CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

10.1 Water

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Describe chemical tests for the presence of water using anhydrous
cobalt(II) chloride and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate

● Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride turns from blue to pink when water in an

aqueous solution is added
● Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate turns from white to blue when water is added.

Describe how to test for the purity of water using melting point and
boiling point

● The purity of water can be determined by testing the melting point and boiling
point
● Pure water has a boiling point of 100°C and freezing point of 0°C so will melt
at >0°C
● The purity is determined by how close the melting and boiling points are to the
standard known values, i.e. a value above or below 100°C for the boiling point
suggests that the solution contains impurities

Explain that distilled water is used in practical chemistry rather than tap
water because it contains fewer chemical impurities

● Distilled water is used for practicals and experiments in chemistry instead of

tap water because it contains fewer chemical impurities that could interfere
with any chemical tests

State that water from natural sources may contain substances, including:

● Water from natural sources may contain impurities such as:

○ Dissolved oxygen
○ Metal compounds e.g. calcium, fluoride and magnesium ions
○ Plastics
○ Sewage
○ Harmful microbes
○ Nitrates from fertilisers
○ Phosphates from fertilisers and detergents

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State that some of these substances are beneficial, including:

(a) Dissolved oxygen

● The dissolved oxygen in natural water is essential for aquatic organisms, such
as fish and plants, as it is necessary for respiration to take place

(b) Some metal compounds

● Some of the metal compounds found in natural water provide essential
minerals
○ E.g. Iron, copper, and zinc are essential micronutrients that are
essential to life in the right concentrations

State that some of these substances are potentially harmful, including:

Details of the eutrophication process are not required

(a) Some metal compounds are toxic

● Some of the metal compounds found in natural water however are toxic such
as heavy metals e.g. mercury and lead

(b) Some plastics harm aquatic life

● Some plastics that are found in natural water can harm aquatic life:
○ Plastic takes a long time to decompose, where during that process the
material breaks down into very small pieces called microplastics
○ These microplastics are mistakenly consumed and enter the food
chains and cause harmful effects that are passed along

(c) Sewage contains harmful microbes which cause disease

● Sewage that enters into natural water sources contains harmful microbes that
can cause water-borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid

(d) Nitrates and phosphates lead to deoxygenation of water and damage to aquatic
life
● Nitrates and phosphates that enter water from fertilisers due to leaching can
cause harm to aquatic life:
○ An increase in nitrates and phosphates will increase the growth of
aquatic plants, like algae.
○ The algae grows over the surface of the water, preventing sunlight from
reaching the aquatic life beneath.
○ Without sunlight, plants below will not be able to photosynthesise and
will die and decompose
○ There is an increase in number of bacteria as they decompose the
dead plants, using up the oxygen content in the water during
respiration so this decreases the concentration of oxygen in the water
○ The decrease in oxygen can cause aquatic insects and fish to
suffocate, as they can no longer respire

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Describe the treatment of the domestic water supply in terms of:

● To make water potable (safe to drink), treatment must be done to water to

remove harmful microbes.

(a) Sedimentation and filtration to remove solids

● Sedimentation: Water is placed in a large tank or a reservoir. The flow of the
water is slowed which allows large, insoluble particles to sink to the bottom.
The cleaner water at the top is removed for the next step
● Filtration: Removes smaller insoluble particles by passing the water through
layers of sand and filters.

(b) Use of carbon to remove tastes and odours

● Activated carbon particles are added to eliminate tastes and odours in water
● The impurities in the water are removed and become adsorbed on the surface
of the carbon particles

(c) Chlorination to kill microbes

● Chlorination: Kills bacteria and microorganisms which are too small to be
removed by filtration. The chlorine is injected into the water as a gas to kill the
microbes.

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

10.2 Fertilisers

Notes

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State that ammonium salts and nitrates are used as fertilisers

● Nitrates and ammonium salts are used as fertilisers

● Nitrates and ammonium salts, such as ammonium sulfate, must provide a
source of soluble nitrogen to the plants in order for it to be able to enter the
plant through the root hair cells

Describe the use of NPK fertilisers to provide the elements nitrogen,

phosphorus and potassium for improved plant growth

● NPK fertilisers provide the elements: Nitrogen Phosphorus and Potassium

(Chemical symbol for potassium is K) for improved plant growth
● Compounds in the NPK fertilisers are soluble in water to provide soluble
sources of the elements that can be absorbed by the root hair cells of the
plants
● Nitrogen: needed to make proteins that leads to healthy growth in plants and
healthy leaves
● Phosphorus: needed to make new DNA and cell membranes, leading to
healthy flowers and seedlings.
● Potassium needed for the movement of water, nutrients and carbohydrates in
plant tissue and making ATP and helps regulate the opening and closing of
the stomata

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 CAIE IGCSE Chemistry

10.3 Air quality and climate

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State the composition of clean, dry air…

● Clean dry air is composed of approximately

○ 78% Nitrogen, N2
○ 21% Oxygen, O2
○ The remainder is a mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide, CO2

State the source of each of these air pollutants, limited to:

(a) Carbon dioxide

● Carbon dioxide is released into the air due to the complete burning
(combustion) of carbon-containing fuels
● Complete combustion occurs when there is a sufficient supply of oxygen

(b) Carbon monoxide and particulates

● Carbon monoxide and particulates is released into the air through the
incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances
● Particulates are carbon molecules known commonly as soot
● Incomplete combustion occurs when there is an insufficient supply of oxygen

(c) Methane
● Methane is released into the air from the decomposition of vegetation and
waste gases from digestion in animals (when cows fart they release methane)

(d) Oxides of nitrogen

● Oxides of nitrogen is released into the air from car engines

(e) Sulfur dioxide

● Sulfur dioxide is released into the air from the combustion of fossil fuels which
contain sulfur compounds

State the adverse effect of these air pollutants, limited to:

(a) Carbon dioxide:

● An increase in the levels of carbon dioxide leads to increased global warming,
which leads to climate change

(b) Carbon monoxide:

● Poisonous and toxic gas
○ Causes health problems – breathing difficulties, because it reduces the
amount of oxygen that red blood cells can carry around the body
○ Too much carbon monoxide results in carbon monoxide poisoning

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(c) Particulates:
● Particulate carbon (soot) can lead to increased risk of respiratory problems
and cancer when breathed in.

(d) Methane:
● An increase in the levels of methane can lead to increased global warming,
which leads to climate change
(e) Oxides of nitrogen:
● React with other pollutants, in sunlight, to form a photochemical smog, which
causes respiratory problems
● Also forms acid rain
○ Kills plants and aquatic life
○ Erodes stonework
○ Corrodes metals
(f) Sulfur dioxide:
● Forms acid rain
○ Kills plants and aquatic life
○ Erodes stonework
○ Corrodes metals
● Acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide is oxidised in the atmosphere to sulfur
trioxide gas. This gas dissolves in rainwater to form droplets of dilute sulfuric
acid

State and explain strategies to reduce the effects of these environmental

issues, limited to:

(a) Climate change:

● In order to reduce the effect of climate change the following strategies are
being used:
○ Planting trees- Trees take in carbon dioxide through photosynthesis so
reducing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere
○ Reduction in livestock farming- Reduces the amount of methane that is
released into the atmosphere by livestock and reduces deforestation
that would otherwise be needed for land for livestock farming
○ Decreasing use of fossil fuels- Decreases greenhouse gas emissions,
such as carbon dioxide and methane
○ Increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind, solar
Decreases the need for burning fossil fuels so decreases greenhouse
gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide and methane

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(b) Acid rain:
● Use of catalytic converters in vehicles
○ Catalytic converters are fitted in cars to remove oxides of nitrogen.

● Reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-sulfur fuels and flue gas
desulfurisation with calcium oxide
○ Flue gas desulfurisation is a type of ‘scrubber’ that is used to remove
sulfur dioxide from the exhaust gases in industrial processes such as
fossil fuel power plants
○ Waste gases from the power plants are passed into the ‘scrubber’
○ A wet mixture of calcium carbonate and calcium oxide is sprayed
○ The sulfur dioxide reacts with the calcium compounds to form calcium
sulfate
○ This helps to reduce over 90% of sulfur dioxide

Describe photosynthesis…

● Photosynthesis is the reaction which takes place in plants in the presence of

chlorophyll and sunlight (energy), where carbon dioxide and water react to
produce glucose and oxygen.

State the word equation for photosynthesis

● The word equation for photosynthesis is:

Carbon dioxide + Water -> Glucose + Oxygen

(Extended only) Describe how the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and
methane cause global warming, limited to:

(a) The absorption, reflection and emission of thermal energy

● Greenhouse gases maintain temperatures on Earth high enough to support
life
● Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane
● Explanation of the greenhouse gas effect:
o Electromagnetic radiation at most wavelengths from the sun passes
through the Earth’s atmosphere
o The Earth absorbs some radiation and thus warms up (essential for life
on Earth). But some heat is radiated from the Earth as infrared
radiation.
o Some of this IR radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere
o Atmosphere warms up leading to the greenhouse effect and global
warming

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(b) Reducing thermal energy loss to space
● Instead of some of the thermal energy being re-emitted to space, greenhouse
gases can absorb some of the thermal energy from the sun and re-emits it in
all directions where some of the heat becomes trapped within the Earth’s
atmosphere which contributes to global warming

(Extended only) Explain how oxides of nitrogen form in car engines and
describe their removal by catalytic converters, e.g. 2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 +
N2

● High pressure and temperature in a car engine causes the nitrogen and
oxygen atoms from the air to react together forming nitrogen monoxide.
● Nitrogen monoxide can react further to produce nitrogen dioxide.
● Catalytic converters are fitted in cars to remove oxides of nitrogen.
● They catalyse the reaction between carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide,
forming nitrogen and carbon dioxide:
● 2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2

(Extended only) State the symbol equation for photosynthesis

● The symbol equation for photosynthesis is:

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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