Dead Loads - This would include the deck slab, primary • Intermediate and bearing stiffeners if built-up steel

members (beams or girders), secondary members (including girders are used.

all bracing, connection plates, etc.), stiffeners, Diaphragms, • Construction loads.
floor beam, cross frame.

Superimposed dead loads are those loads placed on the DEAD LOADS ON BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE
superstructure after the deck has cured and began to work Dead loads on highway bridge superstructure include
with the primary members in resisting loads. This would the following:
include surfacing (asphalt pavement), sidewalks (foot path), • Weight of all structural components and nonstructural
median, guard rails, hand rail, lighting poles, signing, water attachments (DC)
lines, cables, pipes and other utilities. • Weight of all wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
Calculations of these loads are related to the weights
of deck slab and its supporting girders (if they are
The unit weight of reinforcement amount is generally taken as present). The deck may be of reinforced concrete,
0.005kcf plus the unit weight of plain concrete which generally steel
equals 0.145 kcf. So, in absence of more precise information,
take the unit weight of reinforced concrete (𝛾𝑐 )= 0.150 kcf. Live Loads Live Load – Truck Load,
Lane Load, and Extra-Legal Load
A load that moves along the length of a span.
Examples for these, is when a person is walking or a truck that
is passing by the bridge.

For live loads on bridges as specified in the AASHTO

(American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials) Standard Specifications, the live loads discussed
and referred through that book applies to short-span bridges,
not to long-span bridges: “Primarily, the specifications det forth
the minimum requirements which are consistent with the
current practice, and certain modifications may be necessary
to suite local conditions. They ordinarily apply to ordinary
highway bridges, and supplemental specifications may be
required for unusual types and for bridges longer than 500
feet.” Also, it is significant to understand that the live-load
DEAD LOAD ON DECK SLAB
models vary in different countries. To give designers the ability
The deck slab has to support its own dead weight plus the live to accurately model the live load on a structure, hypothetical
load. The dead weight of deck slab depends on its thickness design vehicles based on truck loading were developed.
which is related to the span length in the slab bridges type. These design load of vehicles are exaggerated.
Whereas in the case of typical slab-girder in beam type, the
From a historical perspective, the genesis of highway
deck slab thickness depends on the girder spacing.
design live loads goes back to the mid-nineteenth century. The
The deck slab almost includes integral wearing surface which first live-load procedure for highway bridges was proposed
is nonstructural layer with typical thickness of 0.5 in. thus, the and used by Squire Whipple in 1846. In his Essay No. 2, he
total or overall thickness of the deck slab which should be regarded it "proper to consider the whole area of the roadway
used for dead load calculations is greater than its structural covered with men, which is about 100 lb to the square foot, as
thickness; while the strength calculations are relating to the the greatest load to which the bridge can be exposed," and
structural thickness . this standard continued to be in use for many years. However,
after many bridge failures, the American Society of Civil
DEAD LOAD on GIRDERS Engineers created a committee to determine "the most
practical means of averting bridge accidents." This committee,
A bridge girder has to support its own weight as well as the
in its March 3, 1875, report, made recommendations for both
dead weight of the tributary area of the deck slab it supports.
the railroad and highway bridge loadings. It divided highway
A typical designed girder should support, in minimum, dead
bridges into the following three categories [Edwards, 1959]:
load from the following items:
A. City and suburban bridges and those over large
• Tributary area of the deck slab including the wearing
rivers, where great concentration of weight is
surface
possible.
• Future wearing surface layer B. Highway bridges in manufacturing districts or on level,
• Girder own weight including the haunch well-ballasted roads.
• Traffic barriers including parapet and railing C. County road bridges, where roads are unballasted
• Permanent or stay in place (SIP) deck forms to and the loads hauled are consequently light.
support concrete slab during construction
• Diaphragms and as applicable cross frames Highway loadings are rather complex. At any given
time, a bridge deck may be loaded randomly with a multitude
of vehicles. The effect of live load on a bridge is a function of
several parameters, such as the gross vehicle weight, axle induce maximum moment in a span. For simply supported
loads, axle configuration, span length, position (longitudinal bridges, this value will be the 14 ft minimum. In continuous
and transverse) and number of the vehicles (multipresence) spans, however, the distance between axles is varied to
on the bridge, speed of the vehicles, stiffness characteristics position the axles at adjacent supports in such a fashion as to
of the bridge superstructure, and bridge configuration create the maximum negative moment.
(straight, skewed, or horizontally curved). Together, these
parameters introduce analytical complexity and affect force Figure 2.1: AASHTO Standard H & HS Design
distribution in the supporting structures and its components, Trucks. (Adapted from Standard Specifications for Highway
live-load distribution in various portions of a bridge Bridges, Ref. 3.3.)
superstructure. At the turn of the century, the heaviest highway In designing, it is important to stress that the H and
loading was aroad roller, which continued to be used as a HS trucks do not represent an actual truck being used to
model for describing design live loads for highway bridges. transport goods and materials. They are approximations used
Truck Load to simulate the greatest bending and shear forces caused by
actual trucks. The presumption is that any legal actual vehicle
Truck loads are hypothetical design loading used to simulate
crossing bridge should not cause stresses greater than those
a single truck on a bridge. It is the weight that the truck carries
caused by the hypothetical vehicle.
while on the bridge. In 1935, what was then called AASHO
issued a loading scheme based on a train of trucks. These are Lane Load
identified as H-20-35 and H-15-35. Lane load is a hypothetical design loading used to
Since the demand for heavier trucks is rapidly simulate a train of trucks moving across a bridge. The design
increasing, the introduction of five new truck classes was of lane load was developed to better model loading on long
made in 1944 to satisfy these demands. To meet the demands spans, where a string of light vehicle might be critical. It
of heavier trucks, the introduction of five new truck classes approximates a 20—ton truck preceded and followed by a 15-
was made in 1944. These classes have the following ton truck. Essentially, the assumption of uniformly distributed
designations and gross vehicle weights: lane loading obviates the necessity of having more than one
design truck in a lane. Regardless of the span length and the
❏ H10-44 (20,000 lb - 89 KN) ❏ H15-44 (30,000 lb - 133 KN) number of spans, resulting in a simple design procedure for
❏ H20-44 (40,000 lb - 178 KN) ❏ HS15-44 (54,000 lb - 240 long span bridges is applied.
KN) ❏ HS20-44 (72,000 lb - 320 KN)

Lane loading also has two classes of loadings, and in each

class two different load- ings are provided. These loadings are
designated in the same manner as the truck load- ings
(namely, H15-44, HS15-44, H20-44, HS20-44). Basically, the
lane load consists of a uniform load accompanied by a
concentrated load. The value of the concentrated load is
Today, all but the H10-44 vehicle are still included in different for shear than for moment. The lighter concentrated
the AASHTO standard specifications. To load a structure one loads are to be used for calculating bending moment; the
such truck per lane, per span is used. The truck is then moved heavier concentrated load should be used for calculating
along the length of the span to determine the point of shear.
maximum moment. Recently, to account for higher loading
conditions, some states have begun using the so-called HS- Extra Legal Load
25 design vehicle, which represents a 25 percent increase in These are the trucks that are designed beyond the legal
loading over the standard HS20-44 truck for a total gross load limit, or these are the trucks that are overweight.
vehicle weight of 90,000 lb (400 KN).
Since it cannot be denied that some community, such as
From the Figure 2.1, it can be observed that the HS cities encounter an ever-growing demand to transport goods
trucks have a variable spacing between the two rear axles. and materials, considerations are given to local or regional
This distance between axles, varying from 14 to 30 ft (4.27 to modifications to design truck, tandem, or lane load. These are
9.14 m), is used to create a live loading situation which will the conditions that will be considered to permit loadings on
highways that are heavier and wider than the typical AASHTO such a case, the turbulent eddy formations from the windward
loadings. Therefore, the following provisions will be identified bridge will excite the leeward bridge. It is a random forced
as extra-legal loadings. These conditions are the following: vibration generated by the structure under the action of natural
wind fluctuation components.
• The legal load of a given jurisdiction is significantly
greater than the AASHTO design loads. Static wind force, the main wind force acting on a
• The roadway is expected to carry unusually high bridge structure, develops as a result of steady wind that
percentages of truck traffic. exerts a fairly constant pressure in the general direction of the
• Due to unusual circumstances, many trucks can wind. Pressure due to wind is calculated by applying the
collect on certain areas of the bridge. familiar principle of fluid mechanics. According to Bernoulli’s
• Special industrial loadings are common due to the Theorem, when an ideal fluid strikes an object, the increase in
location of the bridge. static pressure equals the decrease in the dynamic pressure.
The intensity of this pressure is expressed as

Wind Load 1 2
p= ρV
2
Wind loads form a major component of lateral loads
that act on a structure. They are a component of so-called Where:
environmental loads to which all structure are subjected. q = dynamic pressure in N/m^2
Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the
structure. The magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a ρ = is the mass density of the air (0.00233 slugs/ft^3 or 12.02
structure depend on the geographical location of the structure, N/m^3 at sea level at 15°c)
obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby
buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational characteristics V = wind speed in m/s
of the structure itself. Expressing the wind speed V in m/s, the dynamic
Bridges are frequently built on exposed sites and are pressure q in N/m2 is given by:
subjected to severe wind conditions. Wind load on bridge 1 12.02 2
superstructures depends on the type of bridge, e.g., slab q= ( ) V = 0.613V 2
2 9.81
stringer, truss, arch, cable-stayed, or suspension. Other
parameters that affect wind loads on bridge superstructures The wind speed V to be used in the determination of
are the wind velocity, angle of attack, the size and the shape the design loads on a structure depends on its geographical
of the bridge, the terrain, and the gust characteristics. General location. The NSCP 2015 provides a contour map of the basic
discussions on wind loads and their effects on structures have wind speeds for the Philippines. This map, which is based on
been presented by several researchers [ASCE, 1961, 1987; data, collected sa the result from PAGASA, gives the 3-
Houghton and Carruthers, 1976; Ishizaki and Chiu, 1976; Lui, second gust speeds in km/h.
1991; Sachs, 1978; Scanlan, 1978a,b; Sumui and Scanlan,
These speeds are for open terrain at the heights of 10 m
1986]. The following discussion is summarized from these
above ground level. To account for the variation in wind speed
references.
with the height and the surroundings in which a structure is
Wind effects on bridge structures maybe threefold: located and to account for the consequences of the failure of
structures, the ASCE 7 Standard modifies Eq. as:
1. Static wind pressures
2. Dynamic (oscillatory) wind movements qz = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2
3. Buffeting between adjacent structures Where:
Static wind pressures are those that cause a bridge to qz = is the velocity pressure at height z in N/m2
deflect or deform. These are horizontal pressure that tries to
push a bridge sideways. V = is the basic wind speed in m/s obtained from Fig. 207A.5-
1A through 207 A.5-1C in NSCP 2015
Dynamic wind movement gives rise to vertical motion,
creating oscillations in any direction. It affects long span K z = is the velocity pressure exposure coefficient obtained
flexible bridges, such as suspension bridges and cable-stayed from Table 207 B.3-1
bridges. Such bridges are prone to movement under wind
K = is the topographic factor obtained from Section 207 A.8
forces, which may cause them to oscillate in a number of zt
and Table 207 A.8-1
different modes, at low frequencies, which may be
catastrophic under suitable wind condition [Davenport, K d = is the wind directionality factor obtained from Section 207
1962a,b, 1966; Lin, 1979; Scanlan, 1978, ab, 1981, 1986; A.6 and Table A.6-1
Scanlan and Wardlow, 1977].
Thermal Stress
Buffeting is cause by the close proximity of the bridge
structures. In such a case, the turbulent eddy formations from Thermal stresses are caused due to temperature.
the windward bridge will excite the leeward bridge. Buffeting When the temperature is very high or very low they induce
is cause by the close proximity of the bridge structures. In stresses in the bridge elements especially at bearings and
deck joints. These stresses are tensile in nature so, concrete
cannot withstand against this and cracks are formed. To resist va = actual velocity of the wheel
this, additional steel reinforcement perpendicular to main
reinforcement should be provided. Expansion joints are also W = dynamic wheel load
provided.
Seismic Load
According to experiments, the dependence of thermal
Seismic loading is one of the basic concepts of
expansion on temperature,
earthquake engineering which means application of a seismic
substance, and original length is summarized in the equation
oscillation to a structure. It happens at contact surfaces of a
structure either with the ground or with adjacent structures.
dL/dT=αL
Seismic loading depends, primarily on seismic hazard,
geotechnical parameters of the site, and structure's natural
where L is the original length dL/dT is the change in length
frequency etc. There are horizontal and vertical components
with respect to temperature, and αα is the coefficient of linear
of earthquake ground motions, but the horizontal component
expansion, a material property that varies slightly with
temperature. As αα is nearly constant and also very small, for of earthquake ground motion is the main cause of bridge
damages. Therefore, only horizontal earthquake ground
practical purposes, we use the linear approximation:
motion is considered in the bridge design and analysis.
ΔL≈αLΔT
In the Philippines, the DPWH and the Association of
Centrifugal Force
Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP) are the
When a particle of mass m moves along a constrained organizations formulating the design guidelines and
curve path with a constant speed, there is a normal force specifications for bridges in the Philippines. The DPWH, being
exerted in the particle by the constraint. It is caused by the mandated to control the design and construction of roads and
centripetal (meaning “toward the center of rotation”) bridges, prepares the design guidelines and specifications to
acceleration and acts perpendicular to the tangent to the path. have a standard and uniform approach in bridge design and
For equilibrium, an equal and opposite force called the construction. On the other hand, the ASEP, being a
centrifugal force, is transferred to the path. The magnitude of professional engineering association, has the mission to
this force is given the following expression: uphold the structural engineering profession through
standardizing the national structural code for bridge design.
F=mv^2/r Both DPWH Guidelines and ASEP’s NSCP1 incorporate
some provisions on seismic design.
Where, m = mass of the particle
g = acceleration due to gravity AASHTO Seismic Design Category
v = particle velocity
Seismic Design Category is a classification assigned to a
r = instantaneous radius of curvature of the path
structure based on it's occupancy category, and the severity
of the design earthquake ground motion. The category
assignment can range from A-F, and can be defined as the
Traction load following:
Vehicle traction is the generated friction between a drive wheel
and the road surface and is caused by the vehicle's • Seismic Design Category A – Corresponds to
acceleration and the subsequent movement over the bridge buildings in areas where expected ground shaking will be
carriageway. These loads assume the nature of horizontal minor. Good Soils
loads applied to the superstructure. • Seismic Design Category B - Corresponds to buildings of
Occupancy Groups I,II and III where expected ground
shaking will be moderate. Stratified soils with Good and poor
Soils
• Seismic Design Category C - Corresponds to buildings of
Occupancy Groups IV (Hospitals, Police Stations Emergency
control centers etc) I where expected ground shaking will be
MODERATE AND buildings of occupancy categories I, II, and
III where MORE SEVERE ground shaking will occur
• Seismic Design Category D -Corresponds to buildings
and structures in areas expected to experience severe and
destructive ground shaking But NOT located close to a major
fault. Sites with poor soils are a good example.
ω = angular velocity of the wheel • Seismic Design Category E - Corresponds to buildings of
Ff = friction force Occupancy Groups I,II and III in areas NEAR MAJOR
ACTIVE FAULTS. Soil or rock is of no consequence.
H = net tractive force • Seismic Design Category F - Corresponds to buildings of
Occupancy Groups IV (Hospitals, Police Stations Emergency
R = vertical reaction force of the wheel control centers etc)areas NEAR MAJOR ACTIVE FAULTS.
Soil or rock is of no consequence.
T = torque transferred to the wheel axle
A Good Soils report from a Geotechnical engineer will and one with the highest strength-to-weight ratio.
should provide to the structural engineer and architect the
parameters necessary to determine the Seismic Design
Category OR provide the Seismic Design category outright.
However it MUST be specified in their sub-contract.

Flood Loads

Flood Loads are part of Environmental Loads which act on

bridges that are constructed over streams. Bridges
constructed over river crossings must be designed for flood
loads. Flood load are consisting of Hydrodynamic and impact
force.

Hydrodynamic Loads are exerted by moving flood water

against the bridge members such as pier, abutments and
superstructure in a submersible condition. That is when flood
water over tops the bridge. It composed of Pressure force,
drag force and lift Force.

Impact force is due to debris and logs hitting against the bridge
members such as pier and abutments.

What are the effects of flood in a bridge?

High-velocity water flows, flooding, and overtopping can erode

and damage bridge approach slabs and abutments. These
flows also can cause scour around piers and abutments,
which can damage the bridge and even cause structural
soundness problems

What can happen because of a flood?

Large debris and floodwaters can cause structural damage to

bridges and roadways, making travel impossible. Power,
telephone, and cable lines can be taken out by flash floods as
well. Flood waters can disrupt or contaminate ground water,
making tap water unfit for consumption.

Flood are causing serious bridge deformation compared to

other load types. Therefore, Bridge specifications require
review to cater for the change in the flood condition.

Summary

Bridge structures must be built with great capacity and

strength to resist the gravity and lateral loads Generally, the
major components of loads acting on highway bridges are
dead and live loads, flood load, seismic load, wind load,
Thermal Stresses, Centrifugal Forces, and Traction load.
Loads are one of the factors that are to be considered when
designing/ constructing a bridge. That's why the components
of loadings are very significant. To learn about the types of
possible loads, how to calculate ultimate load combinations,
and investigate the different sizes for the beams and columns
of simple bridge design is necessary. To understand the
problem, and learn how to determine the potential bridge
loads, calculate the highest possible load, and calculate the
amount of material needed to resist the loads is the utmost
goal in this topic.
Engineers who design structures must completely understand
the problem to be solved, which includes the complexities of
the site and the customer needs. To design for safety and
longevity, engineers consider the different types of loads, how
they are applied and where. This is because engineers often
aim for a design that is the strongest and lightest possible—