Short Notes

*S-N Curve for fatigue loading- Fatigue properties of materials are often described using the
fatigue limit or the S-N curve (fatigue curve, Wöhler curve). The S-N curve describes the relation
between cyclic stress amplitude and number of cycles to failure. The figure below shows a typical
S-N curve. On the horizontal axis the number of cycles to failure is given on logarithmic scale. On
the vertical axis (either linear or logarithmic) the stress amplitude (sometimes the maximum
stress) of the cycle is given.
S-N curves are derived from fatigue tests. Tests are performed by applying a cyclic stress with
constant amplitude (CA) on specimens until failure of the specimen. In some cases the test is
stopped after a very large number of cycles (N>10^6). The results is then interpreted as infinite
life.
Fatigue curves are often given for Kt=1 (unnotched specimens). Those curves describe the fatigue
properties of a material. Actual structures are better described with S-N curves for Kt>1 (notched
specimens).

The S-N curve above has some characteristic.

*Stress Concentration
The basic stress equations for tension, compression, bending, and
torsion are based on a number of assumptions. One of the assumptions
is that there are no geometric irregularities or abrupt change in the
cross-section of the member. But these irregularities and changes in the
cross-section of members are unavoidable. There will be holes, oil
grooves, notches, keyways, splines, screw threads etc.
 Figure 5.1 Stress Concentration

Any of the discontinuities in a machine part alters the distribution of

stress in its vicinity and localized stress much higher than those
calculated with the elementary stress equations are observed. This
localization of high stresses due to geometrical irregularities or abrupt
changes of the cross-section is called ‘stress concentration’ and the
discontinuities are called stress raisers. Stress concentrations can also
arise from some irregularity. Stress distribution in a plate with a small
circular hole, subjected to tensile load, is shown in figure 5.1. In
addition to the abrupt changes in the cross-section, other causes of stress
concentration can be variation in material properties e.g. internal cracks,
flaws, air holes, foreign inclusions etc. and surface irregularities like
scratches or stamp marks.
To consider the effect of stress concentration, stress concentration factor
is used, which is the ratio of maximum stress to nominal stress.
Stress concentration factor for normal stress, Stress concentration factor
for shear stress,

Where, σmax , \[{\tau _{max}}\] = localized stresses near the

discontinuities
σ0, \[{\tau _0}\] = Nominal stresses as determined by elementary
equations for minimum cross-section
For the plate shown in figure 5.1, if ‘w’ and ‘t’ are width and thickness
of the plate, ‘d’ is diameter of the hole and ‘P’ is the applied load,
nominal tensile stress is given by,

Value of stress-concentration factor depends on the geometry of the part

only and is independent of the material used. For this reason, it is called
theoretical or geometric stress-concentration factor. Stress-concentration
factors for different geometric shapes are found by using experimental
techniques like photo-elasticity, grid methods, brittle-coating methods,
and electrical strain-gauge methods. The finite-element method has also
been used. Theoretical stress concentration factors for different
configurations are available in handbooks, few of which are shown in
figures below [charts for stress concentration factors are to be provided
here].
5.2 Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration

Effect of stress concentration cannot be completely eliminated but its

effect can be reduced by slightly altering the geometry of the
components. Flow analogy is helpful in understanding how a particular
discontinuity affects the stress distribution around it and how its effect

can be reduced. Figure 5.2 shows

the stress distribution in an axially loaded plate which is similar to the
velocity distribution in fluid flow in a channel. For a channel having
uniform cross-section, velocities are uniform and streamlines are
equally spaced. If the cross-section of the channel is suddenly reduced,
velocity increases to maintain same flow and the stream lines become
narrower. Similarly, with reduction in cross-section, to transmit same
force, the stress lines come closer. Location where the cross-section
changes, stress lines bend as the stream lines do. Sudden change in the
cross-section leads to very sharp bending of stress lines which results in
stress concentration. Therefore by avoiding severe bending of the stress
lines, effect of stress concentration can be [Link] 5.3 shows
certain methods to reduce stress concentration.

Figure 5.3 Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration

5.3 Effect of Ductility & Brittleness on Stress Concentration
Stress concentration has negligible effect on the ductile materials
subjected to static loads. Under the static load, when the stress near the
discontinuity reaches the yield point, local plastic deformation takes
place and the stresses get redistributed, relieving the stress
concentration. Therefore, ductile materials, subjected to static loads, are
not affected by stress concentration and there is no need to apply stress
concentration factor to statically loaded ductile materials.
But for the ductile materials, subjected to dynamic load, stress at the
discontinuity may reach its endurance limit leading to fatigue failure.
Therefore, stress concentration reduces the endurance limit of ductile
materials and stress concentration factor must be used for dynamically
loaded ductile materials. This aspect will be discussed in the next
lesson.
Stress concentration has more severe effect on the brittle materials due
to their inability to plastically deform. As there is no local yielding,
stresses don’t get redistributed and local stress due to discontinuity
increases highly. Therefore, stress concentration factor must be used for
components made of brittle materials subjected to static or dynamic
loads.
5.4 Creep

When components are subjected to constant loads continuously for a

longer period, they may undergo progressive elastic deformation over
time. This time-dependent strain is called creep. Creep can be defined as
slow and progressive deformation of material with time under constant
stress. Creep deformation is a function of stress and temperature. It
generally occurs at absolute temperatures above half the melting point
of the material and is even present at room temperature for materials
like aluminium, copper and some plastics. Creep increases with the
increase in temperature, and therefore becomes very important for
components operating at higher temperatures like those of furnaces,
steam & gas turbines, internal combustion engines, nuclear reactors,
rocket engines etc. The stress can be tensile, compressive, bending or
shear.
Components operating at higher temperatures must be designed in such
a way that deformation due to creep remains within the allowable limit
and also creep deformation doesn’t lead to rupture so that the product
performs satisfactorily over time. Creep strength and creep rupture
strength are the two important properties of the material related to creep
design.
Creep Strength is the maximum stress that the material can withstand
for a specified length of time without excessive deformation. Creep
Rupture Strength is the maximum stress that the material can withstand
for a specified length of time without rupture.
Figure 5.4 shows a typical strain vs time plot known as creep curve. To
obtain creep curve, specimen is loaded with a constant force and
variation of its length is observed at a constant elevated temperature.
Units of strain are mm/mm and time is measured in hours. When the
load is applied in the beginning of the test, some instantaneous elastic
deformation or initial strain occurs. Then with the passage of time,
creep strain occurs. Creep curve is divided into three stages, primary,
secondary and tertiary creep, after which the rupture takes place. In the
start, strain increases rapidly, known as primary. In the secondary creep,
strain increases slowly at a constant rate. Again during the tertiary
stage, strain rate increases and necking of the specimen takes place
followed by rupture. The creep test is repeated over a range of
temperatures to obtain a number of creep curves that are useful for
design.
*Stress concentration factor in machine design- A stress concentration factor (Kt) is a
dimensionless factor that is used to quantify how concentrated the stress is in a
mechanical part. It is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the part compared to
a reference stress.

A stress concentration, also known as a stress riser/raiser, is a point in a part where

the stress is significantly greater than its surrounding area. Stress concentrations
occur as a result of irregularities in the geometry or within the material of a
component structure that cause an interruption of the stress flow. These interruptions
typically arise from discontinuities such as holes, grooves, notches and fillets. Stress
concentrations may also be caused by accidental damage such as nicks and
scratches.

A discontinuity’s degree of concentration under typical tensile loads is usually

expressed by the non-dimensional stress concentration factor (Kt), which is the ratio
of the highest stress to the reference (far field) stress:Note that the reference stress is
the total stress within an element under the same loading conditions, but without any
stress concentrators (i.e., the total stress on the part when it is free from
discontinuities).

An understanding of the stress concentration factor is important during the material

selection process as well as for anticipating stress corrosion cracking, fretting
corrosion and material failures.

Corrosionpedia Explains Stress Concentration Factor

(Kt)Basic stress analysis calculations assume that parts are smooth, have a uniform
cross-section, and have no irregularities. In practice, virtually all engineering
components have at least minimal changes in section and/or shape.
Shoulders on shafts, oil holes, key ways and screw threads all can change the stress
distribution such that the basic stress analysis equations no longer apply. Such
discontinuities cause a local increase in stress, referred to as a stress concentration
factor.

If the material is flawless with no discontinuities, then the stress concentration factor
is 1. If there is a discontinuity, then the stress concentration factor is greater than 1.

How Stress Concentration Factor (Kt) Values are DeterminedThe stress

concentration factor associated with a part’s specific geometry and loading condition
can be derived through experimentation, analysis or computational methods.

 Experimental methods: Optical methods such as photoelasticity are very

dependable and widely used for experimentally determining the stress
concentration at a point on a part. However, several alternative methods that
have been historically used include the grid method, brittle coating, brittle
model and strain gauge.
 Analytical methods: The theory of elasticity can be used to analyze certain
geometrical shapes to calculate stress concentration factors.
 Computational methods: Finite element techniques provide a powerful and
inexpensive computational method to assess stress concentration factors.

Characteristics of a Stress Concentration Factor

 Function of the geometry or shape of the part, but not its size or material
composition
 Function of the type of loading (axial, bending or torsional) applied to the part
 Function of the specific geometric stress raiser (e.g., fillet radius, notch or hole)
in the part
 Always defined with respect to a particular nominal stress
 Typically assumes a linear elastic, homogeneous, isotropic material

Methods to Reduce a Part’s Stress Concentration Factor

A number of stress-relieving methods are available to reduce the stress concentration

factor of a given part, including:

 Providing a fillet radius so that the cross-section may change gradually

 Using an elliptical fillet
 Using several small notches rather than a long one, if a notch is unavoidable
 Using narrow notches rather than wide notches, if a projection is unavoidable
 Using stress-relieving grooves

*Bearing characterstic number and bearing modules-

 The cause of gear failure can stem
*Causes of Gear Tooth Failure-

from many issues, but the most common is due

to wear, which occurs for different reasons.
BY DAVID MANNEY, L&S ELECTRIC SEPTEMBER 26, 2016

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Machinery breakdowns are often the result of gear failure. The cause of gear failure
can stem from many issues, but the most common is due to wear. Any component
within the machine is going to wear down from constant use. If it occurs with gears, it
can have a detrimental impact on the equipment’s operation.

Gear failures due to wear may occur for different reasons. The reasons listed below
are some of the more common causes for gear failure:
1. Moderate wear
This type of where leaves contacts patterns that show the metal has been affected in
the addendum and the dedendum area. Issues with inadequate lubrication commonly
cause it, but it may also be due to contamination in the lubrication as well.

2. Excessive wear
This is wear that has continued to be a problem until a significant amount of material
has been affected on the surfaces. You may see pitting on the surface with excessive
wear, typically caused by not seeing the first wear early enough, and it continues to
progress.

3. Abrasive wear
In gears that are showing signs of abrasive wear, it may appear as radial scratch
marks, grooves or some other identifier that would show contact is a problem. One of
the most common reasons why abrasive wear takes place is due to foreign bodies in
the lubrication. This issue could include metallic debris from the bearings or gear
system, rust, sand or weld spatter. It is common in new systems before the filter can
clean the system.

4. Corrosive Wear
Chemical action deteriorates the surface of the gear, such as through acid, additives
or moisture in the lubrication oil. As the oil breaks down, the chemicals that exist in
the lubricant attack the surfaces. It tends to result in uniform, fine pitting on the two
surfaces.

5. Frosting
This issue usually shows up in the dedendum area of the driving gear. The wear
pattern gives a frosted appearance, which are many micro pits on the surface.
Frosting is a common issue when the heat breaks down the lubrication film.

6. Spalling
Although it is similar to severe pitting, the pits tend to be shallow and larger in
diameter. Additionally, the area that is showing spalling does not tend to be uniform.
It is a common problem when high contact stress exists.

7. Pitting
A problem with pitting can be labeled as either initial, in which the surface is
experiencing small pits to destructive, in which the pits are larger in diameter. Initial
pitting may be a problem with the gears not fitting together properly. Destructive
pitting is typically an issue with surface overload.
8. Breakage
It is possible for the entire tooth or a piece of the tooth to break away. It often leaves
evidence of the focal point of the fatigue that led to the break, which results from any
number of issues, including high stress or excessive tooth loads.

When an issue with the gears takes place, it is necessary to determine if a rebuild,
upgrade or replacement is the best choice available. We can help you to make the
best decision according to the problems that exist and care for the work for you to
ensure that your equipment is up and operating again.

*Why use a chain drive?

Chain drives have characteristics which, in certain applications, are more favourable than belt
drives or gear drives for providing power
transmission between two or more shafts.
Their major advantage over V-belt drives is
that there is no-slip. A V-belt can slip over
the pulleys and hence a constant drive
speed is not assured. The positive action of
the tooth and sprocket in a chain drive
means that chain drive assemblies will be
more compact than belt drive assemblies.

Chain drives are often preferred to geared

drives because they have less rigorous
design requirements. For example shaft
alignment is less critical for a chain drive. Often the centre distance between shafts is too long
for geared drives so a chain drive is used.

Types of Power Transmission Chain:

The most common form of chain drive is the roller chain drive found in applications such as the
push-bike, motor bike and car timing chain. Another common form is the inverted tooth or
silent chain. For specific information on transmission chains refer to the MECHANICAL
DESIGN DATA MANUAL.

Design requirements.
The most favourable position for a chain drive is with the sprocket centre lines in the same
horizontal plane or inclined at an angle up to 60 degrees. Vertical drives should be avoided.
Ideally the centre distance between sprockets should be between 30 and 50 times the chain pitch.

30xPitch(P) * Distance between shaft centres (C) * 50xP

Chain drives are designed with centre to centre adjustment.

Wherever possible sprockets should have more than 17 teeth. This is because the chain forms a
polygon (not a circle) around the sprocket. If low teeth numbers are used a cyclic drive speed
variation will occur which is called cordal speed variation. If this speed variation is not critical
to design specification of the equipment then lower teeth numbers may be used at low drive
speeds (say less than 3 m/sec). At higher speeds cordal speed variation will cause excessive
sprocket wear. Sprockets with 17 to 25 teeth running at speeds greater than 3 m/sec should be
heat treated to give a tough, wear-resistant surface with a Rockwell 'C' hardness 35 to 45.

DESIGN PROCEDURE

This design procedure complies with BS 228: 1970.

Chain drive design is done by following this procedure and referring to the DESIGN DATA
MANUAL page 77.

1. Calculate the drive ratio R (velocity ratio) given the input RPM and output RPM.

2. Select sprocket tooth numbers. In order to reduce costs standard sprockets are used - (Chart 1
p77).

3. Determine the Service (selection) factor. The service factor takes into consideration the
conditions under which the chain drive will be working. Shock loads created by the driving
machinery and driven load require more robust design. Using Chart 2 in the DESIGN DATA
MANUAL determine the type (class) of the driven machinery, then choose the correct column
for the driving machinery and determine the selection factor for the number of teeth on the
smaller sprocket.

4. Calculate the Design (selection) power.

5. Select chain size from the power rating chart. The design power rating for simplex, duplex
and triplex chains are shown in the three columns on the left hand side of the chart. Wherever
possible simplex chains are used. The design power on the vertical axis is referenced with the
speed of the smaller sprocket on the horizontal axis to obtain a chain size and lubrication
requirements.

6. Check the maximum sprocket bores against the required shaft diameters if known. List or
tabulate details of stock numbers for chain, sprockets and bushes.

7. Determine a suitable centre distance if not given. As mentioned a centre distance 30 to 50

times the chain pitch is recommended.

8. Determine the length of chain in number of pitches.

Round off answer to an even number of pitches.

As the chain must be made up of an even number of pitches, the actual centre distance must be
redetermined so that it corresponds to the chain length calculated above.

9. Calculate the actual centre distance CA.

10. Determine the sprocket pitch diameters and other dimensions as required.

PCDsprocket = number of teeth in sprocket * PCD factor

or

WORKED EXAMPLE
Select a suitable chain drive to transmit 2.5kW from a geared electric motor running at 200RPM
to a rotary kiln running at 80RPM. Assume moderate (medium impulsive) shock loads. Using a
centre distance which is twice the pitch diameter of the wheel sprocket, determine:

(a) the length of the chain in pitches,

(b) the actual centre distance.

Data:
Power transmitted (P) = 2.5kW
Prime mover - geared electric motor; RPM=200
Driven machine - rotary kiln (medium impulsive load); RPM=80
'Anticipated' centre distance (C) = 2*PCDwheel sprocket
Solution:

1. Calculate the drive ratio.

2. Select sprocket tooth numbers.

n=number of teeth in pinion

N=number of teeth in wheel (driven)
N=R*n

n 17 19 20 21
N 42.5 47.5 50 52.5

The first available combination is:

n=23,N=57

Exact Drive Ratio (R) =57/23= 2.478 which is within 1% of desired ratio

3. Determine the service factor.

Using the table on Chart 2; n=23

Medium impulsive load (class 2)

Steady electric motor input

Service factor=1.03

4. Calculate the design power.

P=Theoretical power*service factor

P=2.5kW*1.03
P=2.575kW

5. Select chain size.

Refer chart 19T pinions
Chain: simplex;RPM=200;P=2.575kW.

Chain can be:

15.875mm pitch, manual lubrication

19.05mm pitch, drip lubrication
6. List catalogue information.

Chain;Choose 5/8" (15.875mm)

lubrication: Class 1 (manual)
Reynold chain No 110056.

Pinion;n=23
Number with Plain bore: 213015
(14mm stock, 55mm max)
Number with taper bore 213015/9
(Bush No TB1610)
PCD=116.59mm

Wheel:N=57
Number with Plain bore: 213042
(24mm stock, 50mm max)
Number with taper bore: 213043/9
(Bush No TB2012)

7. Determine centre distance.

Given: C = 2*PCDwheel
= 2*288.19
= 576mm

8. Length of chain in pitches.

9. Actual centre distance (CA).