Topic 1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
Models of atomic structure
400 BC Democritus
- Lump of metal = cut smaller and smaller = end in miniscle + invisible particle that cannot be smaller = atomos
(invisible)
- Explained properties of materials in terms of shapes of atom + ‘hooks’ he imagined joined them together
Scientist purified substances to carry out experiments = broken down into simpler substances = called element –
elements combines makes compound
1900 = make accurate measurements of quantities of substances involved in reactions = weight of elements that
raction = always in proportion
John Dalton
- Concluded if elements made of invisible particles = makes sense
- Called particles atoms
- Theory said
Elements made up of invisible particles called atoms
All atoms of same element are identical + have same mass
Atom of different element = different masses
Atoms combine to form molecule in compound
All molecules of compound = identical
JJ Thompson – discovery of the electron
- Investigated conduction of electricity by gases
- Placed 2 opposite charged placed around the cathode ray
- Particles send through tube = deflected away from negatively charged plate + towards positively charged plate
- Also put magnets on either side of of cathode ray = helped to discover mass to charge ratio
Experiment showed
Cathode ray = composed of negatively charged particles
Particles must exist as part of the atom as smaller than 1 H atom = found in all elements
Model produced
Plum pudding model – atoms = positive matter with tiny electrons embedded in it
Ernest Rutherford
Gold foil experiment
Fired narrow beam of alpha particles at thin gold foil
Results
Most went straight through
Some deflected by foil
Few rebounded from foil
Findings
The nucleus is positively charged – alpha also positive = repel = sends back
Most of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus
The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a whole
The atom is mostly empty space
Electrons orbit nucleus
Chadwick
Experiment
- Fired alpha particles at beryllium target
- Produced new kind of radiation with no electric charge but enough energy to release protons
Findings
Must be uncharged particles in nuclei of atoms + protons = neutrons
Found these have same mass as protons
Accounted for relative masses of e.g. helium
Atomic number and mass number
Proton
Same element = same number of protons
Atomic number
Number of protons in element
Z represents it
Mass number / nucleon number
Number of protons + neutrons (nucleons)
Isotopes and relative isotopic masses
Definitions
Isotope
Atoms of same element with same number of protons + electrons + chemical properties but different number of
neutrons = same atomic number but different mass number + physical properties
Relative isotopic mass
Mass of atoms of an isotope relative to 1/12th of mass of an atom of the isotope carbon-12
Relative atomic masses
Definition
Ar = average mass of atoms relative to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of the isotope carbon 12.
Equation
How to calculate it
Mass number x abundance / 100 + mass number x abundance / 100
Why is it not whole numbers
Elements contain mixture of isotopes in relative proportions
Relative molecular and formula masses
Definitions
Relative molecular mass
The average mass of a molecule compared to 1/12 of the mass of one atom of carbon 12
Relative formula mass
e.g. metal compounds / ionic compounds = giant structures of ions = do not want to suggest that formulae
represents molecules
Sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in its molecular formula
Empirical formula
Simplest positive integer ratio of atoms present in compounds
How to calculate it
Add different percentages of elements together Method 2
Calculate how many grams of each element is present Percentage / mass number
Work out number of moles of each element Find ratios of answers
Divide every number of moles by the smallest mole value
Use numbers as subscript to compound
Comparing the masses of atoms – mass spectrometry
What does it do
- Separates atoms + molecules according to their mass
- Shows relative masses of different atoms + molecules present
How does it work
*high vacuum present = ionised atoms/molecules from chemical can be studied without interference from
atoms/molecules in air.
1) Atoms / molecules = converted to positive ion in vapour state
- Beam of high energy electrons bombards the atoms or molecules
- Turns into ions by knocking out 1+ electron
2) Mass analyser separates ions by mass-to-charge ratio
- Electric field accelerates ions by attracting ions towards it until all have the same kinetic energy
- into magnetic field – deflects the ions onto the detector
- ion drift – heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles with the same energy
*molecules
Follows same steps BUT
Does not only ionise also breaks into fragments
Because of vacuum =
possible to study molecular fragments + ions that does not normally exist
Output = mass spectrum
Fragmentation pattern
What can you deduce from mass spectronomers
Isotopic composition of elements
Relative Atomic masses of elements
Relative molecular masses of compounds
Evidence for the electronic structure of atoms
How can you predict electron structures of atom
- Varying intensity of beam of electrons fired at mass spectrometer – find minimum amount of energy needed to
remove electrons from atom
Ionisation energy
What is it
Energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous ions
How can it be predicted
Using spectroscope
To study light given out by atoms when heated – similar to flame test
When heated = gives energy to make some jump to higher energy levels
Forms series of bright lines = each line = energy given out when electron drops back from higher to lower
level
Product of reaction
1 mole of gaseous ions of 1+ charge
Type of reaction
Endothermic – energy taken in by reaction = energy change = + sign
Requires energy input to occur
Factors affecting it
1) Attraction of the nucleus – more protons = bigger attraction
2) Distance of electrons from nucleus – closer to nucleus = bigger attraction
3) Shielding of attraction of nucleus – electrons in outer shell is repelled by electrons in complete inner shells =
weakens attraction of nucleus on outer shell electrons. Now electrons in outer shell = attracted by ‘effective
nuclear charge = less than full charge
Electrons in energy levels
How are they grouped
- In energy levels/quantum shells
- Starting closest to nucleus – 4 main shells – divided into subshells – divided into atomic orbitals
- 1 = 2 electrons
- 2 = 8 electrons
- 3 = 18 electrons
- 4 = 32 electrons
subshells
labelled s, p, d, f
Example – write the electronic configuration of Ga3+
Neutral Ga: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1
Going to back to Ga3+, the +3 charge means that it lost 3 electrons:
• subtract 3 e- from the outermost electrons of Ga
• subtract the electrons from the highest numbered orbital or higher energy orbital
▪ 4p and 4s are the highest number orbital:
Ga3+: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1
Ga3+: 1s22s22p63s23p63d10
Atomic orbitals
Subdivision of electron shells – main into sub – sub into orbital = region in space around nucleus of atom in
which there is 95% chance of finding electron / pair of electrons
Defined by
- Energy level
- Shape
- Direction in space
Shapes of atomic orbitals
Electron orbitals
Ionisation energy graphs – evidence that electrons in atom = arranged in series of energy levels
Big jump = 1 electron in outer energy
level (thus group 1) furthest from
nucleus – relatively easy to remove as
shielded
Small increase = x number of electron in
second energy level – close to nucleus
then first = harder
Big increase again = changed energy level
– 2 inner electrons closest to nucleus =
hardest to remove – smallest distance /
no shielding
Increase across period
Atomic number increases – more protons = effective attraction of nucleus larger
Electrons are added to same shell = same shielding effect + electrons pulled in closer to nucleus = harder to
remove
Decrease down a group
Outer electron = found in shell further from nucleus + more shielded = attraction becomes smaller
Shown as noble gases gradually decrease over graph
Electron structure + the periodic table
Arranged in order of atomic number
Horizontal rows = periods – always end in noble gas
Vertical columns = groups = similar properties as have same outer electron configuration
- Divided into 4 blocks
S – block
- Reactive metals in group 1 + 2
- Outermost electron = in s orbital in outer shell
P – block
- Elements in group 3 4 5 6 7 0
- Relatively unreactive metals e.g. tin + lead + all non-metals
- Last electron = in p orbital in outer shell
D – block
- Rectangle across period 4 5 6 7 between group 2 + 3
- All metals
- Last electron added = d orbital
- Less reactive then s – block metals
- Marked similarities across periods + usual vertical similarities
- Loosely called ‘transition metals’
As shells of electrons get further from nucleus = become closer in energy
Difference in energy between second + third shell = less than first + second shell
Fourth shell reached = overlap between orbitals of highest energy in third shell (3d) + orbitals of lowest energy in
fourth shell (4s)
= orbitals that fill fourth period = 4s 3d 4p orbitals in that order
= accounts for position of d-block – placed in 4th row when their configuration changes by addition of electrons in 3rd
shell
F – block
- Low rectangle across period 6 + 7
- All metal
- Last electron added in f-orbital
- Called lanthanoids + actinoids – as 14 elements directly following lanthanum and actinium / inner transition
metals
Periodic properties
Melting point
rises from group 1 to 2 to 3 peaks at 4 then decrease from group 5 to
6 to 7 to 0
Group 1 + 2 = metals = bonding between atoms are strong - increases
down group as number of outer delocalised electrons increase =
stronger bonding = higher melting point
Group 4 = carbon + silicon have giant covalent structures = bonds =
strong + highly directional = most must break before solid melts =
melting temps are extremely high
Group 5 6 7 0 = 0 non-metal elements form simple molecules =
intermolecular forces are weak = low melting point
First ionisation energies
Increases across periods
Atomic number increases – more protons = effective attraction
of nucleus larger
.
Atomic radius
decrease as you move from left to right across a period,
because the increased number of protons create more positive charge attraction for electrons which are in
the same shell with similar shielding.