on the environment. And hence, efforts aimed at minimizing or
eliminating poverty should be done in a manner consistent with the principle of
sustainable development. In this section, we will briefly look at environmental
challenges/problems in Ethiopia.
Objectives
At the end of this lesson students will be able to,
 Identify environmental challenges / problems in Ethiopia
 Appreciate the need for sustainable development in Ethiopia
 Explain the impacts of environmental problems on development in Ethiopia

5.2.1. Rural Environmental Problems in Ethiopia

More than 85% of the population in Ethiopia live in the rural parts of the country and
depend on agriculture for their living. Due to this, the life of the majority of Ethiopians is
linked with environment particularly with land resource. As result of this dependence;
environmental problems directly affect the lives of the majority of Ethiopians.
In the section below, we will discuss environmental problems that people in the rural
parts of Ethiopia face. Read the following discussion and when you finish refer other
sources/reading materials to acquire more knowledge on the environmental challenges
that the rural people in Ethiopia face.

[Link]. Deforestation
Deforestation is a process of removing the forest ecosystem by cutting the trees and
changing the shape of the land to suit different uses. It is the conversion of forested areas
to non-forest land use such as arable land, pasture, urban use, logged area or wasteland.
Generally, the removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a
degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. In many countries, massive
deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography.

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Deforestation has been a serious environmental problem in Ethiopia. Historically,

Ethiopia had a large cover of forest. However, continued rate of deforestation caused by
several factors has resulted in an enormous decline of its coverage. Deforestation has
particularly accelerated over the last 150 years. This accelerated deforestation was largely
due to the growth in the population of the country. The country has lost 98% of its
forested regions in the last 50 years. The current forest coverage of the country stands
less than 3%. Deforestation in Ethiopia is caused due to several reasons. Population
growth, resettlement and vilagization programs, expansion of state farms, infrastructure
development and sporadic fire have caused deforestation in Ethiopia.

The consequence of this rapid deforestation was depletion of natural resources, drought,
and famine and loses of wild life species. Economically, also valuable forests in Ethiopia,
which contain the world’s only wild Coffea arabica populations, are diminishing and, at
current deforestation rates, will be completely lost in 27 years. About 30 to 35 percent of
the annual coffee production in the country originates from either wild or semi-managed
coffee forests (Demel, 1999; Feyera, 2006).

[Link]. Land degradation

Soil erosion and degradation remains one of the most critical and far ranging
environmental issues affecting Ethiopia. Despite repeated soil and water conservation
campaigns spread throughout most mountainous parts of the country and implemented in
each Farmer’s Association, very significant volumes of productive soil are lost every year
to water erosion and wind erosion. Estimates of loss of fertile soil through erosion
reaches up until 100 tons / ha / year. Erosion by water is the most widespread and critical
problem of land degradation. Soil erosion is not a new phenomenon in Ethiopia; it is a
process as old as the history of agriculture in the country. However, over the past one
hundred years, this process has been accelerated by political upheavals and population
growth that has brought with it more deforestation and environmental changes. With the
increase of population pressure, development of agricultural production involves an

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increased risk of land degradation through deforestation and expansion to new lands that
are often fragile and susceptible to erosion making them marginal for crop production.

While the soils in the Ethiopian highlands have a high inherent fertility, the continuous
removal of nutrients without replacement as well as the steep and dissected terrain with
extensive areas of slopes of over 15 percent, coupled with the high intensity of rainfall,
have led to accelerated soil erosion reaching up to 400 tons/hectares/annum. About
20,000- 30,000 hectares of cropland in the highlands are being abandoned annually since
cropping can no longer be supported by the soil. It is projected that land degradation at
the present rates could destroy the farmlands of some 10 million highland farmers by
2010.

Activity 1
What do you think causes land degradation in Ethiopia? What do you think are the costs
of land degradation in Ethiopia?

Land degradation in Ethiopia is triggered by complex processes and factors. Although

influenced by natural forces, the challenge of land degradation is mainly the result of
unprecedented population growth in the highlands that leads to exploitative subsistence
agriculture and lack of appropriate improved farming methods for Ethiopia’s small holder
farmers. These circumstances, combined with the breakdown of traditional land
management practices and the increasing cultivation of lands unsuitable for annual crop
cultivation, contribute to land degradation and declining agricultural productivity.

The cost of land degradation for Ethiopia is massive. Low and declining agricultural
productivity, continuing food insecurity as well as rural poverty due to loss of topsoil and
plant nutrients, forest removal, loss of livestock carrying capacity and decline in
productivity of cropped areas, loss of environmental services are some of the direct (on-
site) costs. Secondly, once soil and excessive runoff leaves the boundaries of individual
farms, it causes off-site (indirect) impacts and costs that are external to the farm
household. Such off-site costs of soil erosion include in stream problems of water quality
and quantity, sedimentation effects in reservoirs, degradation of potable water, and

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decrease in the availability of irrigation water, increased siltation, accelerated runoff

leading to localized flooding, reduced hydrological cycling and recharge of ground water.
[Link]. Climate change in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is especially vulnerable to climate change because of its geographic coverage
and complexity, low income, and great reliance on climate sensitive economic sectors
particularly agriculture and pastoralism. The livelihood of many millions of people in the
country is intimately tied with climate. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) identified three vulnerable sectors in Ethiopia as food security, water resources
and health. There is a wide consensus that climate change will worsen food security,
mainly through increased extremes and temporal/spatial shifts in the weather. The
country is already experiencing a major deficit in food production in many areas through
increased aridity, degradation of natural resources, and loss of soil moisture. Climate
change is also having a profound effect on health in Ethiopia. This is particularly true in
the transmission of malaria. Climate change is projected to cause encroachment of
malaria from lower altitudes in Somalia and Afar regions to higher altitudes in Tigray and
Amhara. Malaria is prevalent in over 75% of the country, putting over 50 million of the
total of 77 million people at risk.

[Link]. Floods
Ethiopia has been exposed to major floods in 1988, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 and 2006
leading to considerable loss of life and property. Floods destroy bio diversity, degrade
rangelands, remove top soil with its nutrients, and undermine livestock and food
production.

[Link]. Pollution
Pollution currently is not a big problem in Ethiopia but certainly is another growing
environmental challenge. Pollution could be of different types, it could be air pollution,
water pollution, and soil pollution. Soil pollution in Ethiopia is mainly caused due to the
application of agro chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture as well as

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prolonged droughts which has become the rule than the exception in the countries of the
in the horn of African countries.

Although insignificant in Ethiopia, suburban areas industrial effluents too are considered
as other causes of soil pollution. Although the industrial sector in Ethiopia is said to be at
its infant stage, the few industries that are in and around the urban centers particularly
Addis Ababa are releasing untreated discharges in to the stream and other water bodies.
For example, the textile, tannery and iron tool industries are polluting the environment of
the Akaki river system and underground water of the south east of Addis Ababa.

5.2.2. Urban Environmental Problems in Ethiopia

Urbanization is not yet a major problem in Ethiopia. However, the rate of urbanization in
Ethiopia is one of the highest in the world. According to the environmental policy of
Ethiopia, the current urban proportion of the population is relatively low, at only 15 per
cent. Housing shortage is one key problem of urban centers in Ethiopia. The current stock
of urban housing is both insufficient and of very poor quality. 80 per cent of the
population lives in poor standard slum housing that needs either complete replacement or
significant upgrading. According to the UNHABITAT report (2008), the sanitation
problem of Addis Ababa is one of the worst in the country. 26 percent of the houses - and
the majority of slum-dwellers, have no toilet facility, and thus use rivers, ditches and
open spaces. Due to a shortage of water-supply, the same areas are used for public baths
and washing.

The serious deficiencies in sanitation services and the inadequacy of sewerage

infrastructure and random execration in urban areas have created dangerous health and
environmental problems. Rivers and streams in the vicinity of Addis Ababa and other
large urban centers have become open sewers and is one of the main sources of infections
resulting in diarrhea and other diseases. Privacy is almost impossible as many latrines are
shared among many people and even simple doors are often absent. Solid waste is
another environmental problem of urban areas in Ethiopia. The UN HABITAT (quoting
Addis Ababa Environment Protection authority, 2006) points that 35 percent of the solid

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waste generated by the city is not collected. In addition to all these environmental
problems, River, soil, air and water pollution as a result of industrial wastes, are poorly
managed, and are becoming growing concerns in Addis Ababa.
In order to address these environmental problems, the government in Ethiopia is currently
taking several measures. To address the urban housing shortage, the government is
building condominium houses. The initial goal of the program was to construct 400,000
condominium units. So far, thousands of houses are built and transferred to low and
middle income households all over the country. The government has also introduced the
solid waste management proclamation to deal with solid waste in urban centers.
Activity 2
Examine the surrounding environment in your area and identify the environmental
challenges the local people are suffering. What measures did the local people and the
local government in the region have taken to deal with the environmental problem?
Outline the environmental problems and the measures taken in your surrounding and
compile a report and discuss it with your friends

Lesson Three: Sustainable Development in Ethiopia

Introduction
In lesson one; we have seen the natural/environmental resources of the country. However,
despite the existence of all these resources mentioned above, Ethiopia has not been able
to utilize its huge natural resources potential and achive economic growth and
development. The country has been struck with poverty, drought and famine for its long
history.
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able
 Explain Economic growth and development in Ethiopia under the three regimes
 Explain the major development plan in Ethiopia
 Explain the condition of sustainable development in Ethiopia
 Identify the linkage between population, environment and development in

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Ethiopia

5.3.1. Economic Growth and Environment in Ethiopia

Ethiopian economy is predominantly agrarian which is dependent on agricultural
production. More than 80 percent of the population lives in rural areas, and the main
source of income is agriculture. The agricultural sector also accounts for about 45 percent
of GDP, almost 90 percent of exports, and 85 percent of employment. This dependence
of agriculture has exposed the country to environmental calamites. Since the 1950’s,
there has been an attempt to transform the economy in to an agro industrial one. Three
five year plans were prepared towards this end. However, these five year plans were not
able to transform the economy. This was mainly because of several factors that hindered
the effectiveness of the national plans including lack of resources, administrative and
technical capabilities and weak organizational structures.

The Derg came up with annual and ten year perspective economic plan. It planned and
executed a developemt campaign famously known as Edget Behibret Zemecha.
Villagization and resettlement programs were also conducted. However, these plans
brought little change in the econmy. The national economy of Ethiopia was indeed in
crisis at this time. Drought, regional conflicts, inflexible government policy and lack of
confidence by the private sector seriously affected the economy. Falling productivity,
soaring inflation, growing dependence on foreign aid and loans, high unemployment, and
a deteriorating balance of payments all combined to create a deepening economic crisis.
One of the worst famines in the country also occurred in this period, 1984/85.

The Ethiopian economy started to bounce following the collapse of the military regime.
The command economy of the Derg regime was reversed and free market econmy was
declared. Investment and engagement by the private sector was encouraged, fertile policy
environments were created and investment on infrastructures was made. Unlike the
previous regimes, the focus was not simply on economic growth measured in terms of
GDP but also on poverty reduction. There has been much focus on improving the living

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conditions of Ethiopians. According to the African development bank (2010), the post
1991 Ethiopian government attempted to achieve accelerated economic growth with
equity. That is Acceleration of the economic growth was aimed at reducing the level of
poverty in Ethiopia (Ibid). In addition, the post 1991 development polices and strategies
of Ethiopia also incorporated principles of sustainable development. Consequently,
Ethiopia experienced some strong economic growth in recent years. The African
development bank briefing (2010) states the reasons that explain the rapid economic
growth in Ethiopia

5.3.2. Conducive Government Policies

In recent years, the government has adopted a robust growth and poverty reduction
strategy, focusing on infrastructure development, commercialization of agriculture,
improvements in access to basic services, as well as on private sector development,
including the creation of appropriate regulatory and institutional frameworks to support
private business.

[Link]. Expansion of Exports and remittances:

The country’s exports have also been growing strongly, averaging about 25.1 percent per
annum since 2003/04. While coffee remains the largest source of merchandize export
earnings, non-traditional exports such as horticulture have registered faster growth.

[Link]. Heavy investment to address infrastructure bottlenecks: The concerted

infrastructure push has been a particularly important factor in driving growth. Over the
past five years, the Government and public enterprises have invested about US $ 6 billion
in roads, telecommunication, and energy sector.

[Link]. Increased public expenditure to enhance pro-poor growth:

Public expenditure has been growing by about 19 percent per annum since 2003/04. The
share devoted to pro-poor sectors in the total increased from about 26 percent in 1999/00
to about 43.3 percent in 2002/03 and 64 percent in 2008/09, up by 26.7 percent per
annum since 2003. The public expenditure is concentrated in infrastructure and human

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capital development. In particular, there has been a major expansion in social services
through the construction of new primary schools and health facilities.

[Link]. Increased domestic revenue mobilization and aid

Government revenue has increased by about 21 percent per annum on average since
2003/04, even though revenue as a percentage of GDP has declined from about 23
percent in 2002/03 to about 12 percent in 2007/08. Tax revenue reached about 35.7
billion Birr in 2009/10 from about Birr 11 billion in 2003/04, up by 37 percent per annum
on average. At the same time, external aid volumes have increased in recent years,
reaching USD 1.6 billion in 2008/09 from USD 0.9 billion in 2004/05. This surge in
external aid, alongside improved domestic revenue mobilization, has enabled the
government to increase spending on infrastructure, thereby stimulating growth.
Activity 1
What do you think were the Challenges of sustainable development in Ethiopia during
the past two regimes?

Lesson-Four: Development Plans, Environmental Polices and Institutions in

Ethiopia
Introduction
In the discussion above, we have seen a list of the major environmental problems that
Ethiopia is currently experiencing. We saw that land degradation, deforestation, climate
change, drought, famine are some of the major environmental problems that the country
have been facing and continued to face. In this section below, we will see the efforts and
polices taken by the regimes in Ethiopia to deal with environmental challenges. We will
examine polices, strategies and proclamations made by Ethiopian governments. In doing
so, prime focus will be made on FDRE regime. Before we directly go to the specific
polices and strategies, let’s just first see environmentalism and conservation in the last
three regimes in Ethiopia.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to

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 Explain the environmental approaches and polices of Ethiopia

 Explain the environmental approaches, polices and institutions of post 1991 Ethiopia

Activity 1
Do you recall how the environment and its associated problems were viewed in the last
two regimes of Ethiopia?

5.4.1. Haile Sellasse’s Regime Development Plans and Environmental Policies

As indicated in the discussions above Haile Sellasse regime enacted three major
development plans to transform the agrarian economy in to an industrial one. The three
five year development plans are discussed below. The first five year plan (1962-1967)
primarily aimed at laying down the basic infrastructure for the construction,
transportation and communication so as to link the disparate regions of Ethiopia which
are naturally cut off from one another by myriad of rivers and mountains. Its second aim
was to create vital man power for the emerging processing industries so that Ethiopia
would not be dependent on imports of finished goods. It also encouraged the
establishment of a more efficient system of agricultural production for commercial
purpose. The total investment made in the first five year plan was 839.6 million birr.

The second five year (1962-1967) plan laid the foundation for two decades program to
replace Ethiopia’s predominately agricultural economy with a modern agro industrial
base. The plan was aimed at speeding economic growth, introduction of modern
processing mechanisms and general enhancement of the country’s productive capacity.
The third five year plan (1968-1973) was launched to expedite modernization. It aimed at
facilitation of Ethiopia’s economic growth through the introduction and expansion of
manufacturing and agro industrial industries. The other objective of the third five year
plan was expanding educational opportunities for people and upgrading rural farming
methods. A fourth development plan was prepared but not implemented due to the
collapse of the regime in 1974.

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All three of Ethiopia’s development plans under Haile Sellassse suffered due to many
factors. One problem was the scarcity of administrative and technical resources to
execute the plans. Also there were not enough established organizational structures to
facilitate large scale economic development. The planning commission which conceived
the first and the second plans also faced a serious staffing shortage. The same problem
burdened the ministry of planning which prepared the third one. In all cases, the
objectives were rarely fulfilled because of shortage of resources including budgetary
allocation, equipment and personnel.

State concern and awareness for environmental protection during the imperial regime was
minimal. Despite the urgent appeals of expatriate environmentalists’ imperial policy
makers paid little attention to resource degradation which they did not see as a major
problem or a serious handicap to economic development. The underlying assumption at
the time was that the country had no shortage of agricultural land, large tracts of which
were still uncultivated; the main issue thus was the under-utilization of resources rather
than their loss. The 1931 constitution contained no clause about the status and the
protection of natural resources in Ethiopia. The king maintained traditional rights over
the control and disposition of land and other natural resources of the country. The
revised constitution of 1955 on the other hand was explicit and assertive of the status of
natural resources in Ethiopia than the 1931 constitution. Article 130 of the constitution
declares all natural resources of Ethiopia including land, water, forest, air and lakes are
state domain and sacred trusts for the benefit of all including the unborn.

Furthermore, until the second half of the 1960s, conservation was understood in a
different sense from what it came to be in the 1980s. First, it was taken to mean the
preservation of wildlife and the protection of their natural habitat. Policy makers were
keenly interested in using the country’s wildlife resources to stimulate the tourist industry
as part of the development initiatives underway at the time. The success of the natural
parks schemes of British East Africa was taken as a model to emulate. Secondly,
conservation also meant the preservation of the country’s historical heritage. The
protection of antiquities, as it was called then, involved the preservation of ancient

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monuments, historical documents, and relics of archaeological interest. The objective

here was not only historical and cultural, but economic as well. It was thought that
investing in natural as well as historico- cultural resources would enable the country to
compete with the east African countries for the tourist business. Thirdly, conservation
gave impetus to the protection of the country’s forests. However, while a few steps were
taken to encourage tree planting, protection took the form mainly of bringing the
country’s forests under state ownership, and legislation to this effect was issued in the
mid-1960s. On the other hand, the main objective of the forest legislation was not so
much to promote resource conservation but rather to enlarge the sources of state revenue.
Rights over timber harvests and other forest products, taxes on timber exports, payment
for timber permits, and royalties, which the new forest laws made possible, provided
additional revenue to the government. Thus until the latter part of the 1960s,
conservation, had a marked economic bias which was, in part, a result of the limited
environmental awareness of policy makers at the time.

However, from the second half of the 1960s, the appeals of the expatriates having finally
made sufficient impression, the government began to show greater concern for
environmental problems and undertook several initiatives to promote afforestation and
soil and water conservation. Legislation setting up government bodies responsible for
these activities was issued at the beginning of the 1970s. These initiatives put the accent
on forest management (as opposed to soil conservation) and placed the responsibility for
environmental matters in the hands of the state. We should note, though, that there were
efforts by concerned individuals to promote sound forest and soil management schemes.
For example, in Wollo, the chief governor of the province initiated an active program of
forest and soil conservation on his own initiative in the latter part of the 1960s (Dessalegn
1997). The Ethiopian Forestry Association, which was set up in 1960, had earlier
launched a “farm woodland” (or agro-forestry) campaign to encourage peasants to plant
trees on their plots as an economic and conservation measure (Ethiopian Forestry
Review). Likewise, in the early 1970s, donor agencies such as USAID and WFP initiated
food-for-work (f-f-w) schemes for conservation purposes in the Wollo and the northeast.

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5.4.2. Development Plans and Environmental Policies of the Derg

The military regime had a vision of state led industrialization. The major development
strategies of the regime were villiagaization, resettlement and import substitution.
Villiagization was carried out for facilitating delivery of services. Critics claim that the
program was indeed motivated by the need of the regime for political control, bringing
isolated settlements together. The resettlement program was conducted with the view to
resettle drought vulnerable population of the country. However, the program was largely
forced and poorly executed. The Derg regime had also embarked on a program of import
substitution for key goods. In Middle of 1980’s, the Derg came up with the ten year
perspective economic plan (1985-1994). However, the plan came up with the unrealistic
expectation of receiving foreign aid to finance more than half of the planned investment
projects. Despite the limitations, the plan provided a more consistent framework for
medium term and annual plans than the previous disparate project approach.

In consistent with the official ideology of the state, environmental understanding and
policy during this time was influenced by the socialist ideology of the regime. According
to Dessalegne (2001), we may distinguish two varieties of environmentalism in this
period, i.e the environmentalism of the state and the environmentalism of the peasant
farmer. The state environmentalism considered the state as the guardian of the country’s
natural resources and primary emphasis was placed on the protection of these resources
rather than their utilization. Under the state view of the environment, Environmental
protection involves bringing natural resources under state ownership or control. It was the
responsibility of the state to choose the appropriate conservation technology and
“transfer” such technology to the population concerned. According to Dessalegne these
assumptions could only lead to a “unilateral” course of action, and an undemocratic
approach. According to him, many of the major conservation initiatives invariably
deprived rural communities control over and access to natural resources. Conservation
was frequently restrictive and exclusionist. Measures for benefit sharing were rarely
incorporated in policies. Conservation schemes did not take into account the interests of
the rural land user, and the benefits of any such schemes were not shared by peasants.
Conservation policy tended to be inflexible and narrowly conceived. The objective of soil

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conservation, for instance, was merely to control erosion and not to promote the
sustainable utilization of the land. Finally, conservation programs were always imposed
from above, and rural land users -the people directly affected by environmental change-
were rarely consulted.

The worst enemy of state environmentalism under the Derg was the state itself, many of
whose rural policies worked against environmental objectives. Collectivization,
villagization and resettlement, which were carried out on a large scale in the 1980s, were
accompanied by extensive deforestation and soil erosion. The radical land reform of the
post- Revolution period and the periodic redistribution of farm plots undermined security
of holdings and discouraged peasants from investing on the land or employing
conservation measures. Though clear articulation may be difficult, the environmental
views/ assumptions of the Derg regime were in sharp contrast with the view of the
peasantry. Peasant farmers were not keen on the mere protection of natural resources
such as forests, pasture and water sources, but rather preferred their sustainable use. They
did not condone the destruction of such resources if it affects their livelihood. Central to
peasant environmentalism was the issue of access to and control over basic
environmental goods. Conservation in this context places strong emphasis on
management through use. Traditionally, such management was undertaken in a variety of
ways by the local communities themselves and other actors such as the churches.

These two forms of environmentalism (protectionism by the state and the peasantry view
of use of environmental resources through management) constituted two different
perceptions and valuations of nature, and two different approaches to the utilization of
environmental resources. They confronted each other against a backdrop of increasing
natural resource loss and scarcity. The state believed that the peasant was responsible for
land degradation and hence it was its responsibility to protect the environment. There was
in fact a strong vested interest on the part of officialdom to maintain the notion of peasant
culpability because this justified continued state intervention and expropriation of
environmental resources. On the other hand, peasants harbored a deep suspicion of the
motives of the state, and frequently wished nothing more than to keep it at arms length.

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Over the years, the state’s claim of stewardship over forests, pasture and similar
resources was contested by peasants, often through the use of covert action and
“everyday” forms of resistance. These included the illegal cutting of trees, the grazing of
livestock in closed areas, the uprooting of tree seedlings planted in forest schemes, and
the invasion of natural parks.
Activity 2
Compare and contrast the development policies and plans of the past two regimes?

5.4.3. Development Plans and Environmental Policies of the FDRE Regime

Ever since the end of the military regime, Ethiopia focused its attention on improving the
living conditions of its people and achieving development. Towards this end, the country
has enacted a series of poverty reduction strategies and growth plans. The most recent
plan is the Growth and Transformation plan enacted in 2007. For detailed discussion of
this polices, refer the section on Major Development Plans /Polices and the Environment
in Post 1991 Ethiopia
The FDRE regime in Ethiopia has embarked on poverty reduction and sustainable
development. The government provided special attention to sustainable development and
the principles of sustainable development were incorporated in the major polices and
strategies of the country. The constitution included provisions on sustainable
development. Besides the constitution, the post 1991 government enacted conservation
strategy, environmental policy, population policy, poverty reduction strategies, and
Energy policy etc. Land remained under the ownership of the state but farmers were
given with land certificates that granted them ownership rights. All these policies and
strategies focused on the utilization of the natural resources of the country in a
sustainable manner. Since 1991, Ethiopia has also started playing a leading role in global
environmental negotiations representing of Africa.

[Link]. The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia contains provisions which
recognize the importance of the protection of the environment and its proper management.
These provisions are major springboards for subsequent legislations in the environmental

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management as well as mainstreaming of environmental sustainability in the political, social

and economic development sectors.
Article 43 of the constitution states the development right of people and citizens in
Ethiopia. It stipulates four provisions:
1. The people of Ethiopia as a whole; and each nation, nationality and people in Ethiopia
in particular have the right to improved living and sustainable development.
2. Nationals have the right to participate in national development and in particular, to be
consulted in with respect to polices and projects affecting their community
3. All international agreements and relations concluded, established or conducted by the
state shall protect and ensure Ethiopia’s right for sustainable development
4. The basic aim of development activities shall be to enhance the capacity of citizens for
development and to meet their basic needs

Article 44, on the other hand, states the environmental rights of individual citizens in
Ethiopia. It states that everyone has the right to live in a “clean and healthy
environment.” The constitution also guarantees compensation to all persons who are
displaced from their lively hood as a result of state programs. Article 92 states the
responsibility of the government and citizens to make endeavors for ensuring the
protection and the sustainability of the environment. Specifically, Article 92 states the
following:
1. The government shall endeavor to ensure that all Ethiopians live in a clean and
healthy environment
2. The design and implementation of programs and projects of development shall not
damage or destroy the environment
3. People have the right to full consultation and to the expression of views in the
planning and implementation of environmental polices and projects that affect them
directly.
4. Government and citizens shall have the duty to protect the environment
These provisions are a major cornerstone for subsequent legislations in the environmental
management, as well mainstreaming environmental sustainability in the political, social
and economic development sectors.

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Activity 3
Get the constitution of the your National Regional State and study the provisions of the
constitution with regard to sustainable development and protection of the environment

[Link]. Proclamations
Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation
Careful environmental impact assessment and monitoring are required to ensure sound
and sustainable development practices that guard against depletion of soils, loss of
critical biodiversity, increased greenhouse gas emissions, or significant diversion of water
from other human or environmental uses.
Cognizant of this fact, the FDRE has came up with an Environmental Impact Assessment
proclamation in 2002; proclamation No.299/2002. The proclamation empowered the
Ethiopian environmental authority to prepare procedures, regulations, guidelines and
standards to effectively implement and enforce EIA proclamation. The Environmental
guidelines are among the tools for facilitating the inclusion of environmental issues and
principles of sustainable development into development proposals. To guide mainstreaming
of the principles of sustainability in to sectoral projects, sectoral environmental impact
assessment guidelines such as gridlines on agriculture, transport, industry, tannery and
settlements have been prepared.

In addition to these, a general guideline for facilitating EIA in all sectors has been
prepared. The fundamental purpose of this guideline was to ensure that proponents, the
government and all other interested and affected parties have the opportunity to
participate meaningfully in the EIA process.

Solid Waste Management Proclamation

The proclamation was made in 2007 and is known as proclamation no 513/2007. The
proclamation states how different kinds of solid waste such as glass containers, tin cans,
plastic bags, used tires, food and other solid wastes should be managed .Urban authorities

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are given the responsibility by the proclamation for managing solid wastes. They Urban
municipal authorities are responsible for developing plans of management, encouraging
investment in the management of the solid wastes, construction solid waste disposal of
sites.

Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation

The Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation was proclamation no.300/2002. The
proclamation cautions citizens not to pollute the environment in violation of relevant
environmental standards. Any person engaged in any field of activity which is likely to
cause pollution shall install a sound technology that avoids or reduces, to the required
minimum, the generation of waste and, when feasible, apply methods for the recycling of
waste. In addition, any person engaged in an act of pollution is required to clean up or
pay the cost of cleanup of the environment. The environmental protection authority is
given the responsibility of ensuring that the activities of citizens does not pollute the
environment and affect human health. The environmental protection authority is also
given with the responsibility to assign environmental inspectors that will carry our
inspection to ensure compliance with environmental standards and related requirements.

Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation

The Forest Development, Conservation and Utilization Proclamation was proclamation
no 542/2007. According to this proclamation, there are two types of forest ownerships,
private and state forest. Individual citizens, associations, government and
nongovernmental organization and business who seek to develop forests have the right to
get rural land in areas designated for forest lands.

In addition, for the purpose of proper conservation, development and utilization major
forest lands should be designated as state forests, their boundaries shall be demarcated,
and they shall be registered as protected and productive forest resources. The ministry of
agriculture and rural development is given the responsibly by the proclamation for the
development and administration of forests in Ethiopia.

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Activity 4
Get the original copy of the proclamations make further readings

[Link]. Policies
The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia
The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia [EPE], which was approved on April, 1997,
recognizes the significance of natural resource management for the achievement of
sustainable development in Ethiopia. The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE), was
the basis for the policy. The EPE consists of 10 sectoral and 10 cross-sectoral policies.
The policy is divided in to five parts. The first part deals with the natural resources bases
and environmental problems of the country. It states that natural resources are the
foundation of the economy. Smallholder peasant agriculture, in some areas including
forestry, is the dominant sector accounting for about 45 per cent of the GDP, 85 per cent of
exports and 80 per cent of total employment. According to the policy Agriculture is also the
main cause of the stagnation and variability of the GDP caused mainly by policy failures and
exacerbated by recurrent drought, civil war, natural resource degradation, and poor
infrastructure. This section has also stated the specific environmental problems the country is
facing:

A. Deterioration to low level of productivity of renewable natural resources,

B. Deforestation ranging from 80,000 to 200,000 hectares per annum, mainly as a result
of rain-fed agriculture expansion;
C. Burning of dung as fuel resulting in grain production loss of 550,000 tons per year;
D. Accelerated soil erosion resulting in grain production loss of 40,000 tons per year;
E. Destruction of pasture lands by soil erosion resulting in loss of 1.1 million Tropical
Livestock Units (TLUs) in 1990;
F. Low utilization of mineral, water and energy resources;

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G. Erosion of genetic diversity of domesticated plants, unique flora and fauna due to long
history of disruptive interventions by the state, and weakening of local management in
the face of an expanding population and increasing needs of agriculture;
H. Insufficiency and very poor quality of current stock of urban housing and poor
sanitation services in all urban areas;
I. Threat to cultural heritage through neglect, decay, removal or destruction as well as
through the less visible and tangible impacts of changing socio-cultural values, foreign
ideas and imported technologies.

Part two of the policy states about the the policy goal, objectives and guiding principles.
The overall policy of the objectives was: To improve and enhance the health and quality of
life of all Ethiopians and to promote sustainable social and economic development through
the sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources and the
environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
In addition to the overall general objectives, other specific objectives are also mentioned.
These are:
A. Ensure that essential ecological processes and life support systems are sustained,
biological diversity is preserved and renewable natural resources are used in such
a way that their regenerative and productive capabilities are maintained and where
possible enhanced so that the satisfaction of the needs of future generations is not
compromised; where this capability is already impaired to seek through
appropriate interventions a restoration of that capability;
B. B. Ensure that the benefits from the exploitation of non-renewable resources are
extended as far into the future as can be managed, and minimize the negative
impacts of their exploitation on the use and management of other natural
resources and the environment;
C. Identify and develop natural resources that are currently underutilized by finding
new technologies, and/or intensifying existing uses which are not widely applied
D. Incorporate the full economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of
natural resource development into the planning, implementation and accounting

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processes by a comprehensive valuation of the environment and the services it

provides, and by considering the social and environmental costs and benefits
which cannot currently be measured in monetary terms;
E. Improve the environment of human settlements to satisfy the physical, social,
economic, cultural and other needs of their inhabitants on a sustainable basis;
F. prevents the pollution of land, air and water in the most cost-effective way so that
the cost of effective preventive intervention would not exceed the benefits;
G. Conserve, develop, sustainably manage and support Ethiopia's rich and diverse
cultural heritage;
H. Ensure the empowerment and participation of the people and their organizations
at all levels in environmental management activities; and
I. Raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages
between environment and development.

The key guiding principles of the policy:

1. Every person has the right to live in a healthy environment;
2. Sustainable environmental conditions and economic production systems are impossible
in the absence of peace and personal security. This shall be assured through the
acquisition of power by communities to make their own decisions on matters that affect
their life and environment;
3. The development, use and management of renewable and where resources shall be
based on sustainability:
4. The use of non renewable resources shall be minimized and where possible their
availability extended (e.g through recycling)
5. Appropriate and affordable technologies which use renewable and non-renewable
resources efficiently shall be adopted, adapted, developed and disseminated;
6. When a compromise between short-term economic growth and long-term
environmental protection is necessary, then development activities shall minimize
degrading and polluting impacts on ecological and life support systems. When
working out a compromise, it is better to take caution to the extent possible as

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rehabilitating a degraded environment is very expensive, and bringing back a species

that has gone extinct is impossible;
7. Full environmental and social costs (or benefits foregone or lost) that may result
through damage to resources or the environment as a result of degradation or
pollution shall be incorporated into public and private sector planning and accounting,
and decisions shall be based on minimizing and covering these costs;
8. Market failures with regard to the pricing of natural, human-made and cultural
resources, and failures in regulatory measures shall be corrected through the
assessment and establishment of user fees, taxes, tax reductions or incentives;
9. Conditions shall be created that will support community and individual resource users
to sustainably manage their own environment and resources;
10. As key actors in natural resource use and management, women shall be treated
equally with men and empowered to be totally involved in policy, program and
project design, decision making and implementation;
11. The existence of a system which ensures uninterrupted continuing access to the same
piece(s) of land and resource creates conducive conditions for sustainable natural
resource management;
12. Social equity shall be assured particularly in resources base:
13. Regular and accurate assessment and monitoring of environmental conditions shall be
undertaken and the information widely disseminated within the population;
14. Increased awareness and understanding of environmental and resource issues shall be
promoted by policy makers, by government officials and by the population, and the
adoption of a "conservation culture" in environmental matters among all levels of
society shall be encouraged;
15. Local, regional and international environmental interdependence shall be recognized;
16. Natural resource and environmental management activities shall be integrated
laterally across all sectors and vertically among all levels of organization;
17. Species and their variants have the right to continue existing, and are, or may be,
useful now and/or for generations to come;

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18. The wealth of crop and domestic animal as well as micro-organism and wild plant
and animal germplasm is an invaluable and inalienable asset that shall be cared for;
and
19. The integrated implementation of cross-sectoral and sectoral federal, regional and
local policies and strategies shall be seen as a prerequisite to achieving the objectives
of this Policy on the Environment,
Part three states the 10 sectoral environmental policies. The ten sectoral areas covered by
the policy were: Soil husbandry and sustainable agriculture; Forest, Woodland and Tree
Resources; Genetic, Species and Ecosystem Biodiversity; Water Resources; Energy
Resource; Mineral Resources; Human Settlement, Urban Environment and Environmental
Health; Control of Hazardous Materials and Pollution From Industrial Waste; Atmospheric
Pollution and Climate Change; and Cultural and Natural Heritages

Part four states the ten cross sectoral policies. These are: Population and the
Environment; Tenure and Access Rights to Land and Natural Resources; Community
Participation and the Environment; Land Use Plan; Social and Gender Issues;
Environmental Economics; Environmental Information System; Environmental Research;
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Education and Awareness
Part five states about the implementation of the policy. It indicates about the institutional
framework to the implementation of the policy, responsibilities and mandates.
Activity 5
What do you think about the environment policy of Ethiopia with respect to the different
theories that you have seen in unit one?

Population Policy
Ethiopia developed a National Population Policy in [Link] policy identified major
obstacles to the country’s development effort and proposes measures to address these
obstacles. The National Population Policy seeks the harmonization of the rate of
population growth and the capacity of the country for the development and rational
utilization of natural resources to the end that the level of welfare of the population is
maximized over time (section 4). Specifically, the policy seeks to increase contraceptive

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usage from 4 percent in 1993 to 44 percent and to reduce fertility from 7.7 children per
woman to 4 by 2015(section 4). Other objectives include reducing maternal and infant
morbidity and mortality, increasing female participation in all levels of the educational
system, ensuring spatially balanced distribution of the population, and improving
agricultural productivity.

The National Biodiversity Conservation Policy

The significance of conservation of biodiversity for the sustainability of different sectors
such as energy, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, wildlife, industry, health, tourism and
commerce is recognized by the FDRE. The government asserts that achievement of
Ethiopia’s development objectives are determined by the conservation of biodiversity.
Thus, conservation of biodiversity as sensitive issue is included in policies and strategies.
The policies and strategies that address biodiversity conservation directly include Federal
Environmental Policy (1997), the Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE) (1997) and
Regional Conservation Strategies (RCSs) specific to the regions (IBDC, 1998).

More specifically, the government has also articulated National Biodiversity

Conservation Policy, which directly targets on the conservation of the country’s
biodiversity. The policy was approved in April 1998 with the view to provide for policy
guidance towards the effective conservation, rational development and sustainable
utilization of the country's biodiversity. The policy specifically aims to ensure the
conservation and sustainable utilization of genetic resources and essential ecosystems of
the country; to integrate biodiversity conservation with sectoral and cross-sectoral
strategies and programs; and encourage public participation in biodiversity conservation,
development and utilization (IBC, 1998).

Science and Technology Policy

The National Science and Technology policy, which was issued in December 1993, is
another initiative of the Government of Ethiopia in harmonizing development and
sustainable environmental management. The objectives of the policy include building
national capability to generate, select, import, develop, disseminate and apply appropriate

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technologies for realization of the country’s socio-economic development objectives and

to rationally conserve and utilize its natural resources. The policy directives and
strategies have duly addressed issues related to rational and efficient utilization of the
natural resources and protection and conservation of the environment. The major
strategies and the priority areas of this policy include: formulation and implementation
of Science and Technology plans, programs and projects to accelerate the country’s
socio-economic development; self-sufficiency in food production and satisfying the need
for other basic necessities with due attention to environmental protection; application of
Science and Technology for awareness and control of environmental conditions and for
the conservation and rational utilization of the natural resources of the country; develop
the capacity and the mechanism to search, choose, negotiate, procure, adapt and exchange
technologies that are appropriate and environmentally sound to the Ethiopian socio-
economic conditions; facilitate Research and Development programs that would help to
discover, popularize and develop fast growing, drought resistant and multipurpose tree
species so as to rehabilitate and develop degraded environments; strengthen technologies
that would help to follow up changes in the environment and to forecast, prevent and
minimize the effects of natural disasters((EPA, 2004 and Jonathan, 2007).

Energy Policy
The government of Ethiopia had issued a national energy sector policy in 1994. The
overall objective of the energy policy is to ensure a reliable supply of energy at the right
time and at affordable prices, particularly to support the country’s agricultural and
industrial development strategies. This policy is also aimed to achieve sustainable use of
natural resources, as well as reducing green house gas emissions, which protects the local
and global environment. The strategies which are believed to achieve the objectives of
energy sector are adoption of renewable energy technologies, use of modern fuels and,
introduction of energy conservation and energy saving measures in all sectors.

Water Resource Management Policy

Water Resources Policy, which was formulated in 2001, has also tried to harmonize
environmental management and socio-economic development. The overall goal of the

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national water resources management policy is to enhance and promote all national
efforts towards the efficient, equitable, and optimum utilization of the available water
resources of Ethiopia for significant socio-economic development on sustainable basis
(MWR, 2001). More specifically, the policy is planned develop the water resources of
the country for economic and social benefits of the people, on equitable and sustainable
basis; allocate of water resources based on comprehensive and integrated plans and
optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity of access, and
sustainability of the resource; managing and combating drought as well as other
associated slow on-set disasters; combating and regulating floods through sustainable
mitigation, prevention, rehabilitation and other practical measures; and conserve, protect
and enhance water resources and the overall aquatic environment on sustainable basis.
The policy objectives are also specifically expected to ensure that environmental
protection measures are taken into account “in the course of studies, planning and
implementation of water resources management policy”(MWR, 2001). Towards this aim,
Environmental Impact Assessments will be made mandatory for all water resources
projects.

[Link]. Strategies and Plans

The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE)
In the early 1990s, the Ethiopian government made progress in laying the foundations for
addressing environmental problems. One major initiative in the introduction of
environment into the national policy arena was the Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia
(CSE). The process of formulation of the strategy was started in 1989 and went on for 13
years. The process of making the CSE comprised three phases. Phase 1 (1989–90)
focused on identifying key environmental issues and developing a framework and
process for the CSE. Phase 2 (1990–94) focused on developing an environmental policy,
an institutional framework and an investment program. Phase 3 was devoted to the
preparation of Regional Conservation Strategies (RCSs) in all regions. The final
document of the CSE was accepted by the council of ministers in 1997.

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The CSE was prepared in five volumes. Volume I established the setting by evaluating
the state of the natural resources, the environment and development in Ethiopia and
examining the interconnected causes and effects of the existing situation. Volume II
presented a policy and strategy framework aimed at ensuring a sustainable use and
management of natural resources, rehabilitating those whose bases have suffered
degradation and maintaining life support systems functioning well. For this, the use and
management of natural resources and the environment was approached through 11 cross-
sectoral and 11 sectoral issues, with prioritized strategies being defined for each issue.

Volume III dealt with institutional questions which require to be answered to implement
the strategies defined in Volume II. Volume IV presents a plan of prioritized actions
within the framework of 11 cross-sectoral and 11 sectoral programmes. Each Programme
is divided into a number of components which are broad divisions for programming
purposes. For each component prioritized actions have been formulated which translate
the broad strategies outlined in Volume II into specific activities. Volume-V gives a
listing of projects, some funded and being implemented, and others only proposed, with
estimated costs. Two of the achievements of the CSE were the enactment of an
environmental policy and the establishment of the environmental protection authority.
The CSE has served as the basis for both the environmental policy and the formation of
the environmental protection authority of Ethiopia.

Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI)

ADLI is a development strategy that aims to achieve initial industrialization through
robust agricultural growth and close linkage between the agricultural and the industrial
sector. The Ethiopian government has been following the agricultural development
strategy (ADLI) since 1991. The objective of ADLI is to strengthen the linkages between
agriculture and industry by increasing the productivity of small scale farmers, expanding
large scale private commercial farms and by constructing the manufacturing sector in
such a way that it can use the country’s human and natural resources. The agricultural
development strategy of Ethiopia states that the growth in agriculture will induce overall
economic growth, through structural transformation by stimulating demand and supply.

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On the demand side expansion in the agricultural activities will increase demands for
industrial products (both agricultural inputs and consumer goods) produced by domestic
industries. On the supply side, the agricultural sector can supply food to domestic market,
raw material to industries and export products. In the ADLI framework, the key assertion
is that the primary driver of demand for industrial output will be domestic rather than
foreign demand, based on first imitating growth in agriculture.
Agricultural and Rural Development Strategy
The main objectives of the agricultural policy of Ethiopia are to increase the production
of food crops both in quality and quantity in order to attain food self sufficiency; improve
the livelihood of the rural community through sustainable development of the agricultural
sector; and promote the production of sufficient agricultural products, which can be used
as raw material for the agro-industries and to expand the production of industry led
agricultural production. In recognition to the importance of environment, the strategy
admits that these objectives can only be achieved by addressing natural resources
depletion (deforestation, soil erosion) through conservation and rehabilitation of degraded
lands.

Food Security Strategy (FSS)

Food security strategy of the country declares that the objectives of achieving food
security at household level and achieving food self-sufficiency of the country can be only
achieved by exerting efforts on the investment of natural resource conservation and
rehabilitation. It considered water and natural resource conservation based agricultural
development as a centre piece of the strategy. It has also given due attention to the
problems of environmental degradation, population pressure, and land shortage
particularly in moisture deficit highland areas of the country. Accordingly, water
harvesting, proper land utilization and environmental rehabilitation are identified as the
top priority areas of intervention. The strategy apparently considers the importance of
conservation, rehabilitation and restoration of natural resources as an entry point to
change the existing embarrassing livelihood situation of rural household economy.

Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper (PRSP)

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PRSP, the first of poverty reduction strategic paper, was issued in 2001 (Part-I). The
PRSP, together with its second component, SDPRP, was supposed to serve as
development policy of the country from 2002-2005. The core objective of the strategy
was poverty reduction. The third poverty reduction paper that came was Plan for
Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP) to be implemented
2006-2010.
Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP)
The Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP) draws on the
CSE and the EPE. It was issued in 2002 as part II of the poverty reduction strategy.
Priority areas for action in environment and development are land degradation, the
strengthening of regulatory and institutional capacity, and the enhancement and
protection of biodiversity. Some important environmental issues, especially of a
conservation nature, were included in the SDPRP as crosscutting issues. Resettlement,
which is covered under the food security heading, also includes references to the need for
careful assessment of land resources and disease problems in the resettlement sites and
also calls for communities to take responsibility for environmental protection and
rehabilitation within resettlement areas.

Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP)

PASDEP was prepared in 2005 and was planned to be the development policy of
Ethiopia from 2006-2010. The emphasis of PASDEP is resolutely on accelerated
agricultural and rural growth and the concurrent development of the private sector.
Economic development is the priority. In addition environmental concerns and issues of
environmental sustainability are also dealt with.
Activity 6
What do you think about the contribution of the above strategies for ensuring sustainable
development in Ethiopia?

Lesson Six: Environmental Institutions, Communities, Citizens and their Roles in

Environmental conservation in Ethiopia
Introduction

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In the discussion above, we have seen a list of the major environmental plans, policies
and strategies that Ethiopia implemented both in the past and at present. In this lesson, we
will see the roles of various institutions, communities, citizens.

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to
 Explain the environmental institutions of Ethiopia
 Explain the roles of communities and citizens in environmental conservation

5.6.1. The Role of Institutions in Environmental Conservation

Structures and institutions have also been established at federal, regional, zonal and
woreda level. These institutions are responsible for ensuring the protection of the
environment and the achievement of sustainable development in the country. In this
section, we will see environmental institutions at various levels that are currently working
on environmental protection and conservation in Ethiopia.

The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) has direct responsibility for the
implementation of the Ethiopian environmental policy and national action plan to
conserve natural resources (such as land, biodiversity, soil, water and many others) and
combat desertification. The role of EPA is to coordinate environmental matters amongst
the different sectoral ministries and agencies, as well as to ensure that all development
interventions comply with the country’s environmental norms and established guidelines.

The Ethiopia Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) is responsible for coordinating the
various research programs of the national network of agricultural research stations
including on-farm research and demonstrations. It is also responsible for the research
component of the Rural Capacity Building Project, which includes support for: (i) natural
resources management; (ii) crop research; (iii) livestock research; and (iv) agricultural
mechanization.
Activity 1

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What are the strengths and weaknesses of EPA in managing the environment?
Are there any environmental protection institutions that exist in your area? Can you name
some of them?

The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD). The MoARD has
responsibility for activities related to sustainable land management such as: (i) enhancing
market-led agricultural development; (ii) food security; (iii) water harvesting and small-
scale irrigation; (iv) conservation and utilization of forests and wildlife resources (v)
monitoring events affecting agricultural development and maintaining early warning
systems (disaster prevention and preparedness activities); (vi) control of plant and animal
diseases and migratory pest outbreaks, (vii) overseeing the distribution of high quality
agricultural inputs; and (viii) promotion and expansion of extension services to the small-
scale farmers, pastoralists and private investors including establishing and running a
network of agriculture and rural technology training centres – the farmers’ training
centres (FTCs). Besides, the MoARD is the lead agency for the development and
implementation of the Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework (ESIF) for Sustainable
Land Management formulated in 2008. The ESIF is to be implemented by bringing
together federal, regional, woreda and local/community level stakeholders within a multi-
level cooperative partnership.

Higher Learning Institutions include government universities and colleges that provide
higher learning and research opportunities related to environment and land resources
management. These higher education institutions include Addis Ababa University,
Haromya, Mekele, Hawassa, Arbaminch Jimma, Bahirdar and other universities.
Universities address the issue of land degradation/desertification and run land resource
conservation programs through their various regular educational and research
programmes. The Ministry of Education (MoE) has lead responsibility for the
development and promotion of environmental education in general and land resource
management education in particular within the formal education sector.

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The Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED) has the lead
responsibility for facilitating the flow of funds to those agencies responsible for the
implementation of land resources management activities. It also has overall responsibility
for the formulation of the country’s economic development policies and plans.

The Ethiopian Development Research Institute (EDRI) has a mandate to undertake

sectoral and cross cutting policy research studies related to economic, social and
environmental development within Ethiopia. Regional Government Institutions: The
Ethiopian Constitution has established a decentralized federal system with the country
divided into Regional States. Most responsibilities for the planning and implementation
of development policies and programs, including the management and utilization of their
natural resources, have been devolved to the Regional States. Each region has its own set
of government institutions which largely replicate those at the federal level. Each region
for example has its own environmental protection authority, and investment agency.

Woreda Offices: In 2002, the government introduced an important phase of

decentralization making the woredas the centre of socio-economic and technical
development with the aim of empowering local (woreda) administrations, thereby
bringing the government closer to the people, and enabling it to be more responsive to
local needs. Consequently, the woredas are now given with responsibility to the
implementation of sustainable land management activities and conservation of the
environment.
5.6.2. The Role of Communities in Environmental Conservation
The question then becomes the role the communities and individual citizens. That is the
government is playing what it is supposed to play. In view of this, what are the roles
communities/ nations and nationalities and individual citizens should play?

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Activity 2
List down the roles that you can play and contribute in the protection of the
environment in Ethiopia. Also evaluate if have contributed what is expected from you
or not?

Communities in Ethiopia also play an important role in the conservation of environmental

resources. Each nation, nationality and people of Ethiopia is endowed with indigenous of
knowledge of conservation and engage in the conservation of the environment. The
Konsos, for example, are quite known for their terraces for the protection of land
degradation. Similarly, other communities also utilize their indigenous knowledge and
carry out various activities to the conservation of the environment. Hence, the
government should be committed to take advantage of the indigenous knowledge and
practices of communities to conserve the environment. Indeed the FDRE government
realized the limitation of the command and control method of conservation by the derg
regime and has started involving local communities in the planning, implementation and
evaluation of conservation activities. Towards this end, communities in Ethiopia shoud be ready
to meaningful participate and cooperate with the efforts of government to conserve the
environment.

5.6.3. The Role of individuals in Environmental Conservation

As individual citizens, we could also considerably contribute to the protection and the
conservation of the environment in Ethiopia. Some of the roles that we as individual
citizens play include:
 Refrain from irresponsibly polluting the environment by violating the relevant
environmental standard
 Responsibly discharge all forms wastes
 Clean up or pay the cost of cleaning up as necessary
 Participate in efforts aimed at the management of wastes
 Involve in the development of forests , planting of trees, irrigation schemes
 Refrain from cutting trees, un authorized hunting etc
 Participate in environmental clubs and environmental education of others

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

Answer the following questions in a separate sheet, check your answers and refer back
the module for those questions that you have not been able to answer correctly.
1. All the following are natural resources in Ethiopia except
A. water
B. lives stock
C. diversified and endemic flora and fauna
D. apiculture
E, none of the above

2. One of the following is an environmental problem in Ethiopia

A. land degradation
B. Deforestation
C. drought
D. all of the above
3. One of the following is a cause of deforestation in Ethiopia
A. population pressure
B. fire
C. the settlement program
D. all of the above
4. In major urban centers in Ethiopia
A. housing is in short
B. Sanitation problems are evident
C. Slum and shanties are quite dominant
D. All of the above
5. During the Derg regime
A. land was nationalized
B. protectionism was emphasized than sustainable use of resources
C. villagization and settlement programs were undertaken
D. All of the above

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6. One of the following is different

a. the first five year plan
b. the second five year plan
c. The ten year perspective plan
d. The third five year plan
7. The FDRE Constitution
A. Give recognition to the principles of sustainable development
B. gives recognition to the rights of nations and nationalists for development
C. Recognized the rights of citizens to be consulted in development projects that
affect their lives
D. All of the above
8. The founding document of the environmental policy of Ethiopia was
A. the conservation strategy of Ethiopia
B. the population policy of Ethiopia
C. The poverty reduction strategic paper
D. The growth and transformation plan
9. One of the following organs of Ethiopia is primarily responsible for the
implementation of the environmental policy of Ethiopia
A. the central statics authority of Ethiopia
B. the ministry of agriculture and rural development
C. the environmental protection authority
D. The Ethiopian investment agency
10. All the following environmental issues are addressed by polices and proclamations by
the FDRE regime except
A. deforestation
B. solid waste management
C. environmental impact assessment
D. energy and water management
E. none of the above

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UNIT SIX

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

Environment and sustainable development is interwoven. In other words, to achieve

sustainable development, environmental protection must remain as integral part of the
development process. Sustainable development moves beyond the idea of environmental
protection as it has been traditionally conceived. It has been recognized as a cornerstone
principle for the development of environmental health. It is true, without environmental
health sustainable development is impossible. To this end environmental ethics plays vital
role establishing moral concern to nonhuman beings.

Ethics is one of the branches of philosophy that studies about morality. It is the study of what
is good, both for the individual and for society. Ethics has different branches and one of these
is applied ethics. Environmental ethics is part of applied ethics; its scope moves outside the
human sphere. All forms of applied ethics can raise some issues of principle (such as weather
“death” has occurred with brain death in medical ethics); but environmental ethics raises
deep questions about who counts morally and why requiring reexamination of the human-
nature relationship.

There are varieties of approaches to environmental ethics that can be thought of as being
anthropocentric or human- centered. Most of these approaches maintain that the nonhuman
natural world is best considered ethically in terms of its instrumental values to human beings.
Some environmental ethicists focus on ethical consideration of ecological wholes or
ecosystems rather than individuals. This position is known as holistic environmental ethics.
However, anthropocentrism is challenged by deep ecology and eco-feminism/feminism.
Deep ecologists reject the idea of humans as separate from their environment and stress the
complex relatedness of all that is. Eco-feminists suggest that environmental ethics can be
built on relationships of care between humans and the nonhumans.

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In this unit we will discuss various issues which are related with environment and
sustainable development. We will focus on the role of environmental ethics which underpins
sustainability of nature. This unit consists of five major lessons. The first lesson deals with
what ethics is in brief and environmental ethics in detail. The second lesson tries to cover the
challenge of environmental ethics to the anthropocentrism (i.e., human-centeredness)
embedded in traditional western ethical thinking. In this lesson we will focus on deep
ecology and feminist environmental ethics as responses to mainstream environmental ethics.
The third lesson is about the role of environmental ethics to attain sustainable development
and tackle environmental crisis. The fourth lesson focuses on environmental education and
awareness. And the last lesson is concerned with the need for environmental policy in
Ethiopia and its contribution to sustainable social and environmental development.

Major resources

 Light, Andrew and Rolston III, Holmes (ed.) (2003) Environmental Ethics: An Anthology,
USA, Blackwell Publishing.

 Shrader-Frechette, K. S. (1991) Environmental Ethics2nd ed., USA, The Boxwood Press.

 Anjaneyulu,Y.(2004) Introduction to Environmental Science, BSP, BS Publications.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to

 Discern whether we have a moral obligation to preserve and protect nature.
 Recognize environmental ethical issues
 Explain whether anthropocentrism has negatively affected the environment
 Identify the responses of deep ecology and Eco-feminism to anthropocentrism
 Analyze the vital importance of environmental ethics to sustainable development
 Appreciate the practical purpose of environmental ethics providing moral grounds for
social policies
 Recognize the importance of education and awareness creation to the public so as to
tackle the problems of environment.

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Lesson One: Environmental Ethics

Introduction

Ethics is one of the fields of philosophy which is concerned with morality. And
environmental ethics is a branch of applied ethics that deals with moral principles that try to
define our responsibility towards the environment. This part of lesson deals with what is
ethics in general and environmental ethics in particular.

Objectives

After studying this lesson, you will be able to

 Define what ethics is and explain the difference between common usage of the term
and philosophical understanding
 Define the term environmental ethics
 Discuss the historical development of environmental ethics

Activity 1

What is philosophy? Can you mention some of its major branches?

The word ethics has its root in the Greek word ethos, meaning “custom” or “habit.” The
Latin word mores, from which we get the word morality, is basically synonymous with the
word ethos. In their common usage, the word ethics and morality appear to reflect their
etymology. Ordinarily, they refer to the social or cultural standards and principles by which
we customarily judge things as “right,” “wrong,” “good,” and “bad.” Usually, we focus on
human beings and their actions as the main objects of our moral or ethical evaluation. We
have an extensive vocabulary for expressing such judgments about people and their conduct
with terms such as ethical, moral, unethical, immoral and amoral, to cite the most obvious.

The discipline called ethics or moral philosophy differs from the ordinary, commonsense
approach, for it begins with an explicit awareness of the moral dimensions of our lives.

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Rather than assuming ethical or moral matters as given, it focuses on these with an attitude of
questioning, making deliberate efforts to reflect on the issues, problems and concepts
involved. In its pursuits, ethics searches for answers through rigorous methods of
examination, and it subjects its own claims to intense scrutiny. Its ultimate aim is to provide
systematic explanations and well-grounded arguments regarding ethical questions. Thus,
ethics may be defined as the thoughtful analysis and evaluation of the standards and
principles by which we issue judgments in terms of moral values. Ethics is the philosophical
study of values and what constitutes good and bad human conduct. It is concerned with
questions of right and wrong, of duty and obligation and of moral responsibility.

Activity 2

Is ethics the exclusive province of philosophers? Is it only a matter of abstract theorization?

What is its value in human life? Can you mention some of the major branches of ethics?

Although ethics is predominantly a philosophical field of inquiry, it is not the exclusive

province of philosophers. Writers, scientists, politicians, religious leaders, judges, educators,
students and laypersons – in short, people from all walks of life – have adopted the
philosophical spirit in their reflections on moral questions. Nor is ethics a matter of abstract
theorizing and sheer speculation having little or no relevance for our real lives. But rather it
offers us ways of thinking about the moral features of our own existence – our assumptions,
beliefs, judgments, ideas, concepts, values and conducts – in a serious and careful manner.
Significantly, then, such modes of thought always open up paths for self-awareness and self
reflection.

Applied ethics is one of the major branches of ethics. The task in applied ethics is to resolve
specific moral issues and morally concrete cases which arise in different areas of life. It
attempts to explain and justify positions on specific moral problems such as capital
punishment, euthanasia, abortion, sex outside marriage, etc. Applied ethics borrows insights
from metaethics and theoretical normative ethics in an attempt to resolve specific moral
problem (thus the name „applied ethics‟). When, for example, applied to medicine, this form

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of applied ethics is called “medical ethics” (sometimes expand to include biotechnology and
called “bioethics”). When applied to commerce, this becomes “business ethics”; when
applied to the press, “journalism ethics”; when applied to engineering; “engineering ethics
and so on. As an area of enquiry environmental ethics is one area of applied ethics. One thing
is different about environmental ethics, however. Many environmental ethicists, alone among
various other applied ethicists, envision that the scope of their field moves outside the human
sphere.

Dear learners, so far we have discussed what ethics is and now it is appropriate to discus our
topic: environmental ethics. Environmental ethics is a relatively new field of philosophical
ethics concerned with describing the values carried by the non-human natural world and
prescribing an appropriate ethical response to ensure preservation or restoration of those
values. This often urgent concern arises especially in view of threat to nature posed largely
by humans. These threats are both to other humans and to non-humans, placing in jeopardy
the communities of life on earth.

In a nutshell, environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral
relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and
its nonhuman contents. Environmental ethics is concerned with moral principles that try to
define our responsibilities towards the environment.

Activity 3

When was environmental ethics emerged? What were the reasons that forced its emergence?
What are the warning signs of environmental crisis?

While one can trace roots in the field back much further, explicitly and implicitly in the
works of philosophers and non-philosophers alike, the first article in philosophy journals
specifically on environmental topics, the first books, the first conferences and the first classes
in colleges and universities all began in the early 1970s. This was no coincidence. The
environmental movement was then transforming from its earlier phase consisting mainly in

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practical resource conservation initiatives, such as the creation of the national park system, to
a much more active political and social force in its own right.

Heralded by the publication of Rachel Carson‟s Silent Spring in 1963, revealing the toll that
agricultural pesticides like DDT were having on animals, plants, ecosystems, and human
health, the ecology movement in the late sixties and early seventies emboldened a new
generation of thinkers and activists to argue for social and political changes on a par with the
peace movement, the civil rights movement, and women‟s movement, all insisting on new
visions of justice and a new legal structure. The overriding concern was that fundamental
changes were needed in how understood the value of nature and how we recognize human
societies accordingly. Various figures in this movement courted controversy by diagnosing
the environmental crisis in the long prevailing Western, Enlightenment, humanist, scientific,
industrial, technological mindsets, and found them all wrong-headed and misdirected. The
symptoms were a host of environmental problems that we were then only beginning to
understand: deforestation, soil loss, water and air pollution, desertification, loss of species
habitat, loss of biodiversity, suburban sprawl, escalating population, escalating consumption,
global warming, and endless other concerns.

Since this time, environmental ethics has been most concerned with the moral grounds for
protecting the welfare of non-human animals, the moral foundations for laws protecting
endangered species, and the ethical bases for preserving and restoring degraded
environments. The principal question underlying such research was how values carried by
nature could best be described, often asking whether nature is directly morally considerable
in itself, rather than only indirectly morally considerable because it is appreciated or needed
by humans.

Activity 4

Is nature directly morally considerable in itself? Or is nature only indirectly morally

considerable? Discuss it.

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Nature might be indirectly morally considerable because it is the source of things that
humans need, such as natural resources, used to provide the foundations for building and
sustaining human communities. As such, we might consider it unfair if one human
community has greater access to a share of those resources thought to be held in common –
air, water, soil, etc. – over another human community. In contrast, nature might be directly
morally considerable if it possesses some kind of value (for example, some kind of value in
and of itself not dependent on its value to anything or anyone else) which could further be
demonstrated as the sort of value that demanded that we respect or protect it. If nature is the
sort of thing that is directly morally considerable (as many ethical theories would claim
humans are) then our duties, for example, to preserve whooping cranes and their habitats
would not depend only on describing some value that the cranes have for humans.

Lesson Two: The Challenge of Environmental Ethics

Introduction

One of the major challenges that environmental ethics faces is anthropocentrism.

Environmental ethics raise different moral questions toward human-centeredness that
consider nature as a mere means to achieve human goals. This lesson focuses on issues raised
by environmental ethics, its challenges and responses for anthropocentrism.

Objectives
 Appreciate the questions raised by environmental ethics
 Identify the difference between anthropocentric and non anthropocentric approach to
environment
 Explain the difference between shallow ecology and deep ecology.
 Explain the concept of eco-feminism through examples

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Activity 1

How does an environmental ethic challenge traditional anthropocentrism? And what are the
concerns of environmental ethics?

Suppose that putting out natural fires, culling feral animals or destroying some individual
members of overpopulated indigenous species is necessary for the protection of the integrity
of a certain ecosystem. Will these actions be morally permissible or even required? Is it
morally acceptable for farmers in non-industrial countries to practice slash and burn
techniques to clear areas for agriculture? Consider a mining company which has performed
open pit mining in some previously unspoiled area. Does the company have a moral
obligation to restore the landform and surface ecology? And what is the value of a humanly
restored environment compared with the originally natural environment? It is often said to be
morally wrong for human beings to pollute and destroy parts of the natural environment and
to consume a huge proportion of the planet's natural resources. If that is wrong, is it simply
because a sustainable environment is essential to (present and future) human well-being? Or
is such behaviour also wrong because the natural environment and/or its various contents
have certain values in their own right so that these values ought to be respected and protected
in any case? These are among the questions investigated by environmental ethics. Some of
them are specific questions faced by individuals in particular circumstances, while others are
more global questions faced by groups and communities. Yet others are more abstract
questions concerning the value and moral standing of the natural environment and its
nonhuman components.

Activity 2

What is the difference between instrumental value and intrinsic value? Explain through
example.

In the literature on environmental ethics the distinction between instrumental value and
intrinsic value (meaning “non-instrumental value”) has been of considerable importance. The
former is the value of things as means to further some other ends, whereas the latter is the

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value of things as ends in themselves regardless of whether they are also useful as means to
other ends. For instance, certain fruits have instrumental value for bats who feed on them,
since feeding on the fruits is a means to survival for the bats. However, it is not widely
agreed that fruits have value as ends in themselves. We can likewise think of a person who
teaches others as having instrumental value for those who want to acquire knowledge. Yet, in
addition to any such value, it is normally said that a person, as a person, has intrinsic value,
i.e., value in his or her own right independently of his or her prospects for serving the ends of
others. For another example, a certain wild plant may have instrumental value because it
provides the ingredients for some medicine or as an aesthetic object for human observers.
But if the plant also has some value in itself independently of its prospects for furthering
some other ends such as human health, or the pleasure from aesthetic experience, then the
plant also has intrinsic value. Because the intrinsically valuable is that which is good as an
end in itself, it is commonly agreed that something's possession of intrinsic value generates a
prima facie direct moral duty on the part of moral agents to protect it or at least refrain from
damaging it.

Activity 3

What is the difference between anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric approach to the

environment? Explain the distinction between anthropocentric in strong sense and weak
/broad sense.

6.2.1. Anthropocentric Environmental Ethics

Many traditional western ethical perspectives, however, are anthropocentric or human-
centered in that either they assign intrinsic value to human beings alone (i.e., what we might
call anthropocentric in a strong sense) or they assign a significantly greater amount of
intrinsic value to human beings than to any nonhuman things such that the protection or
promotion of human interests or well-being at the expense of nonhuman things turns out to
be nearly always justified (i.e., what we might call anthropocentric in a weak sense). For
example, Aristotle (Politics, Bk. 1, Ch. 8) maintains that “nature has made all things
specifically for the sake of man” and that the value of nonhuman things in nature is merely

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instrumental. Generally, anthropocentric positions find it problematic to articulate what is

wrong with the cruel treatment of nonhuman animals, except to the extent that such treatment
may lead to bad consequences for human beings. Immanuel Kant (“Duties to Animals and
Spirits”, in Lectures on Ethics), for instance, suggests that cruelty towards a dog might
encourage a person to develop a character which would be desensitized to cruelty towards
humans. From this standpoint, cruelty towards nonhuman animals would be instrumentally,
rather than intrinsically, wrong. Likewise, anthropocentrism often recognizes some non-
intrinsic wrongness of anthropogenic (i.e. human-caused) environmental devastation. Such
destruction might damage the well-being of human beings now and in the future, since our
well-being is essentially dependent on a sustainable environment. Anthropocentrism is the
view that prioritizes those attitudes values or practices that give “exclusive or arbitrarily
preferential consideration to human interests as opposed to the interest of other beings,” or,
speaking generally, the environment.

How do traditional people understand values carried by nature? Does their indigenous
knowledge contribute for the conservation of the environment? Collect data and analyze
critically whether nature is directly morally considerable in itself or indirectly morally
considerable by the local/traditional communities. Since you might be from different ethnic
backgrounds, refer to your actual situation/ specific tradition.

When environmental ethics emerged as a new sub-discipline of philosophy in the early

1970s, it did so by posing a challenge to traditional anthropocentrism. In the first place, it
questioned the assumed moral superiority of human beings to members of other species on
earth. In the second place, it investigated the possibility of rational arguments for assigning
intrinsic value to the natural environment and its nonhuman contents. It should be noted,
however, that some theorists working in the field see no need to develop new, non-
anthropocentric theories. Instead, they advocate what may be called enlightened
anthropocentrism (or, perhaps more appropriately called, prudential anthropocentrism).

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Activity 4

What is an enlightened anthropocentrism? What is the difference between enlightened

anthropocentrism and non anthropocentric theories?

Briefly, enlightened anthropocentrism is the view that all the moral duties we have towards
the environment are derived from our direct duties to its human inhabitants. The practical
purpose of environmental ethics, they maintain, is to provide moral grounds for social
policies aimed at protecting the earth's environment and remedying environmental
degradation. Enlightened anthropocentrism, they argue, is sufficient for that practical
purpose, and perhaps even more effective in delivering pragmatic outcomes, in terms of
policy-making, than non-anthropocentric theories given the theoretical burden on the latter to
provide sound arguments for its more radical view that the nonhuman environment has
intrinsic value. Furthermore, some prudential anthropocentrists may hold what might be
called cynical anthropocentrism, which says that we have a higher-level anthropocentric
reason to be non-anthropocentric in our day-to-day thinking. Suppose that a day-to-day non-
anthropocentrist tends to act more benignly towards the nonhuman environment on which
human well-being depends. This would provide reason for encouraging non-anthropocentric
thinking, even to those who find the idea of non-anthropocentric intrinsic value hard to
swallow. In order for such a strategy to be effective one may need to hide one's cynical
anthropocentrism from others and even from oneself.

6.2.2. Responses to Mainstream Environmental Ethics

There are a number of important responses to the more mainstream environmental ethics
approaches. For instance, anthropocentric or human-centered approaches maintain that the
non-human natural world is best considered ethically in terms of its instrumental values to
humans. For individualist consequentialist approaches, the unit of ethical concern is always
the individual organism rather than, for instance, the ecosystem or the species. Here we want
to consider two broad schools of thought – deep ecology and feminism/ eco-feminism as
responses to mainstream environmental ethics.

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[Link]. Deep Ecology

Activity 5

What is the difference between deep ecology and shallow ecology? What is biospheric
egalitarianism? Explain the difference between biocentric egalitarianism and atomistic
individualism. What is relationalism?

“Deep ecology” was born in Scandinavia, the result of discussions between Næss and his
colleagues Sigmund Kvaløy and Nils Faarlund. All three shared a passion for the great
mountains. On a visit to the Himalayas, they became impressed with aspects of “Sherpa
culture” particularly when they found that their Sherpa guides regarded certain mountains as
sacred and accordingly would not venture onto them. Subsequently, Næss formulated a
position which extended the reverence the three Norwegians and the Sherpas felt for
mountains to other natural things in general.

The “shallow ecology movement”, as Næss calls it, is the “fight against pollution and
resource depletion”, the central objective of which is “the health and affluence of people in
the developed countries.” The “deep ecology movement”, in contrast, endorses “biospheric
egalitarianism”, the view that all living things are alike in having value in their own right,
independent of their usefulness to others. The deep ecologist respects this intrinsic value,
taking care, for example, when walking on the mountainside not to cause unnecessary
damage to the plants. The basic intuition of biocentric equality is that all things in the
biosphere have an equal right to live and blossom and to reach their own individual forms of
unfolding and self-realization within the larger Self-realization. In other words all organisms
and entities in the ecosphere, as part of the interrelated whole, are equal in intrinsic worth.

Inspired by Spinoza's metaphysics, another key feature of Næss's deep ecology is the
rejection of atomistic individualism. The idea that a human being is such an individual
possessing a separate essence, Næss argues, radically separates the human self from the rest
of the world. To make such a separation not only leads to selfishness towards other people,
but also induces human selfishness towards nature. As a counter to egoism at both the

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individual and species level, Næss proposes the adoption of an alternative relational “total-
field image” of the world. According to this relationalism, organisms (human or otherwise)
are best understood as “knots” in the biospherical net. The identity of a living thing is
essentially constituted by its relations to other things in the world, especially its ecological
relations to other living things. If people conceptualise themselves and the world in relational
terms, the deep ecologists argue, then people will take better care of nature and the world in
general.

The following table summarizes the contrast between the dominant worldview and deep
ecology

Dominant Worldview Deep Ecology

Dominance over nature Harmony with nature
Natural environment as resource for humansAll nature has intrinsic worth/ biospecies
equality
Material /economic growth for growing Elegantly simple material needs(material
human population goals serving the larger goal of self-
realization)
Belief in ample resource reserves Earth supplies limited
High technological progress and solutions Appropriate technology; non dominating
science
National/centralized comm- unity Minority tradition/bioregion
Consumerism Doing with enough/recycling

The Eight Platform Principles of Deep Ecology Movement

1. The well-being and flourishing of human and nonhuman Life on Earth have value in
themselves (synonyms: intrinsic value, inherent value). These values are independent of the
usefulness of the nonhuman world for human purposes.
2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realizations of these values & are
also values in themselves.
3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital human
needs.
4. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease of
human population. The flourishing of nonhuman life requires such a decrease.

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5. Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is
rapidly worsening.
6. Policies must therefore be changed. These policies affect basic economic, technological,
and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the
present.

7. The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of
inherent value) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will
be a profound awareness of the difference between big and great.
8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation to directly or indirectly try
to implement the necessary changes.

[Link]. Ecofeminism/Feminism and the Environment

Activity 6

How does feminism describe what are often called the “twin oppressions” of women and
nature? What is the contribution of feminism to environmental protection? How does
dualistic way of thinking contribute for the destruction of environment?

Broadly speaking, a feminist issue is any that contributes in some way to understanding the
oppression of women. Feminist theories attempt to analyze women's oppression, its causes
and consequences, and suggest strategies and directions for women's liberation. By the mid
1970s, feminist writers had raised the issue of whether patriarchal modes of thinking
encouraged not only widespread inferiorizing and colonizing of women, but also of people of
colour, animals and nature. Sheila Collins, for instance, argued that male-dominated culture
or patriarchy is supported by four interlocking pillars: sexism, racism, class exploitation, and
ecological destruction.

Emphasizing the importance of feminism to the environmental movement and various other
liberation movements, some writers, such as Ynestra King, argue that the domination of
women by men is historically the original form of domination in human society, from which

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all other hierarchies -- of rank, class, and political power -- flow. For instance, human
exploitation of nature may be seen as a manifestation and extension of the oppression of
women, in that it is the result of associating nature with the female, which had been already
inferiorized and oppressed by the male-dominating culture. But within the plurality of
feminist positions, other writers, such as Val Plumwood, understand the oppression of
women as only one of the many parallel forms of oppression sharing and supported by a
common ideological structure, in which one party (the colonizer, whether male, white or
human) uses a number of conceptual and rhetorical devices to privilege its interests over that
of the other party (the colonized: whether female, people of colour, or animals). Facilitated
by a common structure, seemingly diverse forms of oppression can mutually reinforce each
other.

Not all feminist theorists would call that common underlying oppressive structure
“anthropocentric” or “patriarchal”. But it is generally agreed that core features of the
structure include “dualism”, hierarchical thinking, and the “logic of domination”, which are
typical of, if not essential to, male-chauvinism. These patterns of thinking and
conceptualizing the world, many feminist theorists argue, also nourish and sustain other
forms of chauvinism, including, human-chauvinism (i.e., anthropocentrism), which is
responsible for much human exploitation of, and destructiveness towards, nature. The
dualistic way of thinking, for instance, sees the world in polar opposite terms, such as
male/female, masculinity/femininity, reason/emotion, freedom/necessity, active/passive,
mind/body, pure/soiled, white/colored, civilized/primitive, transcendent/immanent,
human/animal, culture/nature. Furthermore, under dualism all the first items in these
contrasting pairs are assimilated with each other, and all the second items are likewise linked
with each other. For example, the male is seen to be associated with the rational, active,
creative, Cartesian human mind, and civilized, orderly, transcendent culture; whereas the
female is regarded as tied to the emotional, passive, determined animal body, and primitive,
disorderly, immanent nature. These interlocking dualisms are not just descriptive
dichotomies, according to the feminists, but involve a prescriptive privileging of one side of
the opposed items over the other. Dualism confers superiority to everything on the male side,

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but inferiority to everything on the female side. The “logic of domination” then dictates that
those on the superior side (e.g., men, rational beings, humans) are morally entitled to
dominate and utilize those on the inferior side (e.g., women, beings lacking in rationality,
nonhumans) as mere means.

Feminism represents a radical challenge for environmental thinking, politics, and traditional
social ethical perspectives. It promises to link environmental questions with wider social
problems concerning various kinds of discrimination and exploitation, and fundamental
investigations of human psychology. However, whether there are conceptual, causal or
merely contingent connections among the different forms of oppression and liberation
remains a contested issue. The term “ecofeminism” (first coined by Françoise d'Eaubonne in
1974) or “ecological feminism” was for a time generally applied to any view that combines
environmental advocacy with feminist analysis. However, because of the varieties of, and
disagreements among, feminist theories, the label may be too wide to be informative and has
generally fallen from use.

The theses of Eco-Feminism:

1. The immediate cause of present-day woes and future threats is the patriarchal system,
founded upon the appropriation of procreation and fertility, the mental and cultural structures
of which have persisted across all successive social and economic domains.
2. The two principal factors in the rapid expansion of patriarchy, exhaustion of resources and
global population growth, are the distant yet direct causes of the present-day ecological
catastrophe.
3. The battle of the sexes merely reflects man‟s battle against himself, which in the past, and
still today, translates to the battle of the classes.
4. The failure of socialist revolutions comes from their economic failure and refusal to
consider anything other than the “battle of the classes” without examining the foundations of
hierarchy and human exploitation: sexism.
5. Capital, now in the imperialist stage, will only disappear with an ecological solution of
production (and of consumption) which will constitute the only possible elimination of the

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outdated structures of dominance, aggressiveness, competitiveness, and absolutism in order

to replace them with those of cooperation and equality between individuals (thus between
sexes), and of the species with the environment.

Lesson Three: The Role of Environmental Ethics and Environmental Education to

Attain Sustainable Development and Tackle Environmental Crisis

Introduction

In order to ensure sustainable development protection of the environment is undoubtedly

essential. Environmental ethics plays vital role in order to achieve sustainable development,
for it involves a respect for all life and for the process that sustain it. As many environmental
ethicists argue, protection of the environment is valuable in a moral sense for more than the
instrumental goods that they provide for humans. And what is vital counts morally.

Objectives

After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain the importance of environmental ethics
 Define terms like sustainable development, acid rain, ozone depletion, global
warming, green gas, etc.
 Recognize the role of individuals to care for the environment
 Identify the ethical guidelines towards nature
Activity 1

Can you define „sustainable development‟?

Initially the meaning of sustainable development was related with environmental

sustainability and was concerned with the preservation of the productive resource base
particularly for future generation.

Sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the

direction of investments, the orientation of technological development and institutional

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change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human
needs and aspiration.

For sustainable development to be meaningful, over consumption has to be brought under

control. In addition, in a free market economy, the private sector may not bother to conserve
nature. For the sake of profit, it may destroy forests, overuse mineral resources, or pollute air
and water. This sector may not take into account social costs or benefits.
Activity 2
Is the definition of sustainable development anthropocentric? Explain how it is a human
centered one.

Discussion of sustainable development frequently focuses on forms of resource management,

with an emphasis on social justice and on the well-being of future generation of human
beings. Indeed, the most commonly cited definition of sustainable development is
anthropocentric. But sustainable development needs to take account of goods other than
human well-being and the resource that conduce thereto. Thus sustainable development can
move beyond the anthropocentric to incorporate a broader understanding of environmental
ethics.

Sustainability requires a rare balance between the three sets of goals, namely, environmental,
economic and social ones. Once environmental/ecological sustainability has been achieved,
then it is possible to attain economic sustainability. If this condition is maintained then social
stability can be attained.

Sustainable development has economic, social, environmental and ethical dimensions. From
an economic perspective, a resource is efficiently allocated and optimally utilized if it is put
to the use that generates the highest possible returns. In free enterprise economies, the first
two causes of poverty and economic malaise may be overcome by setting in place a broad
legal as well as effective and quality infrastructural framework within which individuals and
actors could pursue their self interest. The required legal framework may consist of laws and
security rules that promote sound investment, and access to financial, labour and land

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transactions. To be really effective, the law must remove all manner of discrimination with
respect to opportunities regarding education, investments, health services, land resources,
capital and employment. Socially, equitable distribution of the incomes on the other hand
may be achieved through mechanisms and social benefits like income supports,
unemployment benefits and housing, free or discounted education, health and transportation
services. The principles in relation to sustainable development that are particularly relevant
to the delivery of environmental health services are:
1. Human beings are at the center of concern for sustainable development.
2. To achieve sustainable development, environmental protection must remain as
integral part of the developmental process.
3. Equity in the delivery of services is an essential part of sustainable development.
4. Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned
citizens at all levels.
5. Effective environmental legislation should be enacted.
6. Both the precautionary approach and environmental impact assessment should be
widely applied as tools in competent decision making.
So, there is no longer any justification for the claim often made by the vested interest group
that sustainable development is such an all embracing term that it is completely meaningless.
6.3.1. Is there a global environmental crisis?

Activity 3

What are the crises of environment? Have you ever realized such environmental crisis in
your area? Do you think surely nature will take care of these problems over time?

Dear learners, the world is heading for an environmental disaster, and like the three wise
monkeys, we do not want to see hear or talk about it. What is even worse, we sometimes do
talk about it, and then go about our business as if the environment and our lives are quite
separate. Many environmental problems arise from the deliberate or inadvertent abuse,
misuse, and overuse of natural resources by human beings. Land, water, energy resources air
and space have all been adversely affected by human intervention.

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The earth has existed for over five billion years, humanity for three to five million years and
civilization for about 10,000 years. They have survived many crises and cataclysms. Looking
back over the centuries, nature seems to have always absorbed disturbances and maintained a
balance. Thousands of species have survived over a long period of time and, consequently,
may be expected to continue to exist forever.

We may be correct in expecting the Earth and many species to survive, but we may be wrong
in assuming that humanity will also continue to exist along with nature in the same way.
Why? The reason is that there is something different happening now. In the past changes
were always slow, but this is no longer true. Human activity has drastically increased the
pace at which changes in the environment are taking place.

Four mega phenomena or spikes have been occurring with profound implications for life on
earth. The four quantities that have been growing exponentially are:
1. Concentration of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere
2. The number of biological species becoming extinct every year.
3. Production and consumption of goods and services
4. The size of the human population
Dear learners, a remarkable fact is that, in each case the curve was plat over centuries until
the spike began in recent times. What makes matters worse is that the spikes in the four
quantities are interconnected, each amplifying the other three. Let us take a closer look at
these phenomena. Carbon dioxide, Co2 is a colorless non-toxic gas naturally present in the air
and produced by the respiration of living organisms. It is also produced by the burning of
fossil fuels and is an important greenhouse gas concentration of carbon dioxide gas in the
atmosphere started increasing exponentially from 1800 onward, and the trend continues
unabated. The main source of these emissions is the burnings of fossil fuels like coal and oil.
Mathematically any growth is exponential if the increase is at a constant rate per time period,
rather than a constant amount. Many natural phenomena exhibit exponential growth. For
example the population of the world has been increasing exponentially. With every case of
exponential growth we associate a doubling time. One of human impacts on the environment
is basically related to pollution. It may be defined as „the introduction by man into the

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environment of substances or energy liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living
resources and ecological systems, damage to structures or amenity, or interference with
legitimate use of the environment.‟ Carry capacity (i.e. the number of individuals that can be
sustained on a certain amount of habitat, in our case, an area of land) may be reduced
temporarily or permanently.

Biocidal pollutants: These are pollutants whose major effects in the ecosystem are on the
living organisms directly, rather than by their impact through the biogeochemical cycles.
They may be divided into two main categories: those that are natural and those that are man-
made. Natural biocides are materials that occur naturally but man‟s activity increase their
concentration in natural ecosystem. Ecosystem is a community of interdependent living
organisms and the environment they inhabit and interact with. Often natural biocides are
present mainly in the core of the earth, and man brings them to the surface and spreads them
around into systems from which they have hitherto been absent. Two examples that are at
present regarded as problems are lead and radiation: the latter is of course not a substance but
various form of energy. Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of biologically damaging
forms of radiation. Man-made biocides : the great majority of man-made biocides are used in
agriculture as pesticides. The environmental problems that arise do so because of their
profligate use, a tendency encouraged by the drive for a higher level of productivity per acre
(intensification) and by the consumer demand for perfect produce.

Activity 4

Have you ever recognized the harmful effect of pesticides on the environment? Give
examples. What is „acid rain‟, ozone, ozone layer depletion, global warming and greenhouse
gases?Are we losing species too fast? Are we consuming too much? Are there too many
people on earth? Why should these quantities spike over the last two or three centuries? Can
we blame all our ills on the scientific and industrial revolution?
Excessive use of pesticides damages the ecosystem, often destroying many non-pest species.
It can lead to the development of resistance to the pesticide in the pest (demanding even
higher levels of use or the loss of the pesticide as a method of control).

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Pollutants that disturb the physico-chemical systems: these are major pollution problems that
are described as „acid rain‟, „the ozone hole‟, and „global worming‟. They all involve the
modification of the complex chemical cycles that maintain our environment in its present
conditions. They are large scale international problems. There are other pollution problems in
this category that, since they do not involve the atmospheric system, are not so widespread,
for example, ground-water pollution and sewage pollution at sea.

There have been mass extinctions on earth caused by natural changes but they had occurred
over hundred of years. For millions of years, the number of extinctions per year seems to
have been very low.
Like the silent rise in carbon dioxide levels, the extinction of species is also invisible. We do
not realize that the wide variety of species is our natural capital and that the process of
evolution depends on this biodiversity. The loss of this diversity will affect our ability to stay
healthy and to adapt to a changing environment. It also affects our immediate future,
including our food security.

The amount of natural resource used up every year began spiking around 1900. Steady
economic growth since then had led to extraordinary levels of unsustainable consumption.
The rise in consumption is visible, but its effects are only partially noticeable. In the mad
race to consume more, we are using up the earth‟s finite resources such as the topsoil, water
and forests far faster than natural process can regenerate them.

The exponential growth in human population began in 1650 and now, every three days, the
size of the world‟s population increases by as much as it did in a whole century throughout
most o human existence. About 80 million people are added to the world‟s population every
year. Of this 80 million, most are poor and need food, water, shelter, education, medical
facilities, and so on.

These spikes are due to a fundamental change in our relationship with nature. This change
began with the scientific and industrial revolutions that occurred in Europe in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries. The new attitude towards nature came with the idea of progress
that advocated the superior role of humans as masters of nature. We could indefinitely

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exploit nature and our progress towards a better life would be linear and continuous. Science
and technology would help us in this quest for ceaseless progress and development. Clearly,
these two revolutions marked the beginning of exponential rate of consumption of natural
resources by humans. There is also the view that the problems began much earlier when
humans shifted form being nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agriculturalists. The current
problem is that we are living beyond our means; our ecological footprint is growing larger
and larger. Ecological footprint is a measure of the ecological impact of an entity, expressed
as the extent of land needed to completely sustain the entity.

Dear learners, so far we have learned that our planet is in a peril due to human intervention.
Environmental crisis become our day to day experience. We are recognizing deforestation,
soil loss, water and air pollution, desertification, loss of species habitat, loss of biodiversity,
suburban sprawl, escalating population, global warming and endless other problems. Do not
we? So, what is the way out from such a peril at hand? Environmental ethics, which is
concerned with the moral grounds for protecting the welfare of non human animals, the
moral foundations or laws protecting endangered species and the ethical basis for preserving
and restoring degraded environments, is undoubtedly imperative.

Without ethical guidelines i.e. unless we respect all life sustainable living is unachievable.
Such respect implies limits on our actions: there are things we should not do, not because
they cannot be done but because doing them shows disrespect for life. There is nothing
wrong with humans exploiting their environment; every living thing must get resources from
its environment to survive. The problem knows how far we should go. Thus ethical
guidelines play vital role for ecosphere and ecosystem management, species and cultures
conservation, individual responsibility and becoming true earth citizens.

Activity 5

Explain the significance of the following ethical guidelines to ensure environmental

protection

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6.3.2. Ethical guidelines for environmental Management and Individual Responsibilities

Ethical guidelines for ecosphere and ecosystem management

 We should not deplete or degrade earth‟s physical, chemical and biological capital, which
support all life and human economic activities.
 We should to understand and cooperate with the rest of nature. The earth does not belong
to us; we belong to the earth.
 We should work with the rest of nature to sustain the ecological integrity, biodiversity and
adaptability to earth‟s life support system for us and other species.
 We have to alter nature to meet our needs or wants but we should choose methods that do
the least possible harm to us and other living things.
 Before altering nature we should carryout an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to
help us decide whether to intervene and to discover how to inflict the minimum short and
long term harm.

Ethical guidelines for species and cultures conservation

 Every species has the right to live, or at least to struggle to live, simply because it exists.
 We have the right to defend ourselves against individuals of species that do us harm and
to use individuals of species to meet vital needs but we should strive not to cause the
premature extinction of any wild species.
 The best way to protect species and individuals of species is to protect the ecosystems in
which they live.
 No human culture should become extinct because of our actions.
Individual Responsibilities

 We should not inflict unnecessary suffering or pain on any animal we raise or hunt for
food or use for scientific or other purposes.
 We should live wild organisms in the wilderness unless their survival depends on human
protection.
 People should prevent excessive births and prevent excessive deaths of people and other
species.

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 We should strive to live more lightly on the earth, not because of guilt or fear but because
of a desire to make the world a better place.
 We should get to know, care about and defend a piece of the earth.
Becoming True earth Citizens

 Respect all life.

 Learn all you can about how nature works, about human nature and about the connections
between every thing.
 Evaluate the beneficial and harmful consequences of your lifestyle and profession on the
earth, today and in the future.
 Do the little things based on thinking globally and acting locally. Each small measure you
take is important, sensitizes you to earth-sustaining acts, and leads to more such acts.
 Target the big polluters and earth-degraders (industries, industrialized agriculture,
governments) and work on big problems (ozone depletion, biodiversity loss, possible climate
change) through political action, economic boycotts and selective consumptions.
 Work with others to help sustain and heal the earth, beginning in your neighborhood and
community.
Activity 6
Can you describe basic principles of environmental ethics? What does article 44 of our
constitution state about the right to livable environment? Do you know that our planet is in
crisis? Why is there a general lack of public awareness about environmental issues?

The aforementioned guidelines are also expressed in the principles of environmental ethics.
The basic principles of environmental ethics are the following:
 Duty for future generation: every economic activity that is being taken in this generation
should not adversely affect the future generation.
 The duty to limit over consumption: Since the earth‟s resources are finite, there should be a
limit in the production and consumption pattern of resources.
 The right to livable environment: every human being has inherent right to live in an
environment which is free from pollution, subjugation and exploitation.

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 The polluter pay principles maintain that those actors who affect the environment need to
pay the cost and value in proportion to the damage.
There are many factors that limit our awareness of environmental issues. To the millions of
poor people, the problems of daily existence are more important than environmental
degradation. The more prosperous are afraid that, in the name of the environment, their
comforts may be taken away. In any case, most of us do not pay the real costs of exploiting
nature. There is also false anti-environmental propaganda by vested interests like the large
corporations, for whom constant growth is vital. At the political level, parties are more
interested in short-term gains and will not adopt unpopular measures to conserve the
environment. Further, in this age of extreme specialization very few can look at the larger
picture of what is happening to the world. There is also a lack of reliable and clear
information on the environment.

6.3.3. Environmental education and awareness

Environmental education and awareness is unquestionably required to deal with global

issues. Education is one of the methods that can change the attitude of people towards the
environment.

Activity 7
Can we create awareness to the public about environmental issues? How? What are the
values of education in general and environmental education particularly? What are the
objectives of environmental policy of Ethiopia with related to environmental education?
Refer to the 1997 Environmental Policy of Ethiopia.

Environmental education is an indispensable means to create awareness to the public about

environmental issues. And one of the objectives of environment policy of Ethiopia is to raise
public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages between environment
and development.

Education has a very important role to play in dealing with this global issue. Education has
been used by mankind not only as a conserving agency and a mechanism of social control but
also as a creative and regenerative influence to bring about positive changes in existing

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modes of thinking and living in beliefs, values, customs and attitudes. In the crisis of the kind
we are witnessing vis-à-vis environmental problems, there are greater demands on education
to take a more active part and make purposeful contributions in the form of developing an
awareness and sensitizing in the first place, of the challenges and consequences of
manhandling of the environment, a proper understanding and appreciation of the
phenomenon of better living and the formation and sustaining of desired values and attitudes
through it.

Environmental education is an integral process, which deals with man‟s interrelationship

with his natural and manmade surroundings, including the relationship of population growth,
pollution, resource allocation and depletion, conservation, technology and urban and rural
planning to the total human environment. Environmental education is a study of factors
influencing ecosystems, mental and physical health, living and working conditions, decaying
cities and population pressure. Environmental education is intended to promote among
citizens the awareness and understanding of the environment, our relationship to it, and the
concern and responsible action necessary to assure our survival and to improve the quality of
life.

According to environment policy of Ethiopia the following are some of its objectives. The
policies are:
(a) To promote the teaching of environmental education on a multi-disciplinary basis and to
integrate it into the ongoing curricula of schools and colleges and not treat it as a separate or
additional subject, though this should also be done at the tertiary level;
(b) To target the public, particularly those involved in public and private sector activities that
have significant environmental impacts, for environmental education and awareness
programmes;
(c) To formulate environmental awareness programmes in such a way as to make them
address specific environmental problems of particular localities in view of the extreme
variability of environmental conditions and problems in Ethiopia;
(d)To strengthen existing higher level training and education institutions so that they can
offer programmes and courses in sustainable resource and environmental management for

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economists, planners, lawyers, engineers, sociologists and medical practitioners as well as for
natural resource and environmental scientists. Education for sustainable development should
be obligatory for all young people, as this represents the primary vehicle available for
catalyzing the cultural changes required for survival. Bioethics ought to serve as a platform
for education about sustainability. It is essential to apply a framework of values and
principles to guide the conduct of decision-makers, scientists, and technologists.
Furthermore, the advances of international environmental jurisprudence also lend a valuable
arsenal of bioethical principles to the guidance of world development.
Activity 8

What do you think about the position of Environmental Policy of Ethiopia with regard to
Environmental Education?

It is believed that a sound policy plays vital role in improving and enhancing the health and
quality of life of all Ethiopians. Indeed such a policy promotes sustainability in social,
environmental and economic aspects so as to meet the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. Sustainable
social development is based up on the premises of equity. It is concerned with equity in the
distribution of wealth, resources and opportunities to all security of human rights, social
benefits e.g. food, health, education, shelter and opportunities for self development. It also
requires active political participation in decision making and public places emphasis on
distributional and gender equality, provision of social services, population stabilization as
well as political accountability and participation.

As we have pointed out, sustainable environmental development is the maintenance of the

long-term integrity and productivity of the planet‟s life-support systems and environmental
infrastructure. Environmental sustainability hinges on sustainable use of resources,
maintenance of sink functions of environmental processes, ensuring the increase in the
quality and quantity of natural capital, adopting precautionary principle and the establishment
of adequate and suitable institutional framework for environmental protection. In order to
attain sustainable social and environmental development the Federal Democratic Republic

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government of Ethiopia has formulated different policies. Environmental policy is one of

them.

Environmental policy is an action deliberately taken to manage human activities so as to

mitigate harmful effects on the environment and ensuring human activities on the
environment do not bring harmful consequences on human beings. It underlines problems
that arise due to human intervention on the environment. As per the Environmental Policy of
Ethiopia, the foundation of Ethiopia‟s economy is deep rooted in natural resource base.
Agriculture and forestry are the main sources of livelihood of Ethiopia, for about 45 percent
of the GDP, 85 percent of exports and 80 percent of total employment is based on these
sectors.

Environmental sustainability is recognized in the constitution and it is a key prerequisite for a

long lasting success in economic and social development. Indeed, unless the government
establishes improved managements and creates urgent mechanisms to tackle the problems
related with environmental degradation, agricultural production will decline and the people
will be affected by sever starvation and poverty. As the environmental policy of Ethiopia
states, natural resource projects can minimize the problems. Accordingly, land degradation
and soil erosion are the main environmental problems in Ethiopia resulted in repeated food
insecurity. In order to tackle the calamities related with environmental degradation the
government underlines soil conservation as one of the agendas of development and it remains
significant element of agricultural policy. Moreover, given the present trends in
environmental degradation, improved management is indispensable and it guarantees the
attainment of specific policy objectives which seek to ensure that essential ecological process
and life support system are sustained, biological diversity is preserved and renewable natural
resources are used in such a way that their regenerative and productive capacity are
maintained… Prevent the pollution of land, air, and water in the most cost-effective way so
that the cost of effective preventive intervention would not exceed the benefits).

A sound environmental policy which guarantees the protection of the environment

contributes for sustainable development. Thus, the state‟s policy plays vital role in creating

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conducive environment for sustainable development and to tackle environmental crises. In

fact, environmental problems are related with the institutions such as, for instance,
indigenous land tenure system that enhance poverty. This is because such institutions are
exploitative; and the poor peasants are limited to small farm land and have no alternative for
survival rather than overusing environmental resources. In brief, institutional failure plays
significant role in environmental degradation and poverty enhancement.

According to the World Commission on Environment and Development report (1987),

poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems. The poor are the
agents and victims of environmental degradation. On the contrary, others argue that it is
wealth rather than poverty which creates environmental problems. Wealthy people have
greater capacity of damaging the environment because they consume more resources and
generate more pollution. True wealthy people have capital equipment to damage the
environment but they can develop environmentally sound technologies. Yet, if the poor are
not supported by local endowments, the use of resource conserving technology and
institutions that are committed to the interest of the poor, they are forced to degrade the
environment, for their survival is intertwined with the environment.

In contemporary Ethiopian policy debate three intertwined discourses are carried out. They
are the green revolution discourse, an environmental rehabilitation discourse and an emergent
participatory natural-resource management discourse. The green revolution discourse focuses
on the increase of food production to fill food gaps which resulted due to population
pressure; the environmental rehabilitation discourse emphasizes to give solution for the
degradation of natural resources; and an emergent participatory natural-resource management
underlines participatory management of natural resource by rural communities. Generally,
the policy debate is based on food security and the environment which are interconnected
ones. Currently, there are scholars who argue that food security and the environment are
essentially complimentary. Thus, based on this interdependence between food security and a
healthy natural base, it is possible to promote mutually reinforcing practices. On the contrary,
there are others who argue that food security brings cost to the environment and
environmental policies can affect food security.

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However, these complicit and complimentary between food security and the environment are
tuned to be ignored by policy makers. A policy agenda always sways between food security
and the environment. In colonial periods, policy was characterized by environmental
preservation. But after independence environmental concerns were ignored. Since late 1980s,
however, the policy focus has been shifted with the notion of sustainable development, that
food security and the environment are intertwined. Thus, in order to attain a successful
environmental protection, it is significant to take account of those people whose livelihoods
are based on the environment. It is true programmes and projects of environmental
conservation and sustainable development will succeed only if they address social factors
influencing the way people interact with the environment. The social factors that should be
addressed are: access to employment resources such as land, credit and food; tenure system
for management of land, water, trees and marine resource; gender relation and empowerment
or the level of control people exert over resource and decision making process which affect
natural resource management.

Unit Summary

It is agreeable that the single greatest threat to nature – menacing irreversible destruction of
its regenerative power – comes from development, for development is concerned with
promoting economic growth. But the main criterion of development is not increased
production or material well-being rather qualitative human enrichment. Economic growth
and quantitative increase in goods are doubtless needed but not any kind of increase nor
growth obtained at any price. Therefore, development – be it economic or social – must
ensure environmental health. There need be no conflict between the economist, the humanist
and the environmentalist as one of development‟s goals is to foster life. Above all, if
development is to be valid, harmony with the environment is unquestionable and must be its
objective along with the satisfaction of basic human needs.

Development is a multifaceted process. It requires interplay of social, economical,

environmental and institutional inputs. In order to attain social, economic and environmental
sustainability a country‟s policy and strategy play a key role to lead in the paths of

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sustainable development. Above all, respecting the principles and ethical guidelines of the
ecosystem/environment and regarding nature as part of us is an indispensable factor to
sustainable environmental health. Indeed, developing ethical guideline for ecosphere
management and for species and culture conservation is doubtless essential to change the
dominant worldview that is human-centered and counts nature as mere instrument to obtain
human goals. More over, the commitment of various institutions is significant to it.
Sustainable social development which is concerned with equity in distribution of resources of
the country and opportunity to civil and political rights need, in the first place, willingness to
formulate appropriate strategies and commitment to implement them. Moreover, such
commitment leads to environmental sustainability i.e. the maintenance of the long term
integrity and productivity of our planet.

The policies and strategies of the present government that are being implemented are
promising for socio-economic and environmental sustainability only and only if backed with
commitment and responsibility from the above and cooperation and willingness from the
people. Above all, incorporating indigenous knowledge and increasing local people‟s
participation in decision making is indispensable for sustainable development.

Review Questions

1. Can you define the following terms: ethics, applied ethics and environmental ethics?
2. Can you mention some of environmental crisis which were considered as reasons for
the emergence of environmental ethics in 1970s?
3. Can you explain the difference between the following statements: nature is directly
morally considerable (nature has inherent/intrinsic value) and nature is indirectly
morally considerable (nature has instrumental value)?
4. Can you explain the difference between anthropocentric and non anthropocentric
view to environment?
5. Can you point out how the views of deep ecologists and eco-feminism contribute to
environmental protection?
6. Can you identify the difference between bio-spheric egalitarianism, atomic
individualism and relationalism? And what is their impact on the environment?

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7. Can you mention in brief the Eight Platform Principles of the deep ecology
movement?
8. Can you define the term „sustainable development‟? Explain how its definition is
anthropocentric?
9. Can you mention some of the crisis of the environment that you have realized in your
locality? How could these problems be tackled?
10. Can you mention and explain the role of ethical guidelines for ecosphere and
ecosystem management to ensure environmental protection? What are the basic
principles of environmental ethics?

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Module Summary

In this module we have seen various issues of environment and sustainable development.
In 1960s, development thinking prioritized economic growth and the application of
modern scientific and technical knowledge as the route to prosperity in the
underdeveloped world at that time. However, in the 1970s, inequality between and within
countries had in fact worsened. Many developing countries had achieved economic
growth as measured by Gross National Product (GNP) but this „development‟ was not
shared equally amongst the populations of these nations.

By 1980s, distributional issues, such as improving the income levels of target

populations, were accepted as fundamental parts of any development strategy. Phrases
such as „growth with equity‟ or „redistribution with growth‟ emerged in the 1970s and
encapsulated the recognition that economic growth remains a fundamental ingredient
within development thinking and action, but that the nature of that growth was critical to
ensuring that the benefits do not fall solely to a minority of the population. In the 1980s,
„development‟, in contrast, was seen as a multidimensional concept encapsulating
widespread improvements in the social as well as the material well-being of all in society.
In addition, it was recognized that there was no single model for achieving development
and that investment in all sectors was required, including agriculture as well as industry.

Above all, „development‟ needed to be sustainable; it must encompass not only economic
and social activities, but also those related to population, the use of natural resources and
the resulting impacts on the environment. Specifically, it was also widely recognized by
academics and practitioners in many fields, both in the developing and more
industrialized countries, that development to date has regularly led to the degradation of
resources, for example. Mounting world poverty is also testimony to the failure of such
economic and social transformations to deliver even basic goods to many people
(particularly in the developing regions). It was suggested that these patterns and
processes of development will not be able to supply the needs of the world‟s population

214
into the future and cannot deliver the higher standards of living to the rising numbers of
people essential to the conservation of the environment.

By the late 1980s, commission, World Commission on Environment and Development

(WCED), was formed by the United Nations. The commission was an independent group
of 22 people drawn from member states of both the developing and developed worlds,
and charged with identifying long-term environmental strategies for the international
community. In 1987 the commission came up with the famous Brundtland Report and the
term sustainable development has „gained a currency and is widely used in development
discourses. According to the report sustainable development was defined as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.” Since then, the demand to pursue policies
aimed at achieving „environmentally friendly development‟ or „sustainability‟ has
become a clarion call for many countries. The Module also has covered core issues of
environment and sustainable development: population and development, food security,
species and ecosystems, energy, rural and urban environmental challenges;
environmental management and sustainable development, environmental management
theories and approaches; environmental management instruments: institutions, policies,
and strategies.

Hence, the Module has focused on acquainting students with specialized knowledge
concerning the nexus between development and environment and tools of environmental
mainstreaming such as environmental impact assessment. Moreover, it covers the
necessary conceptual issues on natural resource management, environmental
management theories and approaches, environmental ethics, environmental education,
sustainability and its basic dimensions, ecology and ecosystems. In addition, the roles of
various actors in managing the environment and ensuring sustainable development;
various international conferences and institutions concerning sustainable development
and environmental management have been assessed. While in doing so, attention has
been paid to the Ethiopian situation mainly on issues of development and environmental
management, development plans, policies, strategies and institutions.

215
Assignment One
Discuss the role of peasant farmers, women, youth and professionals; NGOs to ensure
environmental sustainability in your locality. Do you think indigenous /traditional
knowledge of your local community contributes for sustainable development? If yes,
how? If no, explain some drawbacks of their activities that affect environmental health.
What can you learn from the Konso‟s community regarding conservation of the
environment?
Explain through tangible examples/experiences whether religious traditions in Ethiopia
(both traditional belief systems and modern religions) contribute to environmental
protection.
Assignment Two
What are the major environmental problems in your locality? What are the efforts being
undertaken by government institutions? Comment on their effectiveness. How can the
realization of sustainable development improve the condition of the environment?
Suggest strategies that can enhance sustainable development and environmental
management.

216
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