CHAPTER 3:

WIRELESS NETWORK PRINCIPLES

Prepared By:
Seid M.
 Contents

01 Wireless Network Basics

02  Frequency allocation and Regulation

03 Antennas
04 Signal Propagation

05 Modulation in Wireless NW
 Wireless Network Basics
 Over the past few years, a new understanding
of wireless networks is emerging by focusing
on signal interactions arising due to the
broadcast nature of wireless channels.
 This allows some approximate
characterizations of information flow over
wireless networks.
 A wireless network uses radio signals instead of
Ethernet cable or other standard wiring
methods.
 The idea is to broadcast your data and
information without having wires run all over
your house or business.
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Advantages:
 Convenience of Mobility – (laptops, tablets and
cell phones can connect anywhere in range)
 No cable runs around your house or business
 Flexibility to add desktops and wireless printers
anywhere you like in the house as long as you are
in range

Disadvantages
 Slower data speed than wired nw.
 The wireless signal is affected by walls and
distance
 Wireless signal is broadcast and can be seen by
hackers which can attempt an attack on your
LAN
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 Frequency allocation and Regulation
 Frequency allocation refers to the process of assigning
specific frequency bands or channels to different
communication services and systems.
 It is a regulatory measure carried out by national and
international telecommunications authorities to ensure
efficient and interference-free use of the electromagnetic
spectrum
 The allocation and regulation of the electromagnetic
spectrum into radio frequency bands, normally done by
governments in most countries.
 Because radio propagation does not stop at national boundaries,
governments have sought to compromise the allocation of
RF bands and their standardization.
Some standardization organizations working on spectrum allocation
and regulation:
 European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT), International Telecommunication Union
(ITU), Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)
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 The Significance of Frequency Allocation
Efficient frequency allocation is essential for telecommunication
networks:
 Prevention of Interference: By assigning specific frequencies to
different network providers, interference between their signals is
minimized, ensuring seamless communication.
 Optimal Spectrum Utilization: Proper frequency allocation enables
efficient utilization of the limited radio spectrum to accommodate
the ever-increasing demand for wireless services.
 Enhanced Quality of Service: The correct assignment of frequencies
ensures high-quality voice and data transmission, leading to
improved overall customer experience.
 Facilitating Network Expansion: Proper frequency allocation
enables the deployment and expansion of new services, supporting
the growing demand for wireless connectivity.
 Ensuring Coexistence of Multiple Technologies: Allocating separate
frequency bands to diverse technologies (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, etc.)
allows them to coexist without causing interference, ensuring
smooth transitions and backward compatibility.
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The Challenges of Frequency Allocation
 Spectrum Scarcity: As demands for wireless services increase, the
availability of radio spectrum becomes limited. Ensuring fair and
efficient allocation becomes crucial to meet the growing
requirements.
 Interference Management: With multiple wireless devices operating
simultaneously, managing interference becomes a significant
challenge. Allocating frequencies in a way that minimizes
interference is essential for providing reliable and uninterrupted
communication.
 International Harmonization: Coordinating frequency allocation
between countries is necessary to maintain seamless global
connectivity. International organizations like the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) play a vital role in harmonizing
frequency allocation practices worldwide.
 Emerging Technologies: The introduction of new technologies, such
as 5G, brings additional complexity to frequency allocation.
Balancing the needs of existing services while accommodating the
requirements of cutting-edge technologies requires careful planning.
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 Antennas
 The antenna system is the interface between the radio
system and the external environment.
 Wireless communication systems require antennas at
the transmitter and receiver to operate properly.
 There are both receiving and transmission antennas for
sending or receiving radio transmissions.
 Antennas play an important role in the operation of all
radio equipment.
 It plays a crucial role in wireless systems by converting
electrical signals into radio waves (for transmission)
and vice versa (for reception).
 Antennas are used in devices like Wi-Fi routers, cell
towers, smartphones, satellites, and radios.
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There are three main antenna categories available
for wireless LANs:
◦ Omnidirectional,
◦ Semi-directional and
◦ Highly directional.
 Omnidirectional - are designed to radiate a signal
in all directions.
 Semi-directional: are designed to provide specific,
directed signal coverage over large areas. An
example of a semi-directional antenna is a Yagi
antenna.
 Highly-directional - are used for point-to-point
links; for example, between two buildings. They
radiate a very narrow beam over a long distance,
and are often used for dedicated links.
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 Signal Propagation
 This is the movement of radio waves from a
transmitter to a receiver.
 When the waves travel (propagate) from one
point to another, they are, like light waves,
affected by different phenomena such as light
reflection, absorption, or scattering.
 The antennas of different specifications can be
used for these purposes.
 The mode of propagation of electromagnetic
waves in the atmosphere and in free space may
be divided into the following three categories:
◦ –The line of sight (LOS) propagation
◦ – Ground wave propagation
◦ – Skywave propagation
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The line of Sight (LOS) Propagation
 In the line-of-sight communication, the wave
travels a minimum distance of sight.
◦ it travels to the distance up to which a naked eye
can see.

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 Ground Wave Propagation
 The wave propagates through the Earth’s atmosphere is
known as a ground wave.
 Is the wave follows the contour of the earth. Such a
wave is called a direct wave.
 •The wave sometimes bends due to the Earth’s magnetic
field and gets reflected the receiver.
Ground waves can further be classified as either surface
waves or space waves.
 Surface waves travel along the contour of the Earth by
diffraction.
 Space waves can travel through the air directly to the
receiving antenna or can be reflected from the surface of
the Earth.
◦ The direct wave and reflected wave together contribute the
signal at the receiver station.
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 SkyWave Propagation:
 Skywave propagation is preferred when the
wave has to travel a longer distance.
 Here the wave is projected onto the sky and it
is again reflected back to the earth.

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 Here the waves are shown to be
transmitted from one place and where it is
received by many receivers. Hence, it is an
example of broadcasting.
 The waves, which are transmitted from
the transmitter antenna, are reflected
from the ionosphere.
 It consists of several layers of charged
particles ranging in altitude from 30-250
miles above the surface of the earth.
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 Multiplexing
o Any device that does not need to remain at one place
to carry out its functions is a mobile device.
• So laptops, smartphones and personal digital assistants
are some examples of mobile devices.
• Due to their portable nature, mobile devices connect
to networks wirelessly.
• Mobile devices typically use radio waves to
communicate with other devices and networks.
• Mobile communication protocols use multiplexing to
send information.
• Multiplexing is a method to combine multiple digital or
analog signals into one signal over the data channel.
• At the destination these signals are de-multiplexed to
recover individual signals.

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Multiplexing
• Allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously across
a single data link.

• In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.

• A way of transmitting various signals over a media or single
line.
• In the figure, link refers to the physical path. It merges a number
of low speed signals to send high speed link .
• The entire process can be done using a device MUX( N input
and 1 output) & DEMUX (used at receiving end and 1 input and
N output).

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Multiplexing
• For each type of multiplexing:
– Multiplexer (mux) )
• is a device that combines several signals into a single channel.
• To accept data from more than one source, and transmit it over
the shared channel.
– Demultiplexer (demux)
• separates the combined signals and regenerates them in original
form
• accepts data from the shared channel, and sends it on to its
correct destination.
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 Multiplexing

• Multiplexing/Demultiplexing: Used when many sources

communicate with many destinations through one communication
line.

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Multiplexing
• There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
– Frequency-division multiplexing

– Wavelength-division multiplexing and

– Time-division multiplexing.

• The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for
digital signals

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 Multiplexing
• Frequency-Division Multiplexing
– is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals
– Used in telephone companies in 20th century in long distance
connections for multiplexing number of voice signals.
– In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different
carrier frequencies.
– These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite
signal that can be transported by the link.
– each user is assigned a different frequency from the
complete spectrum. All the frequencies can then
simultaneously travel on the data channel.
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 Multiplexing
• Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
– is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
– is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic
cable.
– WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals
transmitted through fiber-optic cables/channels.
– The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of
different frequencies. The difference is that the signals have very
high data rate. 23
Time-Division Multiplexing:
– TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.
– is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high
bandwidth of a link.
– Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
– Sectioned by time rather than by frequency

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• Time-Division Multiplexing
– It is a communication process that transmits two or more streaming digital
signals over a common channel.

– Divides time into slices called time slots.

– In TDM incoming signals are divided into equal fixed length time slots. each
slot is assigned to a different user. So multiple users can be supported
simultaneously.

– After MUX these signals are transmitted over a shared medium and
reassembled into their original format after DEMUX.

– Both MUX and DEMUX are synchronized timely & at the same time switch
toward the next channel.

– TDM can be used with both digital and analogue transmission. 25

 Modulation in Wireless NW
• Modulation is the process of transforming a carrier
signal - it can carry the information of a message
signal.
• It superimposes the contents of the message signal
over a high-frequency carrier signal, which is then
transmitted over communication channels.
Modulation can be of two types −
– Analog Modulation
• The analog information signal is transformed to the analog carrier
signal so that it can travel large distances without substantial loss.
– Digital Modulation
• It is the process of converting a digital bit stream into an analog
carrier wave for transmission via a communication channel.
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What is the difference between Modulation and
Multiplexing?
1. Modulation is the process of altering a carrier
signal to encode data for transmission.
 Multiplexing is the process of combining
multiple signals into a single transmission
channel to optimize bandwidth usage.
2. Modulation is using a career signal to send
information, whereas multiplexing is a way of
combining multiple signals.

3. Usually, modulation is done after multiplexing

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Feature Modulation Multiplexing
Purpose Used to efficiently transmit data Used to allow multiple signals or users to
over a communication channel share the same medium simultaneously.
by modifying signal properties.

How It A baseband signal (original data) Multiple signals are combined, transmitted,
Works modifies a carrier signal's and separated at the receiver without
amplitude, frequency, or phase. interference.

Types - Amplitude Modulation (AM) - Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

- Frequency Modulation (FM) - Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
- Phase Modulation (PM) - Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
- Quadrature Amplitude - Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
Modulation (QAM)

Application Used in wireless communication, Used in telecommunication systems, LTE,

radio, TV broadcasting, and 4G/5G networks, and broadband services.
satellite communication.

Example FM radio stations use frequency Mobile networks use time-division

modulation to transmit audio multiplexing (TDM) to allow multiple users
signals. to share the same frequency band.
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 MAC in wireless networks
• In wireless networks, multiple terminals need to
communicate at the same time and a medium access
control (MAC) protocol allows several terminals to
transmit over the wireless channel and to share its
capacity.
• MAC protocols multiplex several data streams of
different terminals to share the same channel and deal
with issues such as addressing, how a terminal obtains
a channel when it needs one, and so forth.
• MAC protocols were designed for wired
communications where multiple computers need to
transmit data packets at the same time in a local area
network (LAN).
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• With wired networks, the physical medium can be copper or fiber optics,
which are in general very reliable with abundant bandwidth.
• Packet loss in wired networks is mainly due to collisions and the MAC
designs are relatively simple.
• The MAC design in wireless networks is much more challenging:-
• The difficulties lie in the following aspects.
– With wireless communications, a radio signal may experience
reflection(When a radio signal hits a smooth surface (like a
building, water, or walls), it bounces off in a different
direction.), diffraction(When a radio signal encounters an edge
or corner of an obstacle (like a building or mountain), it bends
around it and continues its path. ) or scattering (When a signal
encounters small objects (like trees, rough surfaces, or rain
droplets), it gets scattered in multiple directions. )before
reaching its receiver.
– The broadcast nature of wireless channels.
– For reliable transmission against fading, strong radio transmission
power needs to be used by the transmitter.
– Because of fading and interference, wireless networks are more
vulnerable compared to wired ones.
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 Cont…
 The difficulty also lies in the fact that wireless terminals usually
have to operate in half-duplex mode.
– This is because transmission power is in general much stronger than
reception power, and
– with full-duplex operation, the leakage of transmission power to the
receiver component will incur very strong self-interference and
– Therefore the terminal will not be able to receive packets or detect a
collision when it is sending.
 MAC schemes can be divided into two categories: contention-
free and contention-based protocols.
 A MAC protocol is contention-free if messages do not collide during its
execution. Contention- free MAC protocols are typically based on time
division multiplexing access (TDMA) of the wireless medium, assuming
that all the sensor nodes are time-synchronized in some way.
 Contention-based MAC protocol is also known as a random access MAC
protocol. It allows all nodes to transmit data on the shared medium, but
they have to compete with each other to access the medium. One
example of contention-based MAC is CSMA/CA.
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 Classifications of Wireless Networks

•The four types of wireless networks.

– wireless LAN,
– wireless MAN,
– wireless PAN and
– wireless WAN
•Differ with their size, range and
connectivity requirements.

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 1. Wireless LAN
 Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology provides internet
access within a building or a limited outdoor area.
 First used within offices and homes, WLAN
technology is now also used in stores and restaurants.

2. Wireless MAN
 It have been installed in cities worldwide to provide
access for people outside an office or home network.
 •APs are located on the sides of buildings or on
telephone poles throughout the coverage area.
 •APs are connected to the internet via a wired
network and broadcast a wireless signal throughout
the area.

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 3. Wireless PAN:
 It cover a very limited area typically a
maximum of 100 meters for most
applications using protocols like Bluetooth
and Zigbee.
 •Bluetooth enables hands-free phone calls,
connects a phone to earpieces or transmits
signals between smart devices.
 •Zigbee connects stations along an IoT
network.

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 4. Wireless WAN
 Wireless WANS use cellular technology to
provide access outside the range of a wireless
LAN or metropolitan network.
 These networks enable users to make
phone calls to others connecting either
through a wireless WAN or a wired
telephone system.
 Users can also connect to the internet to
access websites or server-based applications.

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Network Coverage Technology Speed Example Use
Type Area Case
10 meters Bluetooth, Up to 2 Wireless
Zigbee, NFC Mbps earbuds,
WPAN
smartwatches

WLAN 100-300 Wi-Fi Up to 10 Home/office

meters (802.11) Gbps internet, Wi-Fi
hotspots
WMAN Several WiMAX, 50 Mbps City-wide
kilometers LTE - 1 Gbps internet,
municipal Wi-Fi

WWAN Hundreds to 3G, 4G LTE, 1-10+ Cellular

thousands of 5G, Satellite Gbps networks,
km satellite internet
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