Topic 2 – Bonding and Structure

Ionic bonding and structure

What is it
 Electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions
 Metals + non-metals
 Ions produced form ionic crystals
- Crystal = giant lattice = 3D arrangement of atoms / ions in crystal
Properties
 Hard, brittle crystalline substances
 High MP + BP – solid at room temp
 Soluble in water + other polar substances – insoluble in non-polar substances
 Do not conduct electricity when solid – ions cannot move away from fixed positions in giant lattice
Conduct when molten / dissolved in water = charged ions free to move
High charge + small radii =
Strength
strongest electrostatic
 Charges of ions – greater charge = greater attraction attraction
 Radii of ions – greater radius = smaller attraction as has to act over larger
distance
Trend in ionic radii
 Ionic radius increases down group
- Number of electrons in shells increase = ionic radius increases
 If isoelectronic (same number of electrons) = smaller radius if it has more protons
Evidence for charged particles
Electrolysis of copper chromate on wet filter paper

Dot and cross diagrams

Covalent bonding and structure
 Strong electrostatic attraction between 2 nuclei and the shared pair of electrons between them
Representing covalent bonds

Multiple bonds
- 1 shared pair of electrons = 1 bond
- Double / triple bonds = 2 /3 PAIRS of electrons

Lone pairs of electrons

Pair of electrons in outer shell which is not involved in bonding
Lone pairs of electrons:
 Affect shape of molecules
 Used to form dative covalent bond
 Important in chemical reactions of compounds including water + ammonia
Dative covalent bonds
Bond in which 2 atoms share a pair of electrons – BOTH being donated by 1 atom – other atom accepts
electron in vacant shell
Once formed no difference with any other covalent bond

Bond length and strength

Distance between nuclei of 2 bonded atoms in molecule
How obtained
- X-ray diffraction studies = investigate structure + measure bond length in solid state
- Microwave spectroscopy = obtain values in vapour phase
Depends on
 Size of atoms involved – larger = longer as more electrons which shield nuclei + reduce attraction for
electron cloud
 Number of pairs of electrons shared (number of bonds – single = longest then double then triple etc)
Strength
Varies Inversely with length
Short bond = stronger = greater bond energy (energy required to break one mole of bond in a substance in
gaseous state)

Simple molecular structures

Properties
- Strong – do not break up into atoms easily Liquid/gas at room temp
- Intermolecular forces weak = easy to separate them Low mp/bp
- Do not conduct – no ions / free electrons to carry charge
- More soluble in non-polar solvents than water – solutions do not conduct

Shapes of molecules
Electron-pair repulsion theory
Electron pairs repel to a position to minimise repulsion and maximise separation
Using theory – how is molecules shaped
Determined by:
Number of electron pairs around atom + repulsion between them
- Each electron pair naturally repels so largest bond angle possible exists between covalent bonds
Lone pairs
Provide additional repulsive forces = changes bond angle
Every lone pair = reduces bond angle by 2.5
Molecule shapes
 Polar bonds and polar molecules
A spectrum of bonding
Pure covalent Pure ionic
 two atoms with the same  most electropositive element is
electronegativities.. bonded + most electronegative
 e.g. Diatomic elements element.
 the electrons are evenly shared  transfer of electron is complete
between both nuclei and the resulting cations and
anions are discrete spherical
Polar covalent bond entities.

 2 atoms of different elements

 Shared electrons drawn towards
atom with stronger pull on
electrons (bigger mr)
 Bond = pos pole at one end / neg
pole at other end
 S+ and S-
Electronegativity
Ability of atom to attract bonding electrons in covalent bond
Factors affecting it
 Size
 Nuclear charge
Trend
Increases along period – atomic radius decreases + nuclear charge increases
Decreases down group – shielding increases = shared electron pair = further from nucleus
Effect of electronegativity on bonding
Bigger difference in electronegativity of elements forming bond = more polar and ionic bond
- Ionic = difference in electronegativity = large enough for more negative element to remove
electrons completely from other element
Polar molecules
Contain polar bonds which do not cancel each other out = whole molecule is polar
Molecule with polar bonds = not necessarily polar
What is a polar molecules
 Little electrical dipoles – have pos / neg electric pole
Electric field
 Line up in an electric field
 Bigger dipole = bigger twisting effect / dipole moment
 = polar liquid attracted towards object with electrostatic charge – polar molecules move + rotate to
match opposite charges
Intermolecular forces
Definition
Weak attractive forces between molecules
Polarizability
Extent to which electron cloud in molecule can be distorted by nearby electric charge

Types
London forces
 Weakest
 Exist between all molecules - causes molecules to stick together
 Attraction between temporary instantaneous dipoles + short-lived induced dipoles 2 non polar
molecules meet
- Short-lived repulsions + attractions between nuclei of atoms + surrounding clouds of electrons
- Temporary displacement of electrons = leads to temporary dipoles
- These instantaneous temporary dipoles induce dipoles in neighbouring molecules – pos poles
induce neg poles
Factors affecting strength
 Mr of molecule
- Bigger Mr = stronger forces
- = has larger number of electrons = higher polarizability = possibility for temporary induced
dipoles = greater
 Shape of molecule
- Long thin = stronger – take effect over large surface area
- Straight = stronger as can pack closer together than branched molecules + larger surface area

Dipole-dipole interactions
 Between 2 atoms with sufficiently different electronegativities
 More electronegative atom draws more negative charge towards itself = S+ and S- pole = permanent
dipole forms
 S+ and S- regions of neighbouring polar molecules attract each other + hold molecules together in lattice
like structure
 Occurs in addition to London forces

Hydrogen bonding
 Strongest
 Acts in addition to London forces
 Only forms between hydrogen + fluorine / oxygen / nitrogen
- Highly electronegative atom attracts electrons strongly away from hydrogen = covalent bond
very polar
- S- on lone pair of one of these molecules form strong intermolecular force with S+ on H
 Covalent bond must form between h + fluorine/ oxygen / nitrogen + then hydrogen bond will form with
lone pair present in the other atom of these molecules
Shape
Straight line – atoms keep as far apart to minimise repulsion = 180* angle
Essential requirements
Hydrogen atom covalently bonded to highly electronegative atom
Lone pair of electrons on a second electronegative atom
Accounts for
High bp of ammonia h20 hydrogen fluoride – different from other hydrides
Open structure + low density of ice
Solubility of alcohols
Pairing of bases in DNA double helix
Solutions and solubility
Definitions
Solute
Chemical that dissolves
Solvent
Substance in which it dissolves
Saturated solution
Contains as much of the solute as possible at particular temperature
Solubility
Measure of the concentration of saturated solution of a solute at a specific temperature
Patterns in solubility
Rule
Like dissolves like – polar = polar non-polar = non-polar
Soluble or insoluble
No chemicals = completely (in)soluble
Rough classification
Very soluble – plenty of solid dissolves quickly
Soluble – dissolves to a significant extent
Slightly soluble – little solid seems to dissolve
Insoluble – no sign of any material dissolves
Solubility and intermolecular forces
Determines patterns of solubility in molecular solids
How does it dissolve
- Energy required to break intermolecular forces in solute + solvent = energy released when
solute forms new intermolecular forces with solvent.
- = forces involved are intermolecular forces of solid solute / intermolecular forced of liquid
solvent / intermolecular forces between solid and solute molecules.
- When all 3 are about same strength = dissolves freely
- Remember water = strong hydrogen bonds = cannot dissolve everything
Solutions of ionic salts in water
Why do they dissolve
Ions = strongly hydrated by water molecules
Water clusters around ions + binds to them
Energy released when water binds to ions = enough to compensate for energy needed to overcome
electrostatic attractions holding ionic lattice together
- If this hydration energy is not large enough = wont dissolve
Giant covalent structures
Example
Graphite graphene diamond silicon dioxide
How are they bonded
Held together by covalent bonding
Properties
Very hard
Very high mp/bp
- Covalent bonds = very strong
Carbon allotropes
Diamond
Structure
Rigid covalent structure with strong covalent bonds with definite length + fixed direction
Properties
Hard – used for cutting
Conducts thermal energy well – diamond tipped cutting tools don’t overheat
Does not conduct electricity – electrons are fixed (localised)

Graphite
Structure
Atoms held together in extended sheets of atoms
Properties
Can withstand extremely high temperatures - Line walls of industrial furnaces
Each c atoms only forms 3 bonds =fourth electron = forms part of cloud of delocalised electrons = conducts
electricity = used as electrodes
Soft + greasy as bonding between layers are relatively weak = slide over each other= used as lubricant

Graphene
Structure
Single layer of graphite = same electronic configuration
Properties
Thin + very strong – uses in aircrafts + cars
Transparent + flexible + conductive = use in touchscreens
Fullerenes
Structure
Football like dome
Molecular forms of carbon = different to graphite + diamond (infinite giant covalent structures)
Properties
Back solids soluble in various solvents due to molecular structure = used in mascara / printing ink
Electrical insulators – 3 outer shell electrons combined in covalent bond with other atoms = 4 th delocalised
but does not conduct as delocalised electron cannot move between molecules
Make up carbon nanotubes – deliver drugs to specific cells in body

Metallic bonding and structure

Definition
Strong electrostatic attraction between metal ions + sea of delocalised electrons
Structure
Packed together as closely as possible = close packing
Every new layer sinks into dips of previous layer = allows different layers to get as close as possible
= giant lattice of closely packed atoms in regular pattern
Properties
 High mp/bp
- Closely packed with strong forces of attraction between pos ions + delocalised electrons = takes
++++ energy to move pos ions away from position in giant lattice to melt / separate atoms to
boil
 High densities
- Packed closely together = large mass over small volume
 Good conductors = delocalised electrons
- Delocalised electrons carry heat / electricity (flow through metal towards pos electrode)
 Malleable – layers can slide over each other
-