UNIT-III
OBJECTIVES:
Optical fiber Connectors-Connector types, Single mode fiber connectors, Connector return loss,
Fiber Splicing- Splicing techniques, Splicing single mode fibers, Fiber alignment and joint loss-
Multimode fiber joints, single mode fiber joints.
Fiber Optic Connectors:
Connectors are mechanisms or techniques used to join an optical fiber to another
fiber or to a fiber optic component.
Different connectors with different characteristics, advantages and disadvantages
and performance parameters are available. Suitable connector is chosen as per the
requirement and cost.
Various fiber optic connectors from different manufacturers are available SMA
906, ST, Biconic, FC, D4, HMS-10, SC, FDDI, ESCON, EC/RACE,
Principles of good connector design
1. Low coupling loss.
2. Inter-changeability.
3. Ease of assembly.
4. Low environmental sensitivity.
5. Low cost.
6. Reliable operation.
7. Ease of connection.
Connector Types: Connectors use variety of techniques for coupling such as
screw on, bayonet mount, push-pull configurations, butt joint and expanded beam
fiber connectors.
Butt Joint Connectors:
Fiber is epoxies into precision hole and ferrules arc used for each fiber. The fibers
are secured in a precision alignment sleeve. Butt joints are used for single mode as
well as for multimode fiber systems. Two commonly used butt-joint alignment
designs are:
1. Straight-Sleeve.
2. Tapered-Sleeve/Bi conical.
In straight sleeve mechanism, the length of the sleeve and guided ferrules
determines the end separation of two fibers. The below Figure shows straight
sleeve alignment mechanism of fiber optic connectors
In tapered sleeve or bi conical connector mechanism, a tapered sleeve is used to
accommodate tapered ferrules. The fiber end separations are determined by sleeve
length and guide rings. The below figure shows tapered sleeve fiber connectors
PROBLEMS
Solution:
DISPERSION SHIFTED FIBER:
Single mode fibers which are designed to offer simultaneously zero dispersion and
minimum attenuation at λ = 1.55μm is called dispersion shifted fibers. The
dispersion classifications of various fibers are shown in the below figure, which
depicts the shifting of zero dispersion wavelength from λ = 1.33 um to λ= 155 mm.
This can be achieved by changing the fiber parameters, namely, the refractive
index dispersion shifted fiber.
For example, by reducing the fiber core diameter from 8-10μm to 4.5μm and
increasing the refractive index difference between core and cladding from 0.003 to
greater than 0.01 yields zero dispersion wavelength shifted from 1.33μm to
1.55μm. This may lead to substantial excess loss. Triangular core profile also
yields dispersion shifted fibers and moreover it solves the above excess loss
problem. So, for better results we have to modify the triangular profile. These
profiles are shown in the below figure.
The above Figure shows that the convex index profile also gives the dispersion
shifted fiber. Dispersion shifted fibers have the advantage of increased guiding
strength, increase in the cut-off wavelength of second order mode and better
resistance to bending losses. Such dispersion shifted fibers have been produced by
BTRL and others and are now commercially available from any glass company.
The below Table compares the characteristics of triangular refractive index profile
dispersion shifted fiber with that of simple step index fiber.
DISPERSION COMPENSATING FIBER:
The process of dispersion compensation and the fiber loop is referred as dispersion
compensating fiber. A large base of dispersion shifted fiber has been installed
throughout the world for use in the single wavelength transmission systems. For
these kinds of links the complexity arises from Four Wave Mixing (FWM), when
one attempt to upgrade them with high speed dense WDM technology in which the
channel spacing is less than 100 GHz and the bit rates are in excess of 2.5 Gb/s. By
using the passive dispersion compensation technique we can reduce the effect of
FWM (four wave mixing). This consists of inserting into the link a loop of fiber
having a dispersion characteristic that negates the accumulated dispersion of the
transmission fiber. This process is known as dispersion compensation. If the
transmission fiber has a low positive dispersion, the dispersion compensating fiber
will have a large negative dispersion. By using this technique, the total
accumulated dispersion will become zero after some distance, but the absolute
dispersion per length is non-zero at all points along the fiber. The below Figure
depicts the Dispersion Compensating Fiber (DCF) which can be inserted at either
the starting (or) the end of an installed fiber span between two optical amplifiers. A
third option is to have DCF (Dispersion Compensating Fiber) at both ends
In pre-compensation schemes, the DCF is located just after the optical amplifier
and just before the transmission fiber. Where as in post compensation schemes, the
DCF is located just after the transmission fiber and just before the optical
amplifier. Figure 8.3 also depicts the plots of accumulated dispersion and optical
power level as functions of distance along the fiber. The above figure is known as
dispersion and power maps respectively.
INTERCONNECTION OF TWO FIBERS IN A LOW LOSS MANNER:
The major factor in any fiber optic system is the requirement to interconnect fibers
in a low loss manner. These interconnections occur in three stages namely.
1. at the optical source
2. at the photo detector
3. at intermediate points.
1. Optical Sources
The optical sources such as Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), Solid state lasers and
semiconductor injection lasers are used because of their efficiency, low cost,
longer life, sufficient power output, compatibility and ability to give desired
modulations.
2. Photo Detectors
Photo detectors such as semiconductor photodiodes are used because of their high
quantum efficiency, adequate frequency response, low dark current and low signal
impedance.
3. Intermediate Points
The two fibers are joined at intermediate points with two cables within a cable. The
two major methods for the interconnection of fibers in a low loss manner are as
follows,
(i) Fiber Splices
(ii) Simple Connectors.
(i) Fiber splices
In this, the fiber splices are the semi permanent (or) permanent joints which are
mostly used for interconnection in optic-telecommunication system.
(ii) Simple Connectors
Simple connectors are the removable joints which allow easy, fast manual coupling
of fibers. We can say that losses in interconnection of two fibers depend on factors
like input power distribution to joints, length of fiber between optical source and
joint, wave characteristics of two fibers at joint and fiber end face qualities. If these
factors are satisfied low-loss in the interconnection of two fibers is achieved.
LOSSES IN END SEPARATION, CONNECTING DIFFERENT FIBERS
WHEN JOINING TWO FIBERS:
When an optical fiber communication link is established, interconnections occur at
the optical source, at the photo detector, at intermediate points within a cable
where two fibers are joined and at intermediate points in a link where two cables
are connected. If the interconnection is permanent bound then it is generally
referred to as splicing whereas a demountable joint is known as connector. At
every joint optical power loss takes place depending on input power distribution to
the joint, the length of the fiber between the optical source and the joint, the
geometrical and waveguide characteristics of the two fiber ends at the joint and the
fiber end face qualities.
These losses are classified into
(i) Intrinsic losses
(ii)Extrinsic losses and
(iii) Reflection loss.
(i) Intrinsic Losses
Intrinsic losses occur when a mismatch occurs between two connecting fibers.
Mismatch occurs when fiber's mechanical dimensions are out of tolerance limit.
The mismatch can occur due to the following.
(a) Core-Diameter Mismatch
If the core of two joining, fibers has different diameter then core-diameter
Mismatch occurs. The loss will be more if the light is travelling from larger core
into a smaller core than if it is in reverse direction.
For a gradient multi mode fiber the loss due to core-diameter mismatch is given by,
(b) Numerical Aperture Mismatch
The light beam from emitting fiber fills the entire exit aperture of the emitting
fiber. The receiving fiber has to accept all the optical power emitted by the first
fiber. If there is a mismatch in waveguide characteristics of the two fibers resulting
in smaller NA per second fiber, then it results in optical power loss. This loss is
called numerical aperture mismatch loss given by,
(c) Mode-Field-Diameter (MFD) Mismatch or Refractive Index Profile
(α)Mismatch:
This loss takes place only in graded-index fiber where the index profile emitting
fiber is different from the index profile of receiving fiber.
(ii) Extrinsic Losses
Extrinsic losses occur due to mechanical misalignment at point of joints. They are,
(a) Lateral Misalignment
This misalignment occurs when the, fibers are displaced along the face of fiber and
hence the core overlapping area is reduced from circular to elliptical form hence
power loss from emitting fiber to the receiving is given below,
b) Angular Misalignment
For a perfectly matched fiber, if point of joint at which core axis of fiber 1 is at an
angle with the core axis of fiber 2 then angular misalignment occurs and the result
is same as due to numerical aperture mismatch.
(c)End separation Misalignment
When two fibers are separated longitudinally by a gap of ‘S’ between them, then
longitudinal end separation misalignment occurs.
(iii) Reflection Loss
At the surface of contact some light will be reflected back. This is called Fresnel
reflection. This reflection changes the amount of power transmitted towards a
receiver. The loss caused by reflection is called Fresnel loss. If the transmitted
power is Ptran and input power at the source is Pin and reflected power is Pref then
they are related by, Hence reflection loss is given by,
SPLICING:
A permanent joint formed between two individual optical fibers in the field is
known as splicing. The fiber splicing is used to establish optical fiber links, where
smaller fiber lengths are needed to be joined and where there is no requirement for
repeated connection and disconnection. Splicing can be divided into two broad
categories depending on the splicing technique utilized. These are fusion-splicing,
mechanical or welding splicing.
FUSION SPLICING:
Fusion splicing of single fibers involves the heating of the two prepared fiber ends
to their fusing point with sufficient axial pressure between the two optical fibers. It
is essential that the stripped fiber ends are adequately positioned and clamped with
the aid of inspection microscope. The most widely used heating technique is an
electric arc. This technique offers advantage of consistent, easily controlled heat
with adaptability for use under field conditions.
The welding of 2 fibers can be shown as illustrated in the following figure.
The above figure shows basic arc fusion process, which involves the rounding of
the fiber ends with a low energy discharge before pressing the fibers together and
fusing with a stronger arc. This technique is called perfusion. It removes the
requirement for fiber end preparation. It has been utilized with multimode fibers
giving average splice losses of 0.09 dB. Fusion splicing of single mode fibers with
arc diameters between 5 and 10 um present problems of more critical fiber
alignment (lateral offsets of less than 1 um are required for low loss joints).
Splice uncertain losses below 0.3 dB may be achieved due to self alignment
phenomenon which partially compensates for any lateral offset. The drawback with
fusion splicing is that the heat necessary to fuse the fibers may weaken the fiber in
the vicinity of the splice. The tensile strength' of the fused fiber may be as low as
30% as that of the uncoated fiber before fusion. The fiber fracture occurs in the
heat affected zone adjacent to the fused joint. The reduced tensile strength is
attributed, to the combined effects of surface damage caused by handling, surface
defect growth during heating and induced stresses due to changes in chemical
composition. Hence it is necessary that splice is packaged so as to reduce tensile
loading upon the fiber in the vicinity of the splice.
ADHESIVE SPLICING:
A common method involves the use of ah accurately produced rigid alignment tube
into which the prepared fiber ends are permanently, bonded. This snug tube splice
may utilize a glass or ceramic capillary with an inner diameter just large enough to
accept the optical fibers. Transparent adhesive (e.g. epoxy resin) is injected
through a transverse bore in die capillary to give mechanical sealing and index
matching of the splice. However, in general, snug tube splices exhibit problems
with capillary tolerance requirements.
A mechanical splicing-technique which avoids the critical tolerance requirements
of the snug tube splice is shown in the below figure this loose tube splice uses an
oversized square section metal tube which easily accepts the prepared fiber ends.
Transparent adhesive is first insulated in the tube followed by the fibers. The splice
is self-aligning when the fibers are curved in the same plane, forcing the fiber ends
simultaneously into the same corner of tube.
Other common splicing techniques involve the use of grooves to secure the fibers
to be jointed. A simple method utilized a V-groove into which the two prepared
fiber ends are pressed. The V-groove splice which is shown in figure gives
alignment of the prepared fiber ends through insertion in the groove. The splice is
made permanent by securing the fibers in the V-groove with epoxy resin (i.e.,
transparent adhesive).
MULTIPLE SPLICES:
Multiple simultaneous fusions splicing of an array of fibers in a ribbon cable has
been demonstrated for both multimode and single mode fibers. In both cases a five
fiber ribbon was prepared by scoring and breaking prior to pressing the fiber ends
on to a contact plate to avoid difficulties, with varying gaps between the fibers to
be fused
The most common technique employed for multiple simultaneous splicing involves
mechanical splicing of an array of fibers, usually in a ribbon cable. A V-groove
multiple splice secondary element comprising etched silicon chips that has been
used extensively for splicing multimode fibers. In this technique a twelve fiber
ribbon splice is prepared by stripping the ribbon and coating material from the
fibers. Then the twelve fibers are laid into the trapezoidal grooves of a silicon chip
using a comb structure, as shown in figure. The top silicon chip is then applied
prior to applying epoxy to the chip-ribbon interface. Finally, after curing, the front
end face is grounded and polished.
Major advantages of this method are the substantial reduction splicing time (by
more than a factor of 10) per fiber and the increased robustness of the final
connection.