Unit II

Mechanism of thinking and visualization

Theory of mind: mechanisms, methods, and new directions

Theory of Mind (ToM) has received significant research attention. Traditional

ToM research has provided important understanding of how humans reason
about mental states by utilizing shared world knowledge, social cues, and the
interpretation of actions; however, many current behavioral paradigms are
limited to static, “third-person” protocols. Emerging experimental approaches
such as cognitive simulation and simulated social interaction offer
opportunities to investigate ToM in interactive, “first-person” and “second-
person” scenarios while affording greater experimental control. The
advantages and limitations of traditional and emerging ToM methodologies are
discussed with the intent of advancing the understanding of ToM in socially
mediated situations.

Introduction
Every day, humans engage in a wide variety of social interactions to achieve a
diverse set of social goals that include acquiring information, influencing a
partner's behavior through, and maintaining emotional intimacy through
sharing thoughts and feelings. Integral to an individual's success in these social
encounters is his or her ability to reason about the thoughts, beliefs, and
feelings of others to predict behavioral responses. This ability has been
termed theory of mind (ToM; Premack and Woodruff, 1978; Baron-Cohen et al.,
1985).

The social importance of ToM can be demonstrated by imagining social

interaction without it. To demonstrate the difficulty of explaining human
behavior without ToM, Baron-Cohen (1997) used the task of explaining the
behavior of a man who walks into a room, looks around, and then simply exits
the room. Plausible mentalistic explanations can be easily generated for this
scenario (e.g., the man forgot why he entered the room, the man was looking
for something in the room and discovered it was not there); however,
developing plausible non-mentalistic explanations of the man's behavior is
more difficult (Baron-Cohen, 1997). The difficulties in generating concise and
probable non-mentalistic explanations for this set of simple behaviors illustrate,
on a small scale, the confusion that might result from complex behaviors like
deception, persuasion, or flirting in the absence of ToM. Indeed, recognition of
ToM's importance for social functioning has sparked extensive research in
clinical populations for whom challenges in social interaction are common,
including individuals with autism spectrum disorders (Perner et al.,
1989; Happé, 1994; Baron-Cohen et al., 1995, 1999, 2001; Hill, 2004; Losh et
al., 2012), schizophrenia (Corcoran et al., 1995; Brüne et al.,
2007; Champagne-Lavau and Stip, 2010; Couture et al., 2011; Hooker et al.,
2011), and traumatic brain injury (Bibby and McDonald, 2005; Havet-
Thomassin et al., 2006; Henry et al., 2006; Milders, 2006; Muller et al.,
2010; Turkstra et al., 2004; Turkstra, 2008).

Given the importance of ToM in daily interactions and the prevalence of ToM
deficits in some clinical populations, it is important for researchers to critically
consider both the concept of ToM as well as tasks used to investigate it.
Accordingly, the goals of this article are to (1) present a framework of
mechanisms that allow humans to infer and reason about mental states in
social interaction, (2) review the benefits and limitations of current behavioral
tasks designed to test each mechanism, and (3) discuss potential new
directions for studying and understanding ToM, with consideration of both the
advantages and the limitations that these approaches offer over more
traditional techniques. It is our position that the knowledge to be gained from
the incorporation of these new methodologies may advance not only the
understanding of how humans reason about the mental states of others, but
may also further sciences devoted to improving or compensating for ToM
impairments and artificial intelligence research that is focused on developing
artificial models of human-like social processes.

Mechanisms of ToM
Since ToM research has been broad in terms of the interested disciplines,
target populations and testing methodologies used, it is important to critically
consider the concept of ToM, especially the ways in which our
conceptualizations influence the course of ToM research. Developing a
“working definition” of ToM will help guide research on not only the underlying
network of skills that facilitate ToM, but may also provide insight into where
breakdowns in ToM may occur. To begin forming such a definition, we posed
the question, “How do humans accurately infer the mental states of others?”
From this consideration, three components of interaction emerged as clues to
ToM: (1) knowledge of the shared context, (2) perception of social cues, and (3)
interpretations of actions, (See Table 1 and Figure 1).

Advanced study of visual elements

Design elements are the basic units of any visual design which form its structure and convey visual
messages.[1][2] Painter and design theorist Maitland E. Graves (1902-1978), who attempted to gestate
the fundamental principles of aesthetic order in visual design, [3] in his book, The Art of Color and
Design (1941), defined the elements of design as line, direction, shape, size, texture, value,
and color, concluding that "these elements are the materials from which all designs are built.

Color[edit]
Color is the result of light reflecting back from an object to our eyes.[5] The color that our eyes
perceive is determined by the pigment of the object itself.[5] Color theory and the color wheel are
often referred to when studying color combinations in visual design.[6] Color is often deemed to be an
important element of design as it is a universal language which presents the countless possibilities
of visual communication.[7]
Hue, saturation, and brightness are the three characteristics that describe color.[8]

 Hue can simply be referred to as "color" as in red, yellow, or green.[9]

 Saturation gives a color brightness or dullness, which impacts the vibrance of the color.[9]
 Values, tints and shades of colors are created by adding black to a color for a shade and white
for a tint. Creating a tint or shade of color reduces the saturation.[9]
Color theory in visual design[edit]
Color theory studies color mixing and color combinations. It is one of the first things that marked a
progressive design approach.[7] In visual design, designers refer to color theory as a body of practical
guidance to achieving certain visual impacts with specific color combinations.[citation needed] Theoretical
color knowledge is implemented in designs in order to achieve a successful color design. [10]

 Color harmony
Color harmony, often referred to as a "measure of aesthetics",[10] studies which color combinations
are harmonious and pleasing to the eye, and which color combinations are not. [8] Color harmony is a
main concern for designers given that colors always exist in the presence of other colors in form or
space.[10]
When a designer harmonizes colors, the relationships among a set of colors are enhanced to
increase the way they complement one another. Colors are harmonized to achieve a balanced,
unified, and aesthetically pleasing effect for the viewer.[8]
Color harmony is achieved in a variety of ways, some of which consist of combining a set of colors
that share the same hue, or a set of colors that share the same values for two of the three color
characteristics (hue, saturation, brightness).[8] Color harmony can also be achieved by simply
combining colors that are considered compatible to one another[8] as represented in the color wheel.

 Color contrasts
Color contrasts are studied with a pair of colors, as opposed to color harmony, which studies a set of
colors. In color contrasting, two colors with perceivable differences in aspects such as luminance, or
saturation, are placed side by side to create contrast.[citation needed]
Johannes Itten presented seven kinds of color contrasts: contrast of light and dark, contrast of hue,
contrast of temperature, contrast of saturation, simultaneous contrast, contrast of sizes, and contrast
of complementary.[8] These seven kinds of color contrasts have inspired past works involving color
schemes in design.[8]

 Color schemes
Color schemes are defined as the set of colors chosen for a design. They are often made up of two
or more colors that look appealing beside one another, and that create an aesthetic feeling when
used together. Color schemes depend on color harmony as they point to which colors look pleasing
beside one another.[10]
A satisfactory design product is often accompanied by a successful color scheme. Over time, color
design tools with the function of generating color schemes were developed to facilitate color
harmonizing for designers.[11]
Use of color in visual design[edit]

 Color is used to create harmony, balance, and visual comfort in a design[10]

 Color is used to evoke the desired mood and emotion upon the viewer[5]
 Color is used to create a theme in the design[8]
 Color holds meaning and can be symbolic. In certain cultures, different colors can have different
meanings.[5]
 Color is used to put emphasis on desired elements and create visual hierarchy in a piece of art[12]
 Color can create identity for a certain brand or design product[12]
 Color allows viewers to have different interpretations of visual designs. The same color can
evoke different emotions, or have various meanings to different individuals and cultures [5]
 Color strategies are used for organization and consistency in a design product[9]
 In the architectural design of a retail environment, colors affect decision making which motivates
consumers to buy particular products

Line[edit]
The line is an element of art defined by a point moving in space. Lines can be vertical, horizontal,
diagonal, or curved. They can be any width or texture, and can be continuous, implied, or broken.
On top of that, there are different types of lines aside from the ones previously mentioned. For
example, you could have a line that is horizontal and zigzagged or a line that is vertical and
zigzagged. Different lines create different moods, it all depends on what mood you are using line to
create.

Point[edit]
A point is basically the beginning of “something” in “nothing”. It forces the mind to think upon its
position and gives something to build upon in both imagination and space. Some abstract points in a
group can provoke human imagination to link it with familiar shapes or forms.

Shape[edit]
Main article: Shape and form (visual arts)
A shape is defined as a two dimensional area that stands out from the space next to or around it due
to a defined or implied boundary, or because of differences of value, color, or texture. [13] Shapes are
recognizable objects and forms[5] and are usually composed of other elements of design.[14]
For example, a square that is drawn on a piece of paper is considered a shape. It is created with a
series of lines which serve as a boundary that shapes the square and separates it from the space
around it that is not part of the square.[5]
Types of shapes[edit]
Geometric shapes or mechanical shapes are shapes that can be drawn using a ruler or compass,
such as squares, circles, triangles, ellipses, parallelograms, stars, and so on.[5] Mechanical shapes,
whether simple or complex, produce a feeling of control and order.[14]
Organic shapes are irregular shapes[5] that are often complex and resemble shapes that are found
in nature.[14] Organic shapes can be drawn by hand, which is why they are sometimes subjective and
only exist in the imagination of the artist.[5]
Curvilinear shapes are composed of curved lines and smooth edges. They give off a more natural
feeling to the shape. In contrast, rectilinear shapes are composed of sharp edges and right angles,
and give off a sense of order in the composition. They look more human-made, structured,
and artificial. Artists can choose to create a composition that revolves mainly around one of these
styles of shape, or they can choose to combine both.[5]

Texture[edit]
Main article: Texture (visual arts)

This is only a two dimensional image of a tree, but appears to have the texture of three dimensional bark.
Texture refers to the physical and visual qualities of a surface.[citation needed]
Uses of texture in design[edit]

 Texture can be used to attract or repel interest to an element, depending on how pleasant the
texture is perceived to be.[14]
 Texture can also be used to add complex detail into the composition of a design.[5]
 In theatrical design, the surface qualities of a costume sculpts the look and feel of a character,
which influences the way the audience reacts to the character.[5]
Types of texture
Tactile texture, also known as "actual texture", refers to the physical three-dimensional texture of an
object. Tactile texture can be perceived by the sense of touch. A person can feel the tactile texture of
a sculpture by running their hand over its surface and feelings its ridges and dents. [5]

 Painters use impasto to build peaks and create texture in their painting.[14]
 Texture can be created through collage. This is when artists assemble three dimensional objects
and apply them onto a two-dimensional surface, like a piece of paper or canvas, to create one
final composition.[5]
 Papier collé is another collaging technique in which artists glue paper to a surface to create
different textures on its surface.[5]
 Assemblage is a technique that consists of assembling various three-dimensional objects into a
sculpture, which can also reveal textures to the viewer.[5]
Visual texture, also referred to as "implied texture", is not detectable by our sense of touch, but by
our sense of sight.[citation needed] Visual texture is the illusion of a real texture on a two-dimensional
surface.[5] Any texture perceived in an image or photograph is a visual texture. A photograph of rough
tree bark is considered a visual texture. It creates the impression of a real texture on a two-
dimensional surface which would remain smooth to the touch no matter how rough the represented
texture is.[14]
In painting, different paints are used to achieve different types of textures. Paints such as oil, acrylic,
and encaustic are thicker and more opaque and are used to create three-dimensional impressions
on the surface. Other paints, such as watercolor, tend to be used for visual textures, because they
are thinner and have transparency, and do not leave much tactile texture on the surface. [5]
Pattern[edit]
Many textures appear to repeat the same motif.[5] When a motif is repeated over and over again in a
surface, it results in a pattern.[14] Patterns are frequently used in fashion design or textile design,
where motifs are repeated to create decorative patterns on fabric or other textile materials.[citation
needed]
Patterns are also used in architectural design, where decorative structural elements such
as windows, columns, or pediments, are incorporated into building design.[citation needed]

Space[edit]
In design, space is concerned with the area deep within the moment of designated design, the
design will take place on. For a two-dimensional design, space concerns creating the illusion of a
third dimension on a flat surface:[14]

 Overlap is the effect where objects appear to be on top of each other. This illusion makes the
top element look closer to the observer. There is no way to determine the depth of the space,
only the order of closeness.
 Shading adds gradiation marks to make an object of a two-dimensional surface seem three-
dimensional.
 Highlight, Transitional Light, Core of the Shadow, Reflected Light, and Cast Shadow give an
object a three-dimensional look.[14]
 Linear Perspective is the concept relating to how an object seems smaller the farther away it
gets.
 Atmospheric Perspective is based on how air acts as a filter to change the appearance of distant
objects.
Form[edit]
In visual design, form is described as the way an artist arranges elements in the entirety of a
composition.[5] It may also be described as any three-dimensional object. Form can be measured,
from top to bottom (height), side to side (width), and from back to front (depth). Form is also defined
by light and dark. It can be defined by the presence of shadows on surfaces or faces of an object.
There are two types of form, geometric (artificial) and natural (organic form). Form may be created
by the combining of two or more shapes. It may be enhanced by tone, texture or color. It can be
illustrated or constructed.

Spatial relationship
 A spatial relation[1][2] specifies how some object is located in space in relation to some reference
object. When the reference object is much bigger than the object to locate, the latter is often
represented by a point. The reference object is often represented by a bounding box.
In Anatomy it might be the case that a spatial relation is not fully applicable. Thus, the degree of
applicability is defined which specifies from 0 till 100% how strongly a spatial relation holds. Often
researchers concentrate on defining the applicability function for various spatial relations.
In spatial databases and geospatial topology the spatial relations are used for spatial analysis and
constraint specifications.
In cognitive development for walk and for catch objects, or for understand objects-behaviour;
in robotic Natural Features Navigation; and many other areas, spatial relations plays a central role.
Commonly used types of spatial relations are: topological, directional and distance relations

Virtual reality is being increasingly used in the field of scientific visualisation. This field is
based upon using computer graphics to express complex ideas and scientific concepts, for
example molecular models or statistical results.

A tool for conveying complex information

Scientific visualisation is used as a means of communicating abstract concepts to an
audience which also aids with understanding. The audience can interact with these images,
for example, viewing a molecular structure at different angles or as a means of problem
solving.

Virtual reality enables scientists to demonstrate a method or convey complex ideas in a

visual format. This includessemi-immersive and full immersive environments in which they
visualise research theories or discuss large data sets.

Used across the sciences

This is used in the following scientific disciplines:

 Physics
 Chemistry
 Biology
 Medicine
 Astronomy
 Engineering
This technology raises possibilities for collaboration between different disciplines or new
forms of research and development.

Virtual reality is considered alongside other forms of visualisation technology such as

computer simulation, animation and information visualisation. All of these are designed to
show a visual model of a live system, e.g. human body, complex data set or a large
collection of numerical information.

Benchmarks and Visualization

Quality

To evaluate the performance of our implementation we calculate the mean squared error on the
unknown pixels of the benchmark images of [RRW+09].

Figure 1: Mean squared error of the estimated alpha matte to the ground truth alpha matte.
Figure 2: Mean squared error across all images from the benchmark dataset.

Visualization

The following videos show the iterates of the different methods. Note that the videos are
timewarped.

CF KNN
LKM RW
Performance

We compare the computational runtime of our solver with other solvers: pyAMG, UMFPAC,
AMGCL, MUMPS, Eigen and SuperLU. Figure 3 shows that our implemented conjugate
gradients method in combination with the incomplete Cholesky decomposition preconditioner
outperforms the other methods by a large margin. For the iterative solver we used an absolute
tolerance of 10−7, which we scaled with the number of known pixels, i.e. pixels that are either
marked as foreground or background in the trimap.
Figure 3: Comparison of runtime for different image sizes.