Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

[Link]

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Geochemistry and petrogenetic evolution of metasedimentary

rocks in Bunu Area, part of Kabba-Lokoja-Igarra schist belt, SW
Nigeria
M. S. Kolawole1 • E. C. Chukwu1 • A. N. Agibe1

Received: 8 October 2021 / Revised: 25 April 2022 / Accepted: 25 April 2022 / Published online: 1 July 2022
 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Science Press and Institute of Geochemistry, CAS and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of
Springer Nature 2022

Abstract Field and geochemical studies of the Bunu area, the rocks in the area during the Pan-African or earlier
SW Nigeria, were carried out on gneiss-metasedimentary events as noted in the adjacent Egbe-Isanlu Schist belt. A
rocks that consist of migmatised gneiss, quartz-mica schist, further geochemical characterisation of the rocks in the
and foliated and massive quartzites. These gneiss- area using Log (Na2O/K2O) vs Log (SiO2/Al2O3 indicates
metasedimentary rocks are interbedded with meta-igneous that while the protolith of migmatised gneiss and quartz-
rock (amphibolite), all of which are intruded by granitoid mica schist are greywackes to litharenite in compositions
and cut by basic and felsic dykes. Geochemical data on that of quartzites are sublitharenite to quartz arenite. On the
major, trace, and rare Earth elements of these rocks from ternary plot of Al2O3-(CaO ? Na2O)-K2O for metasedi-
the area were used to speculate on the petrogenetic and mentary rocks in the area, most migmatitic gneiss and
geodynamic evolution of the rocks in the area. Composi- quartz-mica schist rocks plot close to average shale while
tionally, the metasedimentary rocks in the area have a quartzites mostly tend to illite compositions and almost
restricted range of major oxides such as SiO2 and Al2O3 toward the Al2O3-apex of the diagram attesting to depletion
with low average values of Fe2O3, MnO, CaO, and P2O5. of CaO and NaO with the removal of K2O. CIA vs PIA plot
Concentrations of average values of HSFE such as Zr, Nb, of the rocks in the area shows that while migmatitic-gneiss
and Y are moderately high in migmatitic gneiss, quartz- and quartz-mica schist are moderately weathered, both
mica schist, and low in both massive and foliated quartzite. massive and foliated quartzites are high to extremely
P
LREE average values are 124.25, 132.41, and weathered. They are all derived mostly from predominantly
18.64 ppm respectively for migmatite gneiss, quartz-mica felsic igneous to quartzose sedimentary provenance and
schist, and low in both massive and foliated quartzite. mostly emplaced in passive continental margins. These
These rocks are also generally enriched in Ba, Cs, Pb, U, nature of the protoliths suggests gradual subsidence of the
Cr, Rb, and Zr and depleted in Be, Sr, Ti, Mo, Th, and W. basin during its genesis, and/or tectonic stable or inactive
This enrichment–depletion in major oxides and trace ele- environment from which the sediments were derived.
ments of the rocks in this area is probably a consequence of
the movement of metamorphic remobilized fluids within Keywords Geochemical studies  Metasedimentary rocks 
Geodynamic activities  Protolith  Passive continental
margins
& E. C. Chukwu
[Link]@[Link]
M. S. Kolawole 1 Introduction
[Link]@[Link]
A. N. Agibe Gneiss-metasedimentary rocks that host other basement
[Link]@[Link] rocks have been used by many authors (Adekoya 1988;
1 Annor et al. 1996; Olobaniyi 2003) to constrain the pet-
Department of Geology, Federal University, Oye-Ekiti,
Ekiti State, Nigeria rogenetic, geodynamic evolution, and depositional ages of

123
766 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

the metamorphic terrain in Nigeria based on the field and suggested that an ocean was closing and opening at the
geochemical evidence. The Nigerian basement rocks have West African margin. Holt et al. (1978) based on geotec-
evolved over a long period, from Archean ([ 2700 Ma) to tonic studies explained that the southwestern Nigeria
the Neoproterozoic (\ 600 Ma) (Ekwueme 1985; Annor basement complex resulted from the opening and closing
1995; Kroner et al. 2001; Okonkwo and Ganev 2012). of an ensialic basin with consequent extensive subduction
The Basement Complex forms an important domain of during the Pan African events. Burke and Dewey (1972)
the Pan-African Mobile Belt east of the West African from a structural point of view believed that components of
craton, south of the Tuareg shield, and northwest of the the schist belts containing the crystalline complex rocks in
Congo craton (Fig. 1). The Mobile Belt extends from the southwestern Nigeria had been formed in a back-arc basin
Hoggar through Air, Adrar des Iforas and Gourma (Alge- caused by the collision between the continental margin of
ria) to the Dahomeyides in Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, the Tuareg shield (Hoggar belt in northwest Africa) and the
and Cameroon. The Dahomeyide fold belt constitutes the West African craton forming rocks originated from a
southern portion of the Mobile Belt. From the southeastern mixed magma containing both mantle and sedimentary
margin of West African craton eastwards, three major materials (Fig. 2).
tectonic domains are present: the Voltain foreland basin Due to this long age and period of variations, several
with sedimentary sequences, the Beninian thrust and fold geological settings have evolved and the characteristics of
belt; and the Nigerian high-grade migmatite-gneiss terrane these rocks (both mineralogical and geochemical) have
(Dada 2008). also varied. To be able to unravel these variations, detailed
The Basement Complex rocks of southwestern Nigeria geological mapping and geochemical characteristics inter-
are believed to have developed in a back-arc basin pretations of the basement rocks and especially the
(Oyinloye and Odeyemi 2001). Rahaman et al. (1988) had metasedimentary rocks are required.

Fig. 1 a Nigeria Basement Complex within the Neoproterozoic Tran-Saharan mobile belt between the West African craton and the Congo craton
(after Ferre et al. 1996) The blue square is the approximate location of the Bunu area

123
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788 767

Fig. 2 Schematic section across West African margin showing the effects of Pan-African event on the basement of Western Nigerian (modified
from Burke and Dewey 1979; Danbatta 2008)

This study is thus aimed at elucidating the geochemical metamorphic imprint on the earlier basement rocks, espe-
variations of these rocks in the Bunu area to establish the cially on the migmatite-gneisses and granitoids, is very
petrogenetic nature of the rocks. This is expected to further important.
lead to the understanding of the geodynamic evolution of Rahaman (1988) subdivided the rock units in the base-
the schist belts in the Precambrian terrain of Nigeria. Since ment of southwestern Nigeria into five (5) major groups
the studies of Precambrian schist belts in other parts of the viz:
World, those of Nigeria inclusive, are noted for hosting
i. Migmatite-gneiss complex which comprise biotite
metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits of economic
and biotite hornblende gneiss, quartzite, quartz schist
significance, knowledge of geochemical characters of
and some calc-silicate rocks.
schist belts will not only be of petrogenetic importance but
ii. Slightly migmatized to unmigmatized paraschist and
as well contribute to successful mineral exploration in the
metaigneous rocks including pelitic schist, quartzite,
areas of interest.
amphibolite, marble, talcose, and calc-silicate.
iii. Charnokitic rocks.
1.1 Regional geology
iv. Older Granites including granodiorite, granite,
tonalite, etc.
The Nigerian Basement Complex forms part of the Pan-
v. Unmetamorphosed dolerite dykes (Fig. 3).
African platform of crystalline rocks. The complex lies
within the vast Trans-Saharan Pan-African The schist belts in northwest Nigeria are separated from
(500 ± 750 Ma) Mobile Belt of Neoproterozoic those in the southwest by the narrow Nupe Cretaceous
(650 ± 200 Ma) age (Caby 1988). basin (Fig. 3). However, there are similarities in age,
The Damagaran, Adrar des Iforas and Hoggar regions lithologies, and evolution among these schist belts but their
being part of the geologic framework of the Pan-African correlation is less clear as the SW region is very poorly
Mobile Belt occur to the north of the Nigerian Basement exposed and not well defined (Rahaman 1976; and Turner
Complex (Fig. 1). Bertrand and Caby (1978) established 1983). Ajibade et al. (1989) observed that the southwestern
the complex nature of the geology of the Adrar Des Iforas- schist belts consist of two distinct generations, one repre-
Hoggar region. sented by Migmatite-Gneiss Complex (MGC) sequence
Based on petrological, geochemical, structural mapping, probably of Archean to Early Proterozoic age and the other
and geotectonic studies, workers like McCurry (1976); believed to be of Late Proterozoic age.
Rahaman (1988); Tunbosun et al. (1984) have described According to Oyinloye (2007) the southwestern Nige-
the basement to consist of younger low-medium grade rian Basement Complex is said to have evolved through 3
metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, which form major geotectonic events:
NNE-SSW trending schist belts within the migmatite
• Initiation of crust forming processes during the Early
gneiss complex (Fig. 3) and showed that the Nigeria schist
Proterozoic (2000 Ma) typified by the Ibadan (South-
belts are Pan-African and that the Pan-African
western Nigeria) grey gneisses considered by Woakes

123
768 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Fig. 3 Geological map of Nigeria showing Bunu area within the SW basement (Inset: Location of Basement Complex of Nigeria between the
West African and Congo Cratons) (Modified from Akor and Ogunleye 2014)

Table 1 A modified sequence of events in the SW Basement rocks (modified from Burke et al. 1976; Oyinloye 1998, 2007)
S/N Sequence of evolutionary events in the southwestern nigeria basement complex

10 Emplacement of dolerite dykes and gold mineralization at about 550 Ma

9 Formation of unsheared pegmatite, unfolded granitic veins of mid-Pan African age
8 Major remobilization and deformation in Early Pan-African
7 Minor metamorphic deformation in Kibaran
6 Emplacement of microdiorite
5 Emplacement of Ibadan-Ile-Ife-Ilesha granite gneiss: F2 folding fabrics in granite, gneiss
4 Emplacement of microdiorite dykes of uncertain age
3 Emplacement of semiconcordant aplite sheets in the banded gneiss, collision of plates subduction of ocean slab into the mantle
2 Deposition of ocean sediments covering the whole Basement Complex
1 Generation and differentiation of wet basaltic magma and formation of proto continent

et al. (1987) as to have been derived directly from the 2 Methods of study
mantle.
• Emplacement of granites in Early Proterozoic The Bunu area is part of the Basement Complex of SW
(2000 Ma) and Nigeria, located between latitudes 800’ N to 815’ N and
• The Pan African events (450-750 Ma). longitude 600’E to 615’ E. Systematic field mapping of
the area was carried out on a scale of 1:50,000 to delineate
Based on wide geochemical analyses and interpretation,
the major and minor rock boundaries using Aiyegunle SW
geotectonic studies, field mapping, and plumbotectonics,
sheet 226 as the base (topographic) map. The study area
Oyinloye (1998, 2007) had suggested a modified Burke
that constitutes the northern extension of the N-S trending
et al. (1976) sequence of evolutionary events in the
sector of the Kabba-Lokoja-Igarra schist belt, stretches
Southwestern Nigeria basement complex (Table 1).

123
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788 769

from Kabba through Iluke to Guguruji, where the sedi- 3 Results

ments of the Bida Basin lie unconformably on the Base-
ment Complex in the eastern part. Field relations of the 3.1 Field relations and petrography
rock units within the area were systematically determined.
Representative rock samples consisting of six samples The major rock units mapped in the Bunu area as described
of migmatitic-gneiss/migmatized schist, nine samples of by Kolawole et al., (2017); Kolawole and Olobaniyi
quartzite both massive and foliated, and ten samples of (2018) include gneiss-metasedimentary rocks that cover
quartz-mica schist were collected from the study area along about 65% of the study area (Fig. 4). These metamorphic
traverse lines and selected for petrographic and geochem- sequences were intruded in places by N-S trending unde-
ical studies. Samples were analysed for major oxides and formed to partially deformed granitoids that form promi-
trace elements at Geoscience Laboratories (Geo Labs), nent topographic features at the western and south-eastern
Ontario Geological Survey, Ontario Ministry of Northern part of the study area (Fig. 4). The granitic plutons that
Development and Mines Willet Green Miller Centre 933 make up the intrusive suites were generally unfoliated
Ramsey Lake Road Sudbury, Ontario P3E 6B5 Canada. except at the contact with the country rocks where they are
At Geo Labs, sample preparations include washing, weakly foliated with the elongation of feldspar and quartz
crushing, and pulverizing. Geo Labs uses a variety of grains and account for the remaining 35% of the rocks
sample preparation procedures on a routine basis for geo- mapped in the area. Granitic rocks in the area consist of
chemical analysis. Closed vessel multi-acid digest was fine-medium grained granites at the eastern and north-
used in solution preparation. This method is employed for western parts, porphyritic granites which are locally por-
the preparation of samples being analyzed by ICP-MS and phyroblastic at contacts with host gneiss-metasedimentary
XRF and it is designed for the thorough dissolution of the rock, and medium-coarse grained granodiorite that forms
silicate rock samples. According to Geo Labs (2015), the prominent inselbergs and whaleback-shaped granites that
rock samples were digested in a closed vessel for total outcrop at the western part (Fig. 4). Garnetiferous granites
dissolution using a combination of up to four acids (hy- and weakly foliated varieties outcrop at the northern part.
drofluoric, hydrochloric, nitric, and perchloric) preferred The gneiss-schist and the granitoid were intruded by
for the determination of rare Earth elements (REE): La, Ce, quartzofeldspathic veins, dolerites, pegmatites, and aplitic
Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and Lu; high dykes. The gneiss-metasedimentary rocks in the area form
field strength elements (HFSE); Zr, Nb, Hf and Ta and prominent topographic features especially in western part
large ion lithophile elements (LILE): Rb, Sr, Cs and Ba in villages such as Ohura, Apara and Ora; in the eastern
plus Y, U, and Th. Y is one of the least incompatible portion in villages such as Ayedero, Ayedayo, and Illah,
elements associated with the oceanic crust while U and Th and in the northern and central parts of the study area in
are among the most incompatible elements known to be villages such as Ofere-Osomule-Suku axis and Aiyegunle,
associated with the continental crust. Otafun, Iluke-Odogbo, Olle-Igbo respectively. Their out-
Geochemical data were processed using precision and crop patterns especially the migmatite-gneiss and foliated
accuracy based on a replicate analysis of an internal basalt quartzites indicate possibly a refolded fold. They are usu-
standard (Talbot and Weiss 1994; Van de Weil 2004) and ally fine-grained and form extensive north–south trending
USGS standard for all elements analyzed (Govindaraju bodies especially migmatite-gneiss, the quartz-mica schist,
1998; Geo Labs 2015). and the Aiyegunle-Iluke-Olle quartzite ridge (Fig. 4). The
The data were then imported into PETROGRAPH Ofere-Suku ridge quartzite is however, east–west trending.
software version 1.0.2 for binary and triangular plotting of Based on these field observations, especially on the com-
various discriminating diagrams. Samples were normalized petent folded quartzites and generated rosette diagrams,
to chondrite using values presented by Sun and McDo- deformations in the area occurred in, at least, two phases:
nough (1989) for rare Earth elements (REEs) while pri- (i) an early phase (D1) related to early foliation (FE)
mordial mantle normalization values of McDonough and trending in the E-W direction with N-S compressional
Sun (1995) were used for trace element spider diagrams of forces that may be Eburnean in age and (ii) a later phase
all the samples using the same software. with NE-SW trending directions with E-W compressional

123
770 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Fig. 4 Geological map of Bunu area (Aiyegunle SW Sheet 226)

Fig. 5 Outcrops of a migmatite gneiss with leucosome pods of quartz veins (Location: 08O6’45.8‘‘N; 006100 31.1’’E), b quartz-mica schist
with intruding quartzo-feldspathic veins along Iyah-Aiyegunle Road and c foliated quartzite along Aiyegunle-Iluke road (Location: 08030 2.0‘‘N;
006020 36.1’’E)

123
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788 771

forces (Kolawole et al., 2017). The gneiss-metasedimen- biotite mineral is pleochroic from brownish to yellowish
tary rocks in the area are characterized by a preponderance colour and sometimes has been replaced partially by
of quartz rubbles and are usually whitish grey in color. But chlorite and hornblende in the groundmass. Biotite occurs
in areas of prominent iron-staining because of thick over- as brownish coloured crystals, poikiloblastic within horn-
lying lateritic regolith, they are usually brownish-gray in blende, and locally anhedral in shape with dark pleochroic
color (Fig. 5). haloes (Fig. 6). At the contacts with granitic plutons,
The gneiss-schist suite is interbanded in places by short migmatitic-gneiss and migmatized schist could be gar-
and narrow metabasic dykes and lenses of amphibolite netiferous and hornfelsised with the inclusion of high-
around Osomule and north of Ofere. The amphibolite is temperature minerals like garnet and staurolite. According
dark green in colour and composed of almost shiny black to Hamidullah et al. (1986), the presence of garnet in the
crystals of hornblende on fresh surfaces and brown crusts metasediments was probably related to the thermal effects
that characterize weathered surfaces. The fine to medium- of the emplacement of the granitic magma (Fig. 6a and b).
grained amphibolites is a well-foliated rock that consists of According to Kolawole and Olobaniyi (2018), quartz-
abundant green hornblende, plagioclase, and quartz. It is mica schist consists of muscovite ? chlo-
also characterised by the occurrence of quartz and epidote. rite ? quartz ? albite. This indicates Greenschist Facies
The rock is characterised by narrow felsic veinlets, 2 to while amphibolites’ typical mineral assemblages are
4 mm in width, parallel to the foliation trend, and consists Hornblende ? Epidote ? Chlorite ? Quartz, this indi-
of quartz and feldspars. cates Epidote–Amphibolite Facies, therefore, metamor-
Mineralogical determinations from optical studies show phism in the Bunu area reflects Greenschist to Epidote–
a high proportion of granular quartz and accessory mus- Amphibolite Metamorphic Facies spectrum. However,
covite in the quartz schist. The modal composition of the higher metamorphic facies resulting from anatexis and
gneiss-metasedimentary rocks in the area is shown in inclusion of high-temperature minerals like garnet and
Table 2 below: staurolite and leading to the formation of migmatitic-gneiss
The rock units are composed mainly of quartz and may not be ruled out.
muscovite, biotite and plagioclase. Quartz occurs as small
cloudy anhedral grains with wavy extinction and with 3.2 Geochemical results presentation
characteristic weak birefringence, prominently undulose
extinction, and low relief. Two generations of quartz were The results of twenty-five (25) unaltered and fresh samples
observed; the first one is coarser grained, anhedral, and of metasedimentary rocks including migmatitic gneiss/
elongated parallel to the rock fabric, exhibiting wavy migmatized schists, quartz-mica schists, and quartzites
extinction while the finer-grained variety occurs as local- analyzed for major oxides, trace elements, and rare Earth
ized granoblastic aggregates with uniform extinction that element (REE) compositions together with their summaries
may likely be of secondary origin. Muscovite occurs as tiny are presented in Tables 3, 4 and 5 respectively.
elongate plates with poikilitic crystals of quartz. Horn- Compositionally, the metasedimentary rocks in the area
blende occurs as small xenoblastic crystals greenish in have restricted range of major oxides such as SiO2 (av.
color especially in migmatitic-gneiss and migmatized 68.10 wt% for migmatite gneiss, av. 61.68 wt% for quartz-
schist, while tremolite grains tend to be long, prismatic, mica schist and av. 97.45 wt% for both massive and foli-
and usually pleochroic from pale green to dark green. The ated quartzite), Al2O3 (av.14.88 wt% for migmatitic gneiss,
plagioclase shows albite/polysynthetic twinnings while av.13.17 wt% for quartz-mica schist and av. 1.17 wt% for

Table 2 Average modal composition of gneiss-metasedimentary rocks from the Bunu area
Mineral Quartzite (foliated) (%) Quartzite (massive) (%) Migmatized gnies/schist (%) Quartz-mica schist (%)

Muscovite 4 6 10 15
K-feldspar 5 4 18 10
Plagioclase 6 3 12 15
Biotite 2 33 25
Quartz 78 80 15 32
Hornblende 7
Opaque minerals 5 7 5 3
Total 100 100 100 100

123
772 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Fig. 6 Photomicrograph of migmatized schist in a plane polarized light and b in cross polar; photomicrographs of quartz mica in c plane
polarized light and in d cross polar. photomicrographs of foliated quartzite in (a) plane light and in (b) cross polar light and massive quartzite in
(c) plane light. Bt = biotite, Qt = quartz, Ch = chlorite, Gr = garnet, Hb = Hornblende, Mu = muscovite, Op = Opaque (Mag. X 50)

both massive and foliated quartzite wt%). They have low rocks vary from 63.69, 74.12, and 0.7% in migmatitic
average values of Fe2O3 (5.69, 6.32 and 0.19 wt% gneiss; 71.78, 82.30 and 0.8% in quartz-mica schist to
respectively for migmatitic gneiss, quartz-mica schist and 74.34, 89.76 and 0.87% in quartzite (Table 3) respectively.
both massive and foliated quartzite), MnO (0.14, 0.09 and The average values of Index of Compositional Variation
0.01 wt% respectively for migmatitic gneiss, quartz-mica (ICV) for the metasedimentary rocks in the study area are
schist and both massive and foliated quartzite), CaO (3.34, migmatitic gneiss, 1.26; quartz-mica schist/quartz schist,
2.66 and 0.01 wt% respectively for migmatite gneiss, 0.9; and quartzite, 0.58, respectively. The calculated
quartz-mica schist and both massive and foliated quartzite), averages Discriminant Function (DF) for almost all
and P2O5 (0.15, 0.21 and 0.01 wt% respectively for mig- metasedimentary rocks in the area are negative (Table 2).
matite gneiss, quartz-mica schist and both massive and The concentrations of most of the trace elements
foliated quartzite). The presence of plagioclase feldspar in including Ba, Cs, U, Th, Rb, and Pb are generally similar
the gneisses may explain the high Al2O3 value with rela- and enriched in all the metasedimentary rocks in the area
tively enriched alkalis in migmatite gneiss/migmatized with average values of 506.63, 8.90, 2.59, 9.89, 154.85, and
schist and quartz-mica schist than in massive and foliated 14.18 ppm respectively in migmatitic gneiss; 473.40, 6.52,
quartzite (Table 3). 2.93, 9.18, 141.20, and 15.01 ppm respectively in quartz-
The average Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), mica schist and 112.13, 0.25, 0.23, 0.88, 10.14, and
Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) and Plagioclase 3.94 ppm respectively in both massive and foliated quart-
Index of Alteration (PIA) values for the metasedimentary zites. The rocks are generally depleted Sr, Ti, Be, Mo, Th,

123
 Table 3 Major oxides compositions (wt%) of metasedimentary rocks of Bunu area
Migmatite Gneiss and Migmatite Schist
Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Range Average
Sample KAB169C KAB24 KAB25 KAB23A KAB23B KAB128D
Nos.
Major Elements Oxides (wt%)

SiO2 82.99 54.64 64.62 62.19 74.53 69.64 54.64 - 82.99 68.10
Al2O3 8.95 14.97 15.68 16.80 10.61 11.99 8.95 - 16.80 13.17
CaO 0.03 12.05 2.67 2.53 1.46 1.88 0.03 - 12.05 3.44
2.46 5.49 6.44 7.16 5.56 7.05 2.46 - 7.16 5.69
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Fe2O3
K2O 3.06 3.39 2.55 2.21 2.22 2.02 2.02 - 3.39 2.58
MgO 0.41 4.75 2.09 3.27 2.02 2.07 0.41 - 4.75 2.44
MnO 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.41 0.02 - 0.41 0.14
Na2O 0.15 2.82 3.72 3.33 2.01 1.92 0.15 - 3.72 2.33
P2O5 0.05 0.25 0.08 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.05 - 0.25 0.15
TiO2 0.25 0.60 0.82 0.83 0.58 0.64 0.25 - 0.83 0.62
LOI 1.63 1.11 0.80 1.03 0.66 0.71 0.66 - 1.63 0.99
Total 100.01 100.20 99.63 99.75 99.99 98.55 98.55 - 100.20 99.69
CIW 98.03 50.18 71.06 74.13 75.36 75.95 50.18 - 98.03 74.12
CIA 73.42 45.06 63.70 67.54 65.09 67.33 45.06 - 73.42 63.69
ICV 0.71 1.94 1.17 1.15 1.31 1.30 0.71 - 1.94 1.26
PIA 0.97 0.44 0.67 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.44 - 0.97 0.70
DF - 6.29 5.13 1.03 - 0.67 - 4.03 - 3.54 -6.29 - 5.13 - 1.40
Quartz-Mica Schist/ Quartz Schist
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Range Average
KAB116 KAB125 KAB198A KAB169H KAB50a KAB128c KAB127 KAB124 KAB67 KAB48B KAB47B

73.45 62.76 70.39 81.30 52.60 53.71 61.02 61.01 48.52 77.60 36.16 36.16 - 81.30 61.68
11.63 16.06 14.06 9.60 23.74 19.04 15.20 16.12 15.07 11.80 56.52 9.60 - 56.52 18.99
1.35 1.73 0.59 0.03 0.24 2.36 2.29 1.51 19.12 0.01 0.04 0.01 - 19.12 2.66
4.48 7.16 5.78 2.46 8.10 10.18 8.86 8.39 7.59 3.11 3.41 2.46 - 10.18 6.32
1.97 2.90 3.37 3.26 5.74 4.56 3.42 4.13 0.23 4.57 0.96 0.23 - 5.74 3.19
2.03 2.90 1.71 0.39 2.26 3.92 3.38 3.53 5.85 0.68 0.80 0.39 - 5.85 2.50
0.08 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.14 0.10 0.16 0.14 0.05 0.03 0.02 - 0.16 0.09
3.24 4.35 1.11 0.17 1.14 2.37 2.19 2.51 0.38 0.15 0.12 0.12 - 4.35 1.61
0.17 0.17 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.24 0.33 0.04 1.02 0.05 0.09 0.04 - 1.02 0.21
0.49 0.81 0.63 0.23 1.19 1.53 1.29 1.01 0.64 0.24 0.53 0.23 - 1.53 0.78
0.89 1.15 2.22 1.73 4.84 1.38 1.18 1.35 1.56 1.89 1.51 0.89 - 4.84 1.79
773

123
 Table 3 continued
774

Quartz-Mica Schist/ Quartz Schist

123
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Range Average
KAB116 KAB125 KAB198A KAB169H KAB50a KAB128c KAB127 KAB124 KAB67 KAB48B KAB47B

99.82 100.17 100.06 99.25 100.08 99.61 99.37 99.83 100.12 100.19 100.23 99.25 - 100.23 99.88
71.70 72.55 89.21 97.95 94.53 80.10 77.24 80.04 43.60 98.66 99.73 43.60 - 99.73 82.30
63.94 64.15 73.50 73.50 76.94 67.21 65.80 66.42 43.31 71.39 98.07 43.31 - 98.07 69.47
1.17 1.24 0.94 0.68 0.79 1.31 1.41 1.31 2.24 0.74 0.10 0.10 - 2.24 1.08
0.68 0.68 0.86 0.97 0.93 0.75 0.72 0.75 0.43 0.98 1.00 0.43 - 1.00 0.80
- 1.87 0.99 - 4.10 - 5.78 - 0.52 - 0.72 - 2.22 - 1.79 3.28 - 4.83 1.68 - 5.78 - 3.28 -1.44

Serial No 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Range Average

Sample Nos KAB41 KAB46 KAB52B KAB55 KAB49A KAB08B KAB96 KAB95B KAB110 KAB152 KAB137
Major Elements
Oxides(wt%)

SiO2 98.15 97.37 97.79 96.08 99.38 97.61 98.57 97.04 94.90 97.59 97.42 94.90 - 99.38 97.45
Al2O3 0.74 1.33 0.72 1.76 0.09 1.48 0.43 1.47 2.80 0.78 1.31 0.09 - 2.80 1.17
CaO 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 - 0.01 0.01
Fe2O3 0.08 0.15 0.28 0.35 0.13 0.03 0.14 0.16 0.36 0.22 0.17 0.03 - 0.36 0.19
K2O 0.21 0.40 0.20 0.49 0.03 0.39 0.11 0.41 0.72 0.24 0.36 0.03 - 0.72 0.32
MgO 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 - 0.08 0.05
MnO \ 0.002 \ 0.002 0.00 \ 0.002 \ 0.002 \ 0.002 \ 0.002 0.00 0.00 \ 0.002 0.00 0.00 - 0.00 0.00
Na2O 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.06 0.08 0.06 - 0.12 0.08
P2O5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 - 0.01 0.00
TiO2 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.15 0.06 0.04 0.01 - 0.15 0.04
LOI 0.15 0.17 0.27 0.37 0.05 0.27 0.07 0.34 0.54 0.18 0.23 0.05 - 0.54 0.24
Total 99.46 99.57 99.42 99.29 99.78 99.99 99.45 99.61 99.67 99.18 99.67 99.18 - 99.99 99.55
CIW 90.80 95.34 91.72 94.88 58.06 93.91 86.69 93.93 95.73 92.42 93.91 58.06 - 95.73 89.76
CIA 72.20 74.09 73.10 75.05 48.65 75.28 70.96 74.43 76.82 71.96 74.64 48.65 - 76.82 71.56
ICV 0.56 0.52 0.88 0.61 2.93 0.40 0.85 0.51 0.51 0.81 0.53 0.40 - 2.93 0.83
PIA 0.88 0.93 0.89 0.93 0.48 0.92 0.83 0.92 0.94 0.89 0.92 0.48 - 0.94 0.87
DF - 10.01 - 9.80 - 10.06 - 9.53 - 10.39 - 9.77 - 10.18 - 9.67 - 9.10 - 9.95 - 9.80 - 10.39 - - 9.10 - 9.84

CIA = Chemical Index of Alteration

ICV = Index of Compositional Variation
DF = Discriminant Function
CIW = Chemical Index of Weathering
PIA = Plagioclase Index of Alteration
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788
 Table 4 Trace elements compositions (ppm) of metasedimentary rocks of Bunu area
Migmatite Gneiss and Migmatite Schist
Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Range Average
Sample No. KAB169C KAB24 KAB25 KAB23A KAB23B KAB128D
Trace Elements (ppm)

Ba 98.50 693.70 630.90 542.90 459.90 613.90 98.50 - 693.70 506.63

Be 0.71 3.27 3.80 1.55 2.19 1.72 0.71 - 3.80 2.21
Bi \ 0.47 0.59 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 0.59 - 0.59 0.59
Cd 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.18 0.07 0.20 0.04 - 0.20 0.11
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Co 2.39 14.97 14.85 19.21 15.31 13.21 2.39 - 19.21 13.32

Cr 23.00 53.00 66.00 105.00 75.00 72.00 23.00 - 105.00 65.67
Cs 5.60 18.83 8.04 3.88 11.43 5.60 3.88 - 18.83 8.90
Cu 13.70 13.80 22.20 66.30 42.50 65.10 13.70 - 66.30 37.27
Ga 19.32 18.98 20.83 19.77 14.62 14.77 14.62 - 20.83 18.05
Hf 6.32 4.43 5.82 4.42 3.20 3.35 3.20 - 6.32 4.59
In 0.30 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.06 - 0.30 0.11
Li 43.50 [ 207 47.50 46.60 76.10 39.00 39.00 - 76.10 50.54
Mo 0.15 0.75 1.77 1.03 0.30 1.69 0.15 - 1.77 0.95
Nb 15.72 10.68 15.90 9.00 8.91 9.24 8.91 - 15.90 11.57
Ni 4.70 38.50 28.00 60.60 47.80 35.60 4.70 - 60.60 35.87
Pb 7.30 13.00 25.30 14.80 10.70 14.00 7.30 - 25.30 14.18
Rb 331.36 136.19 147.54 67.73 166.32 79.96 67.73 - 331.36 154.85
Sb \ 0.04 0.68 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 0.04 - 0.68 0.36
Sc 5.90 13.90 20.30 20.80 13.10 24.50 5.90 - 24.50 16.42
Sn [ 14 3.11 3.40 2.07 4.19 1.29 1.29 - 4.19 2.81
Sr 13.10 349.30 267.50 207.50 94.10 204.00 13.10 - 349.30 189.25
Ta 1.92 0.94 1.50 0.57 0.63 0.61 0.57 - 1.92 1.03
Th 10.19 12.55 14.43 7.09 7.36 7.74 7.09 - 14.43 9.89
Ti 1478.00 3603.00 4972.00 4932.00 3473.00 3930.00 1478.00 - 4972.00 3731.33
Tl 1.32 0.59 0.80 0.41 1.05 0.44 0.41 - 1.32 0.77
U 3.65 1.82 4.08 2.21 2.15 1.64 1.64 - 4.08 2.59
V 15.50 85.80 101.30 153.10 99.20 114.80 15.50 - 153.10 94.95
W 7.16 0.99 0.93 0.36 0.62 0.94 0.36 - 7.16 1.83
Y 11.11 14.77 39.30 32.95 23.78 54.71 11.11 - 54.71 29.44
Zn 44.00 72.00 80.00 88.00 80.00 67.00 44.00 - 88.00 71.83
Zr 225.00 135.00 207.00 164.00 114.00 125.00 114.00 - 225.00 161.67
775

123
 Quartz-Mica Schist/ Quartz Schist
776

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Range Average
KAB116 KAB125 KAB198A KAB169H KAB50a KAB128c KAB127 KAB124 KAB67 KAB48B KAB47B

123
Trace Elements (ppm)

367.50 545.70 502.70 106.50 222.80 1427.60 896.70 493.70 22.30 429.50 192.40 22.30 - 1427.60 473.40
1.87 2.61 2.14 0.87 3.08 2.39 2.14 2.04 0.13 3.20 10.30 0.13 - 10.30 2.80
\ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 0.84 0.84 - 0.84 0.84
0.13 0.15 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.13 0.11 0.07 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.02 - 0.15 0.08
13.21 14.25 11.96 1.94 16.98 26.67 23.94 21.33 0.22 5.39 7.77 0.22 - 26.67 13.06
54.00 97.00 52.00 19.00 128.00 177.00 139.00 93.00 \3 11.00 117.00 11.00 - 177.00 88.70
4.77 7.03 3.05 5.46 9.87 10.66 9.36 9.14 0.26 10.77 1.35 0.26 - 10.77 6.52
35.30 28.70 33.30 4.90 13.40 27.30 34.10 12.70 2.60 1.50 29.00 1.50 - 35.30 20.25
13.52 19.63 18.98 20.29 34.03 27.61 21.77 22.46 0.35 17.02 [ 58 0.35 - 34.03 19.57
2.47 4.65 4.28 4.66 5.88 8.95 8.85 6.76 \ 0.14 3.30 13.33 2.47 - 13.33 6.31
0.05 0.07 0.07 0.26 0.13 0.12 0.08 0.07 \ 0.0018 0.13 0.03 0.03 - 0.26 0.10
38.20 52.90 14.60 39.70 34.10 71.20 58.50 52.10 5.30 58.00 102.10 5.30 - 102.10 47.88
0.41 0.54 0.16 0.26 0.62 1.70 2.22 0.10 \ 0.08 0.16 0.08 0.08 - 2.22 0.63
5.54 9.68 10.65 15.77 22.04 20.07 17.89 12.22 0.36 9.68 7.65 0.36 - 22.04 11.96
44.50 40.30 18.90 4.30 30.80 85.70 72.30 58.70 1.10 9.40 13.60 1.10 - 85.70 34.51
18.90 25.60 14.00 5.80 27.40 18.50 16.90 23.60 0.60 7.30 6.50 0.60 - 27.40 15.01
64.92 96.26 107.48 336.61 83.42 163.04 135.14 196.17 2.47 364.31 3.37 2.47 - 364.31 141.20
\ 0.04 \ 0.04 0.11 0.04 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 - 0.11 0.05
11.90 18.70 9.90 5.80 8.40 27.30 20.20 21.20 \ 1.1 3.60 6.90 3.60 - 27.30 13.39
1.62 2.35 4.01 [ 14 7.06 2.94 2.20 1.97 \ 0.16 [ 14 1.12 1.12 - 7.06 2.91
263.50 373.10 92.30 14.30 60.50 249.20 224.40 156.50 1.70 19.90 31.80 1.70 - 373.10 135.20
0.39 0.70 0.84 2.12 1.60 1.32 1.16 0.79 0.06 0.91 0.61 0.06 - 2.12 0.95
3.37 7.65 10.25 8.95 10.56 17.33 12.87 8.27 0.57 9.58 11.62 0.57 - 17.33 9.18
2866.00 4854.00 3660.00 1365.00 7226.00 9230.00 7514.00 6085.00 171.00 1424.00 3332.00 171.00 - 9230.00 4338.82
0.41 0.61 0.62 1.34 1.35 0.85 0.74 1.13 0.01 1.53 0.24 0.01 - 1.53 0.80
1.38 2.41 2.74 6.30 2.78 3.91 3.11 3.00 0.09 3.68 2.80 0.09 - 6.30 2.93
89.40 141.00 84.90 22.30 167.00 231.70 172.80 137.20 1.50 18.00 123.40 1.50 - 231.70 108.11
0.72 1.00 1.58 8.42 3.16 3.79 1.54 0.97 0.07 5.70 0.17 0.07 - 8.42 2.47
19.50 31.69 31.06 9.35 7.63 38.12 36.04 46.04 0.73 17.60 11.53 0.73 - 46.04 22.66
63.00 89.00 78.00 41.00 79.00 137.00 116.00 127.00 2.00 13.00 43.00 2.00 - 137.00 71.64
89.00 172.00 155.00 162.00 206.00 332.00 322.00 257.00 \6 108.00 513.00 89.00 - 513.00 231.60
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788
 Massive /Foliated Quartzite
Serial No 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Range Average
Sample No KAB41 KAB46 KAB52B KAB55 KAB49A KAB08B KAB96 KAB95B KAB110 KAB152 KAB137
Trace Elements (ppm)

Ba 52.40 119.30 78.30 223.10 8.20 221.60 39.40 114.20 234.50 28.60 113.80 8.20 - 234.50 112.13
Be 0.15 0.29 0.17 0.29 0.09 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.41 0.17 0.20 0.09 - 0.41 0.22
Bi \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 \ 0.47 0.47 - 0.47 0.47
Cd \ 0.013 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 - 0.03 0.02
Co \ 0.13 \ 0.13 0.26 0.29 \ 0.13 0.16 0.30 0.28 0.42 0.17 0.20 0.16 - 0.42 0.26
Cr 49.00 4.00 5.00 10.00 \3 5.00 3.00 6.00 14.00 6.00 6.00 3.00 - 49.00 10.80
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Cs 0.08 0.69 0.15 0.21 0.03 0.26 0.28 0.20 0.32 0.39 0.19 0.03 - 0.69 0.25
Cu \ 1.4 1.40 2.30 2.60 1.40 \ 1.4 \ 1.4 4.00 4.90 2.40 2.90 1.40 - 4.90 2.74
Ga 0.91 1.52 0.99 2.35 0.14 2.00 0.58 1.81 3.41 1.26 1.60 0.14 - 3.41 1.51
Hf 1.03 1.45 0.65 1.51 0.40 0.99 0.78 1.86 4.94 1.07 1.51 0.40 - 4.94 1.47
In \ 0.0018 0.00 0.00 0.01 \ 0.0018 \ 0.0018 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 - 0.01 0.01
Li 6.40 2.80 7.90 6.40 5.10 3.20 0.60 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.60 - 7.90 3.33
Mo \ 0.08 0.15 0.08 0.08 \ 0.08 0.22 0.08 0.40 0.09 0.56 0.24 0.08 - 0.56 0.21
Nb 0.42 0.75 0.64 1.56 0.05 0.68 0.67 0.94 2.98 1.58 1.00 0.05 - 2.98 1.02
Ni \ 0.7 0.70 0.70 \ 0.7 \ 0.7 \ 0.7 \ 0.7 \ 0.7 1.10 \ 0.7 \ 0.7 0.70 - 1.10 0.83
Pb 0.70 1.80 0.90 2.20 0.20 1.30 0.70 15.90 2.80 1.70 15.10 0.20 - 15.90 3.94
Rb 4.23 10.47 6.02 12.07 0.76 11.84 4.27 14.88 22.05 11.47 13.50 0.76 - 22.05 10.14
Sb \ 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 \ 0.04 0.04 \ 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.04 - 0.07 0.06
Sc \ 1.1 \ 1.1 \ 1.1 1.80 \ 1.1 \ 1.1 \ 1.1 \ 1.1 1.90 1.20 \ 1.1 1.20 - 1.90 1.63
Sn \ 0.16 0.32 0.23 0.43 \ 0.16 0.21 0.82 0.41 0.58 0.35 0.37 0.21 - 0.82 0.41
Sr 5.20 4.80 2.60 6.30 \ 0.6 8.90 4.60 7.00 14.10 1.60 6.90 1.60 - 14.10 6.20
Ta 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.09 \ 0.007 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.22 0.10 0.07 0.03 - 0.22 0.08
Th 0.54 0.53 0.71 1.23 0.08 0.67 0.92 0.89 2.03 1.27 0.82 0.08 - 2.03 0.88
Ti 114.00 142.00 147.00 357.00 16.00 223.00 143.00 232.00 860.00 357.00 236.00 16.00 - 860.00 257.00
Tl 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.01 - 0.08 0.05
U 0.18 0.19 0.14 0.29 0.04 0.23 0.18 0.29 0.46 0.23 0.29 0.04 - 0.46 0.23
V 1.40 1.80 5.10 12.40 0.90 4.20 1.60 3.50 13.00 6.20 3.20 0.90 - 13.00 4.85
W \ 0.05 0.08 0.20 0.45 \ 0.05 0.07 0.14 0.20 0.54 0.44 0.24 0.07 - 0.54 0.26
Y 1.09 1.13 1.74 2.57 0.35 2.09 2.14 3.90 2.07 2.53 4.29 0.35 - 4.29 2.17
Zn \ 1.8 6.00 3.00 4.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 11.00 5.00 \ 1.8 9.00 2.00 - 11.00 5.00
Zr 39.00 56.00 26.00 58.00 17.00 37.00 26.00 74.00 195.00 39.00 58.00 17.00 - 195.00 56.82
777

123
 Table 5 Rare Earth elements compositions (ppm) of metasedimentary rocks of Bunu area
778

Migmatite Gneiss and Migmatite Schist

123
Serial No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Range Average
Sample No. KAB169C KAB24 KAB25 KAB23A KAB23B KAB128D
Rare Earth Elements (ppm)

La 20.59 29.65 36.11 26.06 21.40 26.59 20.59 - 36.11 26.73

Ce 38.29 61.91 72.00 57.37 45.16 54.56 38.29 - 72.00 54.88
Pr 5.33 7.32 8.30 6.98 5.47 6.59 5.33 - 8.30 6.67
Nd 18.22 26.70 31.62 28.24 21.59 25.29 18.22 - 31.62 25.28
Sm 3.81 4.80 6.14 6.13 4.62 5.07 3.81 - 6.14 5.10
Eu 0.29 0.86 1.42 1.59 0.94 1.22 0.29 - 1.59 1.05
Gd 2.86 3.40 5.62 5.81 4.34 5.24 2.86 - 5.81 4.55
Tb 0.49 0.49 0.96 0.91 0.68 0.99 0.49 - 0.99 0.75
Dy 2.78 2.90 6.44 5.90 4.35 8.22 2.78 - 8.22 5.10
Ho 0.42 0.56 1.37 1.19 0.89 2.04 0.42 - 2.04 1.08
Er 1.11 1.74 4.28 3.51 2.63 6.84 1.11 - 6.84 3.35
Tm 0.15 0.26 0.64 0.53 0.38 1.08 0.15 - 1.08 0.51
Yb 0.93 1.67 4.14 3.43 2.55 7.53 0.93 - 7.53 3.38
Lu 0.14 0.26 0.63 0.51 0.38 1.08 0.14 - 1.08 0.50
SUMLREE 86.24 130.38 154.17 124.78 98.24 118.10 86.24 - 154.17 118.65
SUMHREE 9.17 12.14 25.50 23.39 17.14 34.23 9.17 - 34.23 20.26
LREE/HREE 9.40 10.74 6.05 5.33 5.73 3.45 3.45 - 10.74 6.78
Quartz-Mica Schist/ Quartz Schist
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Range Average
KAB116 KAB125 KAB198A KAB169H KAB50a KAB128c KAB127 KAB124 KAB67 KAB48B KAB47B
Rare Earth
Elements (ppm)

13.02 27.24 42.94 25.57 14.83 56.69 42.89 32.69 3.78 18.67 28.51 3.78 - 56.69 27.89
27.71 57.42 76.78 37.30 28.52 119.93 90.71 74.03 6.26 45.09 64.21 6.26 - 119.93 57.09
3.58 7.24 11.60 6.29 3.42 14.49 11.14 9.25 0.74 4.86 8.10 0.74 - 14.49 7.34
14.80 28.71 43.91 21.18 13.07 55.71 43.63 37.40 2.48 18.10 30.99 2.48 - 55.71 28.18
3.44 6.40 8.58 4.26 2.70 10.80 9.06 7.95 0.49 3.91 6.49 0.49 - 10.80 5.82
0.99 1.53 1.39 0.37 0.49 1.82 1.65 1.41 0.10 0.44 1.52 0.10 - 1.82 1.06
3.60 5.83 6.89 3.02 2.52 8.71 8.04 7.60 0.37 3.66 5.06 0.37 - 8.71 5.03
0.56 0.90 1.05 0.49 0.35 1.22 1.19 1.19 0.05 0.63 0.74 0.05 - 1.22 0.76
3.54 5.62 6.32 2.62 1.77 7.12 7.02 7.75 0.24 3.99 3.77 0.24 - 7.75 4.52
0.70 1.12 1.18 0.39 0.31 1.39 1.31 1.60 0.03 0.72 0.55 0.03 - 1.60 0.85
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788
 Table 5 continued
Quartz-Mica Schist/ Quartz Schist
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Range Average
KAB116 KAB125 KAB198A KAB169H KAB50a KAB128c KAB127 KAB124 KAB67 KAB48B KAB47B
Rare Earth
Elements (ppm)

2.07 3.32 3.42 0.97 0.89 4.12 3.83 4.83 0.06 1.92 1.39 0.06 - 4.83 2.44
0.29 0.48 0.50 0.13 0.14 0.61 0.55 0.71 0.01 0.25 0.21 0.01 - 0.71 0.35
1.88 3.10 3.24 0.84 0.97 3.99 3.68 4.67 0.04 1.54 1.58 0.04 - 4.67 2.32
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

0.28 0.47 0.47 0.12 0.16 0.63 0.56 0.71 0.01 0.23 0.27 0.01 - 0.71 0.35
62.55 127.00 183.81 94.60 62.54 257.62 197.43 161.31 13.74 90.63 138.30 13.74 - 257.62 126.32
13.91 22.36 24.46 8.95 7.59 29.61 27.82 30.47 0.90 13.38 15.08 0.90 - 30.47 17.68
4.50 5.68 7.52 10.57 8.23 8.70 7.10 5.29 15.26 6.77 9.17 4.50 - 15.26 8.07

Massive /Foliated Quartzite

Serial No 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Range Average
Sample No KAB41 KAB46 KAB52B KAB55 KAB49A KAB08B KAB96 KAB95B KAB110 KAB152 KAB137
Rare Earth
Elements (ppm)

La 2.24 2.47 2.90 6.31 0.21 4.04 5.74 9.06 2.77 5.59 12.05 0.21 - 12.05 4.85
Ce 3.91 3.15 7.68 15.76 0.52 5.71 9.83 11.82 5.99 10.84 11.89 0.52 - 15.76 7.92
Pr 0.43 0.42 0.76 1.59 0.04 0.74 1.38 1.86 0.60 1.22 2.22 0.04 - 2.22 1.02
Nd 1.44 1.42 2.89 5.81 0.17 2.82 4.57 6.31 2.10 4.37 7.42 0.17 - 7.42 3.57
Sm 0.25 0.23 0.58 1.06 0.05 0.47 0.85 1.15 0.41 0.73 1.33 0.05 - 1.33 0.65
Eu 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.18 0.01 0.13 0.17 0.27 0.11 0.13 0.30 0.01 - 0.30 0.14
Gd 0.21 0.17 0.46 0.74 0.05 0.36 0.56 0.88 0.36 0.44 1.12 0.05 - 1.12 0.49
Tb 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.10 0.01 0.05 0.08 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.18 0.01 - 0.18 0.07
Dy 0.17 0.19 0.38 0.53 0.06 0.31 0.49 0.84 0.38 0.45 1.02 0.06 - 1.02 0.44
Ho 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.01 0.07 0.08 0.15 0.08 0.09 0.18 0.01 - 0.18 0.08
Er 0.11 0.13 0.22 0.30 0.04 0.20 0.23 0.43 0.29 0.29 0.50 0.04 - 0.50 0.25
Tm 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.01 - 0.07 0.04
Yb 0.12 0.14 0.20 0.31 0.04 0.21 0.20 0.44 0.37 0.33 0.43 0.04 - 0.44 0.25
Lu 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.01 - 0.07 0.04
SUMLREE 8.27 7.69 14.82 30.53 0.99 13.78 22.37 30.20 11.87 22.75 34.90 0.99 - 34.90 18.01
SUMHREE 0.81 0.82 1.55 2.35 0.24 1.39 1.89 3.29 1.76 1.90 3.86 0.24 - 3.86 1.81
LREE/HREE 10.18 9.34 9.56 13.00 4.13 9.90 11.84 9.17 6.76 11.95 9.04 4.13 - 13.00 9.53
779

123
780 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Fig. 7 Ternary plot of molecular proportions Al2O3-(CaO ? Na2O)-K2O for the metasedimentary rocks from Bunu area relative to average
Post-Archean shale from Taylor and McLennan (1985) and composition of typical magmatic rock types (Fedo et al. 1995). 1. gabbro; 2. tonalite;
3. granodiorite; 4. granite; 5. A-type granite; 6. charnokite and 7. potassic granite (Nesbitt and Young 1984) and Index calculated weathering
trend of UC of Von Eynatten et al. (2003) is shown by

and W with 189.25, 3731.33, 2.21, 0.95, 9.8,9 and Generally, it is obvious that both the major oxides, and
1.82 ppm respectively in migmatitic gneiss: 135.20, trace elements, including rare earth compositions of the
24,338.82, 2.80, 0.63, 9.18 and 2.47 ppm respectively in gneiss-schists members from the Bunu area approximate
quartz-mica schist and 6.20, 257.00, 0.22, 0.21, 0.88 and that of Post–Archean terrigenous Shale (PASS) of Taylor
0.26 ppm respectively in massive and foliated quartzites and McLennan (1985). As illustrated on the ternary plot of
(Table 3). Concentrations of average values of HSFE such Al2O3-(CaO ? Na2O)-K2O for metasedimentary rocks
as Zr (161.67, 231.60, and 56.82 ppm respectively for (Fig. 7), most gneiss-metasedimentary rocks from the area
migmatitic gneiss, quartz-mica schist, and both massive plot close to average shale with quartzite mostly tend to
and foliated quartzite), Nb (11.57, 11.96, and 1.02 ppm illite compositions and almost toward the Al2O3-apex of
respectively for migmatite gneiss, quartz-mica schist and the diagram attesting to depletion of CaO and NaO with the
both massive and foliated quartzite), and Y (29.44, 22.66 removal of K2O. This A-CN-K diagram can be used to
and 2.17 ppm respectively for migmatite gneiss, quartz- characterize the weathering of rocks (Nesbitt and Young
mica schist and both massive and foliated quartzite), while 1982, 1984 and 1989; McLennan 1989, 1993; and Wollast
P
LREE is 124.25, 132.41 and 18.64 ppm respectively for and Cho 1992). The aforementioned authors were of the
migmatite gneiss, quartz-mica schist and both massive and view that early stages of weathering are characterized by
foliated quartzite. depletion in CaO, NaO, and K2O, whereas late or advanced
stages of weathering are characterized by the removal of
K2O resulting in the formation of sediments that later
4 Discussion metamorphosed to metasedimentary rock in the area. High
Al2O3, Rb, and Y of 13.17 wt%, 154.85 and 29.44 ppm in
(A) Classification of the protolith migmatitic gneiss, 18.99 wt%, 141.20 and 22.66 ppm in
Low values of CaO, Na2O, and Sr together with high mica schist and 11.43 wt%, 10.14 and 2.17 ppm in quart-
K2O indicate that the protoliths were mature sediments zite respectively may suggest that the original argillite
(Weaver 1989; Olobaniyi 2003). Enrichment of Zr and Y contains some plagioclase and from index calculated
of 161.67 and 29.44 ppm in migmatitic gneiss and 231.60 weathering trend of Von Eynatten et al. (2003), the pro-
and 22.66 (ppm) respectively in mica schist may be tolith of most of the quartzites and quartz-mica schists from
attributed to a derivation of their protolith sediments from Bunu could have tonalite-granodiorite-granite composi-
igneous sources (Lambert et al. 1982; Adedoyin et al. tions (Fig. 7).
2014). The higher concentration of alkali components In Fig. 7, the quartzite, quartz-schist, and quartz-mica
(Na2O and K2O) and Rb in metasedimentary rocks relative schist plot is close to illite whereas the migmatitic gneiss
to the meta-igneous rocks or amphibolite are unlikely to and migmatized schist are close to average shale. These
reflect the original chemistry of the magma but probably an plots are similar to that of metasedimentary rocks of
indication of some degree of metasomatism (Odigi 2002). Okemesi, SW Nigeria, where most of the quartzites and
biotite schists plot close to illite and kaolinite fields while

123
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788 781

Fig. 8 a MgO-CaO-Al2O3 diagram of Leyreloup et al. (1977) and b plot of Na2O/Al2O3 against K2O/Al2O3 of Garrels and McKenzie (1971) of
the gneiss-metasedimentary rocks of Bunu area

Fig. 9 The compositional classification of metasedimentary rocks from the study area after a Pettijohn (1975) and b modified from Herron
(1988). Fields are: 1. Greywackes; 2. Litharenite; 3. Arkose, 4. Subarkose, 5. Sublitharenite, 6. Quartz arenite

quartz-schist plot close to average shale (Okunlola and since all calculated average DF values of almost all
Okoroafor, 2009). metasedimentary rocks in the area are negative, it then
To further understand the parent material of the means that their protoliths are of the sedimentary source.
metasedimentary rocks in the area, some discriminant On the Na2O/Al2O3 against K2O/Al2O3 discrimination
diagrams have been employed. On the MgO-CaO-Al2O3 diagrams of Garrels and Mckenzie (1971) (Fig. 8b); the
diagram of Leyreloup et al. (1977), the metasedimentary gneiss-metasedimentary rocks distinctively plot within the
rocks plot outside the magmatic field thus indicating that sedimentary field. It is inferred that migmatitic gneisses/
they have sedimentary protolith (Fig. 8a), similar to the migmatized schists, quartzites, and quartz-mica schists
quartz-mica schist from Egbe-Isanlu area (Olobaniyi, from the Bunu area are of the sedimentary source/protolith.
2003). The protolith of the rocks can also be determined The sedimentary origin of the parent rocks for the
using a Discriminant Function (DF) as long as the metasedimentary rocks of the area was indicated on the
MgO \ 6% and SiO2 \ 90% for all quartzofeldspathic plot of chemical maturity diagram of [Log (Na2O/K2O) vs
rocks (Shaw 1972). Log (SiO2/Al2O3] after Pettijohn (1975) and modified
diagram of [Log (Fe2O3/K2O) vs Log (SiO2/Al2O3] after
DF ¼ 10:44  0:21SiO2 0:32 Fe2 O3 ðTotal FeÞ
 0:98MgO þ 0:55CaO þ 1:46 Na2 O Herron (1988) (Fig. 9a and b). On these diagrams, the
þ 0:54 K2 O migmatitic gneisses and quartz-mica schists plot in the
compositional fields of greywackes and litharenite (sub-
Positive DF values suggest an igneous origin while nega- greywacke) while massive and foliated quartzites plot
tive DF values indicate sedimentary source material. So, within the field of sublitharenite and quartz arenite.

123
782 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Fig. 10 a Plot of PIA against CIA and b CIA vs ICV for the rocks in the study area indicating that all the rocks in the area plot in the Low CIA
inference field (CIA = 80) (after Nesbitt and Young (1982)

Quartz arenite-shale associations are generally regarded The degree of weathering and sediment maturity of the
to be formed from recycled sediments or materials derived protolith was estimated through the Chemical Index of
from weathering processes under low relief conditions as Alteration (CIA) proposed by Nesbitt and Young (1982),
well as under low rate of sedimentation (Suttner et al. the Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) proposed by
1981; Okonkwo 2005). Such conditions are obtained in Harnois (1988), Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA)
stable cratonic environments. Studies have also shown that proposed by Fedo et al. (1995) and Index of Compositional
first-cycle quartzite can be formed under a unique combi- Variability (ICV) of Cox and Lowe (1995). They are
nation of tectonic and climatic conditions. These include defined as:
prolonged transport involving slow rate of sedimentation or
prolonged alluvial storage associated with low relief and
CIA ¼ ½Al2 O3 =ðAl2 O3 þ CaO þ Na2 O þ K2 OÞ  100
severe tropical weathering conditions (Suttner et al. 1981).
These trends are similar to that of metasedimentary CIW ¼ ½Al2 O3 =ðAl2 O3 þ CaO þ Na2 OÞ  100
rocks from the Isanlu area where the quartz-mica schist is PIA ¼ ½ðAl2 O3  K2 OÞ=Al2 O3 þ CaO þ Na2 O  K2 OÞ
plotted within greywackes and litharenite (subgreywackes)
fields (Olobaniyi 2003). The quartzites from this area are ICV ¼ ðFe2 O3 þ K2 O þ Na2 O þ CaO þ MgO þ TiO2 Þ=Al2 O3
also similar to the Okene-Lokoja quartzitic schist that have
an arenite antecedent (Ezepue and Odigi 1994) and the CIW, PIA, and ICV were used to determine the degree
Ibadan quartz schist that plotted almost entirely within the of weathering of the protolith of the rocks in the study area.
arenite field (Okunlola et al. 2009). The ICV, in addition, calculates the concentration of alu-
(B) Sediment maturity of the protolith and prove- mina with respect to other major constituents of the rock
nance tectonic setting but SiO2.
According to Odewumi et al. (2016) chemical patterns From Fig. 10a, it can be deduced that the protoliths of
and compositions of rock protolith are often preserved the rocks of the study area have suffered a low degree of
throughout paleoweathering profiles of weathering, diage- weathering because all CIA of the sampled rocks is below
nesis, and metamorphism. The concept of geochemical 80% with very low \ 1% of PIA as advanced by Adedoyin
proxies of mineral alteration (that is weathering indices) et al. (2014) and Odewumi et al. (2016). This indicates
relies on the selective removal of soluble and mobile ele- moderately high to low weathering of the rocks in the area
ments from a weathering profile compared to the relative thus suggesting that the protolith of the quartzite is more
enrichment of rather immobile and non-soluble elements mature than those of quartz-schist and migmatite gneiss.
(Nesbit and Young 1982; Odewumi et al. 2016). The quartzite and associated quartz-mica schists are
believed to represent products of more intensely weathered

123
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788 783

Fig. 11 TiO2-K2O-P2O5
diagram for the Bunu area
metasedimentary rocks (after
Pearce 1975). This shows the
continental origin of the schists

felsic source rocks, which have been subjected to pro- In comparison, quartz schist from Igarra area has an
longed transportation, sorted, and deposited under unsta- average CIA value of 53.9% (Okeke and Meju 1985).
ble marginal environments. CIA of 45-55% is indicative Those of Jakura are 62.12% (Elueze and Okunlola, 2003),
of lack of weathering (Depetris and Probst 1998), CIA of Ibadan quartzite schist is 57% on average (Okunlola et al.,
Upper Crust (56.93), and CIA values for Post Archean 2009) while Egbe-Isanlu ranges from 46.52–67.53%
Australia Shale (PAAS) is 75.30 (Taylor and McLennan, (Olobaniyi 2003). Therefore, the metasedimentary rocks
1985). Stoichiometric albite has a CIA value of 50, and from Bunu area show moderate to extremely higher degree
stoichiometric anorthite has a CIA value of 33 (Sheldon of weathering than those from other regions.
et al. 2002). The CIA of metasedimentary rocks from the Normally and compositionally, immature rocks have
plot is similar and close to PAAS (Fig. 5) with most high ICV, relative to mature rocks with very little non-
plotting between 70-80% (Fig. 10a and b). The plots of silicate clay mineral with low values of usually \ 0.6
CIA vs PIA and ICV vs CIA of Nesbitt and Young (1982) (Elueze and Okunlola, 2003). The values for quartz-mica
(Fig. 10a and b) show that while most migmatitic-gneisses schists and quartzites show moderate to high compositional
and quartz-mica schists in the study area are moderately maturity, which reflects the moderate intensity of weath-
weathered, most foliated and massive quartzites rocks are ering of the source rocks before metamorphism, whereas
highly weathered. migmatitic gneiss was formed from immature rocks.

Fig. 12 Discriminant function diagrams for a the provenance signature of the rocks in the Bunu area (after Roser and Korsch 1988) and b the
depositional fields (after Bhatia 1988)

123
784 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

To determine the provenance and tectonic setting of the Discriminant function 11:
metasedimentary rocks of the Bunu area, the TiO2-K2O-  0:0447SiO2 þ 0:972TiO2 þ 0:008 Al2 O3 þ 0:267Fe2 O3
P2O5 ternary plot of Pearce (1975) (Fig. 11) was used. This
þ 0:208FeO + 3:083 MnO + 0:14MgO + 0:195CaO
diagram essentially discriminates between rocks formed in
oceanic from those of continental tectonic environments. + 0:719 Na2 O þ 0:032 K2 O + 7:51 P2 O5 þ 0:303
All the metasedimentary samples fall within the continental
field thus suggesting that the protolith of these rocks is Discriminant function 22:
continental.  0:421 SiO2 þ 1:988 TiO2  0:526 Al2 O3
Roser and Korsch (1988) also evolved discriminant  0:551 Fe2 O3  1:610 FeO þ 2:720 MnO
functions involving the use of major elements to distin- þ 0:881MgO  0:907 CaO  0:177 Na2 O  1:84 K2 O
guish between sediments derived from felsic, intermediate þ 7:244 P2 O5 þ 43:57:
and, mafic igneous provenances and quartzose sedimentary
provenance and environment of deposition (Fig. 12a). The These plots are similar to the schistose rocks from Egbe-
metasedimentary, especially migmatitic gneiss, schist, and Isanlu (Olobaniyi 1997, 2003), Lafiagi-Osi area (Adedoyin
quartz mica schist samples plot between felsic igneous and et al. 2014; ), Ibadan area (Okunlola et al. 2009) and
quartzose sedimentary provenance while the quartzites plot Okemesi (Okunlola and Okoroafor, 2009) all in SW
entirely on quartzose sedimentary provenance field in a Nigeria basement. These authors interpreted the schistose
passive continental margin tectonic setting (Fig. 12a and rocks in these areas to have felsic igneous and quartzose
b). sedimentary sources deposited in a passive margin setting.
The discriminant functions used after Roser and Korsch This geochemical characterization of the metasedimen-
(1988) in Fig. 12a are : tary rocks indicates that their protoliths were mature sub-
Discrimination function 1: greywacke to greywacke-type sediments derived from
predominantly granitic provenance. The mature nature of
1:773TiO2 þ 0:06Al2 O3 þ 0:76 FeOðtÞ1:5MgO
the protolith sediments suggests genesis, and/or tectonic
þ 0:616CaO þ 0:509Na2 O  1:224K2 O  9:09
stable and passive continental margin environment from
Discrimination function 2: which the sediments were derived. According to Barshad
(1966), Weaver (1989), and Olobaniyi (2003), these mature
0:445TiO2 þ 0:07Al2 O3 þ 0:25 FeOðtÞ  1:142MgO
þ 0:438CaO þ 1:47Na2O  1:426K2 O  6:861 materials are characteristic of stable environments associ-
ated with sediment recycling that may be produced from
The discriminant functions used after Bhatia (1988) in very strong chemical weathering of first-cycle material.
Fig. 12b are:

Fig. 13 a Primordial mantle-normalized incompatible trace element patterns, normalizing values are those of McDonough and Sun (1995) and
b REE patterns of metasedimentary rocks from Bunu area compared to PASS (post-Archean average Australian Sedimentary rock), NASC
(North American shale composite), and ES (European shale) after Murphy (2001) (Normalizing values are those of Sun and McDonough 1989)

123
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788 785

In a plot on the Primordial mantle-McDonough and Sun may have similar sedimentary sources as affirmed by the
(1995), the distribution patterns of the trace elements in average DF values (Fig. 13b).
these rocks are rather flat with significant enrichment in Ba As seen in Fig. 13b, the LREE are enriched and the
and Rb in metasedimentary rocks especially in migmatised HREE patterns are almost flat, these indicate that the
gneisses and mica schists than in foliated and massive sources of the protolith of these metasedimentary rocks are
quartzites (Fig. 13a). This suggests their derivation from felsic and from the negative Eu anomaly, it is evident that
the differentiated felsic precursors. The similarity in dis- the felsic source is highly differentiated and similar to
tribution and concentration of trace elements, especially in granite (McLennan 1989; Taylor and McLennan 1985).
gneiss-schist rocks, shows that the processes controlling The relative enrichment of incompatible elements (LREE,
their distribution during and after sedimentation remain Th) over compatible elements (Sc, Co) in the metasedi-
rather similar. mentary rock samples from this area indicate felsic average
The rare Earth elements (REEs) belong to a coherent provenance compositions (Culler et al. 1988; McLennan
group of elements characterized by a similar ionic radius et al. 1993).
and trivalent oxidation state in most physicochemical According to Winchester and Max (1989) enrichment of
environments in the Earth crust (Best 2003). However, LILE like Cs, Pb, Ba Pb and Na with broadly curving
various fractional processes are known to have effect on profiles of all the metasedimentary rocks from the study
their distribution in natural systems. This usually becomes area indicates samples with continental arc and active
apparent as anomalies or enrichment/depletion trends when margin tectonic settings while oceanic arc profiles are
the REEs are normalized against well known standards characterized by depletion in many elements relative to
such as Post-Archean Average Australian Shale (PASS), PASS.
North American Shale Composition (NASC) and European Bhatia and Crook (1986) identified the elements La, Th,
Shale (ES) (Rollinson 1993; Murphy 2001). REEs and high Zr, Nb, Y, Sc, Co, and Ti as the most useful in discrimi-
field strength elements (HFSE), including Y, Zr, Ti, Nb, nating greywacke samples from different tectonic envi-
Ta, Th, Sc, Hf, and Co are the most suitable and useful ronments. On trivariate plots of La-Th-Sc and Th-Sc-Zr/10
indicators for provenance determination of sedimentary most of the greywacke samples (Migmatitic-gneiss and
and metasedimentary rocks because of their relatively low quartz-mica schist) from the area plot in the Continental
mobility during diagenesis and metamorphsim (Taylor and Island Arc and Passive Continental Tectonic Environments
McLennan 1985; Nyakairu and Koeberl 2001). The REEs (Fig. 14a and b).
data of all of these samples from the area normalized to
chondrite after Sun and McDonough (1989), compare and
show that similarity exists between the PASS, NASC and
ES standards and the samples from the area with respect to
LREE and HREE. This suggests that the metasedimentary
rocks from the study area have similar compositions and

Fig. 14 a La-Th-Sc and b Th-Sc-Zr/10 discrimination diagrams for greywackes samples from the Bunu area (after Bhatia and Crook 1986). The
fields are: A = Oceanic Island; B = Continental Island arc; C = Active Continental Margin; D = Passive Margin

123
786 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

5 Conclusions sheets 203 (Lafiagi) SW and 224 (Osi) NW. South-Western

Nigeria Ilorin J Sci 1(1):1–17
Adekoya JA (1988) Precambrian Iron Formation of NW Nigeria In:
The metasedimentary rocks of the Bunu area, southwest P.O. Oluyide (Co-ordinator). Precambrian Geology of Nigeria,
Nigeria consist of migmatised gneisses and schists, quartz- geol surv Nig n.a, 195–210
mica schists, and foliated/massive quartzites that have been Ajibade AC, Woakes M, Rahaman MA (1989) In: Proterozoic Crustal
Development In the Pan African Regime of Nigeria, Review in
reworked. These rocks are interbanded with amphibolites
Geology of Nigeria. Elizabethan Publishing Company, Lagos,
and were all intruded in places by granitoids and minor pp 70–80
intrusions such as mafic and felsic dykes. The major, trace, Akoh JU, Ogunleye PO (2014) Mineralogical and geochemical
and REEs data of the metasedimentary rocks of this study evolution of muscovite in the pegmatite group of the Angwan
Doka area, Kokoona district: a clue to petrogenesis and
show higher values of Na2O, MnO, and Nb and depleted
tourmaline mineralization potential. J Geochem Explor
mean values of FeO and MgO relative to the composition 146:89–104
of normal metasediments. This enrichment-depletion sig- Annor AE (1995) U-Pb zircon age for Kabba-Okene granodioritic
nature may not be unconnected with the movement of gneiss: Implication for Nigeria’s basement chronology. Afr
Geosci Rev 2(1):101–105
metamorphic remobilised fluids within the Bunu area
Annor AE, Olobaniyi SB, Mucke A (1996) A note on the geology of
during the Pan-African or earlier events. Isanlu area, in the Egbe-Isanlu schist belt SW Nigeria Jour. Min
Additional geochemistry of the rocks under study shows Geol 32(1):47–52
that whereas the protolith of the reworked migmatised Bershad I (1966) The effect of a variation in precipitation on the
nature of clay mineral formation in soils from acid and basic
gneisses/schists and quartz-mica schists are greywackes to
igneous rocks. Proceedings of International Clay Conference,
litharenites in composition, that of quartzites are sub- pp 167–173
litharenites to quartz arenites and they are all derived Bertrand JML, Caby R (1978) Geodynamic evolution of Pan-African
mainly from predominantly felsic igneous to quartzose orogenies: a new interpretation of the hoggar shield (Algerian
Sahara). Geol Rundenchie 67:357–388
sedimentary provenance and mostly emplaced in passive
Best MG (2003) Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology: Turin,
continental margins. The maturity level of the protolith Blackwell n.a p 729
points to rapid subsidence of the basin during its genesis. It Bhatia MR (1988) Plate tectonics and geochemical composition of
could equally be interpreted to show tectonic stability in sandstones. J Geol 91:611–627
Bhatia MR, Crook KAW (1986) Trace elements characteristics of
the surrounding environment from where the sediments
greywackes and tectonic discrimination of Sedimentary Basins.
were sourced. Contrib Mineral Petrol 92:181–193
The weathering characteristics of the metasedimentary Burke KC, Dewey JF (1972) Orogeny in Africa. In: Dessauragie AJ,
rocks in the area show that the protolith of the quartzite is Whiteman TFJ (eds) African geology. University of Ibadan
Press, Nigeria, pp 583–608
more mature than those of quartz-schist and migmatitic
Burke KC, Freeth SJ, Grant NK (1976) The structure and sequence of
gneiss. The quartzite and associated quartz-mica schists are geological. Events in the basement complex of Ibadan area
believed to represent products of more intensely weathered Western Nigeria Precamb. Res 3:537–545
felsic source rocks, which have been subjected to pro- Caby R (1988) Precambrian terrain of Benin-Nigeria and northeast
Brazil and the Late Proterozoic south Atlantic fit. In: IGCP 233
longed transportation, sorted, and deposited under passive/
Conference Nouakchott, Mauritania
inactive continental margin environments. The rocks cor- Cox R, Lowe DR (1995) Controls on sediment composition on a
relate well with those found elsewhere within the south- regional scale. Conceptual View: J Sedimentol Res 65:1–12
western part of the Nigerian Basement Complex. Cuttler RL, Basu A, Suttner LJ (1988) Geochemical signature of
provenance in sand-mixed materialin soil streamsediments near
tobacco root Batholith, Montana, USA. Chemi Geol 70:335–348
Dada SS (2008) Proterozoic evolution of the Nigeria Borborema
Author contribution As we equally contributed to get the manu- Province. In: Pankhurst RJ, Trouw RA, BritoNeves BB, Wit MJ
script to its present form. The position of the authors in the manu- (eds) West gondwana: pre cenozoic correlations across the south
script: M.S. Kolawole, E.C. Chukwu and A.N. Agibe, is merely a atlantic region. Geological Society of London Special Publica-
reflection of seniority in office. tion, London, pp 121–136
Danbata UA (2008) A Review of the evolution and tectonic
Declarations framework of the schist belts of Western Nigeria. West Africa
Geosci Rev 15(2):145–158
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding Depetris PJ, Probst JL (1998) Variability of the chemical index of
author states that there is no conflict of interest among the authors. alteration in the paranfi river suspended load. Minerol Maganz
62:366–367
Ekwueme BN (1985) Petrology, geochemistry and Rb-Sr geochronol-
References ogy of metamorphosed rocks of Uwet area. SE Nigeria.
Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Adedoyin AD, Adekeye JID, Ojo OJ (2014) Geochemical composi- Elueze AA, Okunlola OA (2003) Petrochemical and petrogenetic
tion and petrogenesis of schists and amphibolites of parts of characteristics of metasedimentary rocks of Lokoja-Jakura schist
belts, central Nigeria. J Min Geol 39(1):21–27

123
Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788 787

Ezepue MC, Odigi MI (1994) Schistose rocks from Okene-Lokoja the composition of clastic sediments. Geological Society of
area, SW Nigeria. J Min Geol 31(1):10–19 America special paper, Berlin, pp 21–40
Fedo CM, Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1995) Unraveling the effects of McDonough WF, Sun SS (1995) The compositions of the Earth.
potassium metasomatism in sedimentary rocks and paleosols Elsevier Chem Geol 120:223–253
with implications for paleoweathering conditions and prove- McLennan SM (1993) Weathering and global denudation. J Geol
nance. Geology 23:921–924 101:295–303
Ferre E, Deleris JI, Lar AU, Peuct JJ (1996) The Pan-African McLennan SM (1989) Rare Earth elements in sedimentary rocks:
reactivation of Eburnean and Archaen provinces in Nigeria: influence of provenance and sedimentation processes. In: Lipin
structural and isotopic data. J Geolog Soc (London) BR and McKay GA (eds). Geochemistry and mineralogy of rare
153:719–728 Earth elements revised minerals, Vol 21, 169–200
Fitches WR, Ajibade AC, Egbuniwe IG, Holt RW, Wright JB (1985) Murphy EI (2001) Geology, metamorphism and geochemistry of
Late Proterozic schist belts and plutonism in NW Nigeria. rocks of the Southern and Grenville provinces in the vicinity of
J Geolog Soc (London)142:319–337 the Grenville front, timmins creek area, near sudbury, Ontario.
Garrels RM, McKenzie FF (1971) Evolution of sedimentary rocks. Geolog Surv Open File Rep 6041:106
WM Norton and Co., New York, p 394 Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1982) Early proterozoic climates and plate
GeoLABS (2015) Geosciences laboratory, Ontario, Canada, precise motions inferred from major element chemistry of lutites. Nature
analysis accurate results, schedules for fees and services, p 8 199:715–717
Govindaraju K (1989) 1989 compilation of working values and Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1984) Prediction of some weathering trends
sample description for 272 geostandards. Geostand Newslett of plutonic and vocanic rocks based on thermodynamic and
13:1–113 kinetic consideration. Geochim et Cosmoch Acta 48:1523–1534
Hamidullah S, Jabeen N, Bilqees R, Jamil K (1986) Geology and Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1989) Formation and diagenesis of
petrology of the malakand granite, gneiss and metasedimentary weathering profiles. J Geol 97:129–147
complex. Geolog Bull Univ Peshawar 19:61–76 Nyakairu GWA, Koeberl C (2001) Minerological and chemical
Harnois L (1988) The CIW index: a new chemical index of composition and distribution of REE in clay-rich sediments from
weathering. Sed Geol 55:319–322 central Uganda. Geochem J 35:13–28
Hart SR, Brooks C, Krough TE, Davis GL, Nava D (1970) Ancient Odewumi SC, Ojo OJ, Adekeye JID (2016) Chemical weathering
and modern volcanic rocks-a trace elemental model. Earth Planet indices and geochemical climofunctions of kuba clay, jos
Sci Lett 10:17–28 plateau, North-Central Nigeria: implication for Paleoclimatic
Herron MM (1988) Geochemical classification of terreginous sands proxy. J Min Geol 52(1):19–27
and shales from core log data. Sediment Petrol 58:820–839 Odigi MI (2002) Geochemistry and geotectonic setting of migmatitic
Holt RW, Egbuniwe IG, Fitches WR, Wright JB (1978) The gneisses and amphibolites in Okene-Lokoja of SW Nigeria.
relationship between low grade metasedimentary calc-alkaline J Min Geol 38(2):81–89
volvanics and Pan-African Orogeny. Geol Rundsh Okeke PO, Meju MA (1985) Chemical evidence for the sedimentary
67(2):631–646 origin of Igarra supracrustal rocks, SW Nigeria. J Min Geol
Jacobson RRE, Snelling NJ, Truswell JF (1964) Age determination in 22:97–104
the geology of Nigeria with special reference to the older and Okonkwo CT (2005) Geochemistry of quartzites and quartz mica
younger granites. Overseas Geol Min Res 9:168–182 schists in Jebba area, South western Nigeria. J Min Geol
Kennedy WQ (1964) The structural differentiation of Africa in the 41(2):163–173
Pan-African (±500 Ma) tectonic episode. In: 8th Annual Okonkwo CT, Ganev VY (2012) U-Pb Geochronology of the Jebba
Representative Research Inst of African Geology. Leeds, Granitic Gneiss and its implications for the Paleoproterozoic
pp 48–49 evolution of Jebba Area, South-western Nigeria. Int J Geosci
Kolawole MS, Olobaniyi SB (2018) Geology and petrology of 3:1065–1073
basement rocks around Bunu Area in part of Kabba-Lokoja- Okunlola OA, Okoroafor RE (2009) Geochemical and petrogenetic
Igarra schist belt. South-Western Nigeria Minna J Geosci (MJG) features of the schistose rocks of Okemesi fold belt, southwest-
2(1):112–133 ern Nigeria. RMZ-Mater Geoenviron 56:148–162
Kolawole MS, Onimisi M, Olobaniyi SB (2017) Field occurrence and Okunlola OA, Adeigbe OC, Oluwatoke OO (2009) Compositional
structural characteristics of basement rocks around Kabba-Bunu and petrogenetic features of schistose rocks of Ibadan Area.
area in part of Kabba-Lokoja-Igarra Schist Belt, Southwestern Southwestern Nigeria Earth Sci Res J 13(2):1–10
Nigeria. Global J Pure Appl Sci 23:263–274 Olobaniyi SB (2003) Geochemistry of semipelitic schist of Isanlu
Kroner A, Ekwueme BN, Pidgeon RT (2001) The oldest rock in West area, SW Nigeria: implication for the geodynamic evolution of
Africa: SHRIMP Zircon age for early Archean Migmatite the Egbe- Isanlu schist belt. Global J Geol Sci 1(2):113–127
orthogneiss of Kaduna, Northern Nigeria. J Geol 109:399–406 Olobaniyi SB (1997) Geological and geochemical studies of the
Lambert RJ, Holland JG, Winchester JA (1982) A geochemical basement rocks and associated Iron formation of Isanlu area in
comparison of the daldarian leven schists and the grampian the Egbe-Isanlu Schist belt SW Nig, Unpubl. Ph.D thesis Univ of
division monadhliath schists of Scotland. J Geolog Soc, London Ilorin Nigw
139:71–84 Oyinloye AO (1998) Geology, geochemistry and origin of the banded
Leyleroup A, Duppy C, Andrianmbolona R (1977) Chemical granite gneisses in the basement complex of the Ilesha Area
composition and consequence of evolution of the French massive Southwestern Nigerian. J Africa Earth Sci, London 264:633–641
central precambrian crust. Contrib Minerol Petrol 62:283–300 Oyinloye AO (2007) Geology and geochemistry of some crystalline
McCurry P (1976) The geology of the Precambrian to Lower basement rocks in Ilesha area sourthwestern Nigeria: implica-
Palaeozoic rocks of northern Nig. a review. In: Kogbe CA (ed) tions on provenance and evolution. Pak Jour Sci Ind Res
Geology of Nigeria. Elizabethan Press Lagos, London, pp 15–39 50(4):223–231
Mcdlennan SM, Hemming S, Mcdaniel DK, Hanson GN (1993) Oyinloye AO, Odeyemi SB (2001) The geochemistry, tectonic setting
Geochemical approaches to sedimentation, provenance and and origin of the massive melanocratic amphibolites in Ilesha
tectonics. In: Johnson MJ, Basu A (eds) Processes controlling schist belt Southwestern Nigeria. Global J Pure Appl. Sci.
7(1):55–66

123
788 Acta Geochim (2022) 41(5):765–788

Pearce JA (1975) Basalt geochemistry used to investigate past Talbot J and Weiss A (1994) Hazardous materials lab, hazardous
tectonic environment in Cyprus. Tectonophysics 25:41–67 waste research and information center, East Hazelwood Cham-
Pettijohn FJ (1975) Sedimentary Rocks. Harper and Row, New York, paign, IL 61820
p 628 Taylor SR and McLennan SM (1985) The continental crust: its
Rahaman, M.A. (1976) In: Review of the Basement Geology of composition and evolution. Blackwell scientific publications
Southwestern Nigeria (Conf. Paper). Elizabethan Publishing Turner DC (1983) Upper proterozoic schist belts in the nigerian sector
Company. pp 41–58 of the Pan-African province of West Africa. Precambr Res
Rahaman MA (1988) Recent advances in the study of basement 21:55–79
complex of Nigeria. In: Oluyide PO (ed) Precambrian geology of Tunbosun LA, Lancelot JR, Rahaman MA, Ocan O (1984) U-Pb Pan-
Nigeria. Geological Survey of Nigeria Publication, London p, African ages of two charnockites-granite associations from SW
pp 11–43 Nigeria. Contrib Miner Petrol 88:188–195
Rollinson HR (1993) Using geochemical data: evaluation, presenta- Van de Wiel HJ (2004) Determination of elements by ICP-AES and
tion, and interpretation. Addison Wesley Longman, Harlow, ICP-MS, Horizontal–19, National Institute for Public Health and
p 352 the Environment (RIVM) Bilthoven, The Netherlands
Roser BP, Korsch RJ (1988) Provenance signatures of sandstone, and Von Eynatten H, Barcelo-Vidal C, Pawlowsky-Glahn V (2003)
mudstone suites determined using discriminant function analysis Modelling compositional change: the example of chemical
of major element data. Chem Geol 67:119–139 weathering of granitoid rocks. Math Geol 35:231–251
Russ W (1957) The geology of parts of Niger Zaria and Sokoto Weaver CE (1989) Clays, muds, and shales. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
provinces with reference to the occurrence of gold. Geological p 820
Survey of Nigeria Bulletin, Harlow, p 29 Winchester JA, Max MD (1989) Tectonic setting discrimination of
Shaw DM (1972) The origin of the Apsley Gneiss. Ontario Canadian classic sequences, an example from the Late Proterozoic Erris
J Earth Sci 9:18–35 Group. NW Island, Precambrian Res 45:191–201
Sun SS, McDonough WF (1989) Chemical and isotopic systematics Woakes M, Ajibade CA, Rahaman MA (1987) Some metallogenic
of ocean basalts: implications for mantle composition and features of the Nigerian Basement. J Africa Sci 5:655–664
processes. In: Saunders AD, Norry MJ (eds) Magmatism in Wollast R, Chou L (1992) Surface reactions during the early stages of
ocean basin. Geological Society Special Publication, London, weathering of albite. Geochim et Cosmochim Acta
pp 313–345 56:3113–3123
Suttner LJ, Busa A, Mack GH (1981) Climate and the origin of quartz Wood DA, Tarney J, Varet J, Saunders AD, Bougault Y, Joron JL,
arenites. J Sediment Petrol 51:1235–1246 Treuil M, Cann JR (1979) Geochemistry of basalts drilled in the
Sheldon ND, Retallack GJ, Tanaka S (2002) Geochemical climo- North Atlantic by IPOD Leg 49: implications for mantle
functions from North American soils and application to paleosols heterogeneity. Earth Planet Sci Lett 42:77–97
across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary in Oregon. J Geol
110:687–696

123