Unit 2: Things and Connections

Control System
Control system is a system in which the output is controlled by varying the input. Control
system is a set of mechanical or electronic devices that regulates other devices or system by
way of control loops. A control system manages commands, directs or regulates the
behaviour of other devices or system using control loops. The system used for controlling the
position, velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage, current etc.
Examples:
1. An air conditioner maintaining the temp of the room.
2. A car moving rest to the speed of 100 Km/hr.
3. A lift moving upward.

Features of a good Control System

• Accuracy
• Sensitivity
• Noise(Able to reduce the noise)
• Stability
• High Bandwidth
• High Speed

Types of Control System

There are two main types of control system.
• Open Loop Control System
• Close Loop Control System

Open Loop Control System

An open loop control system is a system in which the control action is independent of the
desired output signal. In this system, the output signal is not compared with the input signal
which means there is no feedback signal in the system.
Examples: Washing Machines, Light Switches, Bread Toaster, Electric clothes dryer etc.
Advantage of open-loop control system
▪ Open loop systems are simple.
▪ These systems are economical due to lesser number of units.
▪ Less maintenance is required and is not difficult in use.

Disadvantage of open-loop control system

▪ Open loop systems are inaccurate.
▪ These systems are unreliable.
▪ These are slow.

Closed Loop Control System

Closed loop control system is a system in which control action is dependent on the desired

output. In this system the output signal is compared with the reference input signal and an

error signal is produced. Then this error signal is fed to the controller to reduce the error to

obtain the desired output. Automatic electric iron, water level controller, AC, Cooling

system in Car are the examples of closed loop control system.

Advantage of closed-loop control system

▪ These systems are more reliable.
▪ Closed loop systems are faster
▪ Many variables can be handled simultaneously.
Disadvantage of closed-loop control system
▪ Closed loop systems are expensive.
▪ Maintenance is difficult.
▪ Installation is difficult for these systems.

Feedback Control System

A feedback is a common and powerful tool for a control system. Feedback loop is the tool
which take the system output into consideration and enables the system to adjust its
performance to meet a desired result of system.
In any control system, if the output is affected due to change in environmental condition or
any kind of disturbance, then one signal is taken from the output and is fed back to the input.
This signal is compared with a reference input and the error signal is generated (Error =
Reference Input - Output). This error signal is applied to controller and output is corrected.
Such a system is called feedback system.
Positive Feedback:
In this type of feedback control system, the input signal and the feedback signal are in a phase
with each other is known as positive feedback system. In these systems, the reference input
gets added with the feedback signal thereby increasing the gain by the overall system. This is
also called as regenerative feedback control system.

Csin(wt+1800+1800) = Csin(wt+3600)= + Csinwt

Negative Feedback:

In the case of negative feedback, the input signal and the feedback signal show out of phase
relationship with each other. Thus, the applied input signal and the feedback signal are
subtracted. This leads to a reduction in the overall gain of the system. This is also called as
degenerative feedback control system.
 Csin(wt+1800+00)= Csin(wt+1800)=-Csinwt

Thermostat
A thermostat is a component which senses the temperature of a physical system and
performs actions so that the system’s temperature is maintained near a desired set point.
Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or cools to a set point temperature,
such as water heater, air conditioners, medical and scientific incubator.
A thermostat operates as a closed loop control device. Thermostat works on the principle of
thermal expansion. The mechanical thermostat uses bimetallic strips while digital thermostat
uses same principle but everything is controlled by a chip and built-in microcontroller.

Working of Control System of Refrigerator

Refrigerator control system is used to control the temperatures & pressures that
automatically adjust the weather condition and operating requirements of the refrigerator.
In a refrigerator, there are Six basic components:
• Refrigerant
• Compressor
• Capillary Tube
• Evaporator
• Condenser
• Thermostat
Refrigerators work by causing the refrigerant circulating inside them to change from a liquid
into a gas. This process, called evaporation, cools the surrounding area and produces the
desired effect.
To start the evaporation process and change the refrigerant from liquid to gas, the pressure
on the refrigerant needs to be reduced through an outlet called the capillary tube and
circulates in refrigerator through evaporator.
To keep a refrigerator running, you need to get the gaseous refrigerant back to its liquid state,
so the gas needs to be compressed to a higher pressure and temperature again. This is done
by the compressor.
Once the compressor has done its work, the gas should be under high pressure and hot. It
needs to be cooled in the condenser, which is mounted on the back of the refrigerator, so its
contents can be cooled by the ambient air.
The thermostat controls the cooling process by monitoring the temperature and then
switching the compressor on and off.

Real-Time system with Feedback Structure

Real time system is a type of computational system which is used for carrying out some
specific tasks. These specific tasks are related with time constraints. The tasks related with
real-time system need to be completed in given time interval.
Following diagram represents feedback structure of real-time system.
Sensor: It is used for conversion of some physical events or characteristics into electrical
signals. This is a hardware device that takes input from environment and gives output to
system.
Sensor Processing: When data is sensed from environment by sensor, it makes data ready for
computation process. This process is required to obtained data in compatible form for
computation in system.
Computation: Computation is process of calculating and operations needed for task to be
completed. This is main process that happens inside real-time system.
Actuator Processing: It takes input from system and gives to actuator system. This is basically
used to make output compatible with environment so that user can easily understand
obtained output.
Actuator: It is used to convert electrical signals into events or characteristics. It takes input
from a system and gives output to environment.

OSI layer model

OSI layer model is hypothetical one but the TCP/IP is absolutely
practical model. The OSI model is simply a reference model which
standardizes the way that manufacturers can conceptualize the
working of a network. There is no network in the real world which
corresponds directly to the OSI model.

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection that is developed by ISO

(International standard Organization).The OSI layer model sometimes
called seven layers model because there are seven layers in this model
which are the following.

7) Application Layer
6) Presentation Layer
5) Session Layer
4) Transport Layer
3) Network Layer
2) Data Link Layer
1) Physical Layer

Layer 7: Application Layer

The Application layer enables the user, whether human or software to
access the network. It provides user interface and support for services
such as email, database access and file transfer. It is user interface layer.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
This layer of OSI model accepts data from application layer and does the
encryption/decryption and compression/decompression of data. This
layer also responsible for interoperability between different encoding
methods because different computer uses different encoding system.

Layer 5: Session Layer

It allows two application processes on different machine to establish,
use, and terminate a connection called session. This layer allows two
systems to start communication with each other in half duplex or full
duplex (dialogue control).

Layer 4: Transport Layer

In this layer of OSI model the whole message is divided into small
segment called packets. With each segment containing a sequence
numbers that enables the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly at the destination. The transport layer is responsible for
process to process delivery of the entire message. A process is an
application program running on the host. The transport layer can be
either the connection oriented and connectionless.

Layer 3: Network Layer

Network layer adds a header to the packets coming from the upper layer
that includes the IP address of the sender and receiver. If two systems are
connected to the same network, there is usually no need of network layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

Data link layer provides error free transfer of data from one node to another
over the physical layer.

Data Link Layer is divided into two sub-layers.

Media Access Control (MAC) Layer: It responsible for controlling how

devicesin a network gain access to medium and permission to transmit it.

Logical Link Control (LLC) Layer: It acts as an interface between

networklayer protocols and MAC sub-layer and control error checking.

Layer 1: Physical Layer

Physical layer deals with the communication media. This layer receives
frame from data link layer and convert them into bits. This layer deals with
baseband and broadband transmission.
TCP/IP Layer Model
The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layersin the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match with the OSI model. The TCP/IP protocol suite has
only four Layers.

❖ Application Layer
❖ Transport Layer

❖ Internet Layer
❖ Network Access Layer

OSI Layer Model TCP/IP Model or DoD Model

Application Layer

Presentation Layer Application Layer

Session Layer

Transport Layer Transport Layer

Network Layer Internet Layer

Data Link Layer

Network Access Layer
Physical Layer
Application Layer
TCP/IP model combine the functionality of application layer, presentation layer and session
layer from OSI model in single application layer. In TCP/IP model, application layer do all
tasks. These are performed by upper layer in OSI model. Application layer deals with high
level protocols including data presentation, compression and dialog control.

Transport Layer
In TCP/IP model, transport layer provides quality of services. TCP protocol is used for
reliable data delivery, flow control and error connection methods are used for guaranteed
data delivery.

Internet Layer
In TCP IP model, internet layer provides all the functionality that network layer provides in
OSI model. Internet layer is responsible for finding the correct path for datagram (packets).

Network Access Layer

In TCP/IP model, network layer deals with LAN and WAN protocols, and all the
functionalities provided by physical layer and data link layer in OSI model.

IOT Protocols mapped with TCP/IP model

 Types of Modes

Three modes of data transmission are:

1) Simplex
2) Half-Duplex
3) Full-Duplex

Simplex

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Onlyone of the

two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.

Half-Duplex

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

Full-Duplex

In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive the data at
the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in the other direction.
This sharing can occur in two ways; Either the link must contain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or thecapacity of
the channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Transmission Media
Transmission Media

Guided Media Unguided Media

(Wired Media)
(Bounded Media)
(Wireless Media)(Unbounded Media)

Twisted Pair Cable Radio Wave

❖ UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
❖ STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Micro Wave

Infrared Wave
Coaxial Cable

Fiber Optic Cable

Guided Media

Guided media uses a physical conductor to carry the

signal from one device to another.

Twisted Pair cable

A twisted pair cable consist of two plastic insulated

copper wire twisted together in a helical shape as
shown in figure.
One of the wires is used to carry the signal to the
receiver and the other is usedonly to complete the
circuit and to reduce the noise.
Unshielded Vs Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

Connectors
2 Pair / 4 Wire Twisted Pair (Used in Telephone line) – RJ-11. 4
Pair / 8 Wire Twisted pair (Used in LAN) – RJ-45 (Important).

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has a central core conductor of solid wire (usually copper) enclosed in an
insulating sheath which is covered by an outer metallic wrapping (foil or braid) that is
used to complete the circuit and to reduce the noise. The wholecable is protected
by a plastic cover as shown in the following figure.

Coaxial cables are categorized into following types.

Category Use
RG – 59 Cable TV
RG – 58 Thin Ethernet
RG – 11 Thick Ethernet

Connectors

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of
connector used today is the Bayonet Neill Concelman (BNC).

❖ BNC Connector
❖ BNC – T
❖ BNC Terminator
Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable is made up of glass or plastic and transmits signal in the form of light. Fiber optic
cable made up to two substance of different density. The inner part of the fiber optic is known
as core and outer part is cladding.

There is a difference in density because light travels through the fiber optic cablewith the TIR
(Total Internal Reflection) property of light. It there is no difference in density, the light will not
reflect in the same medium.

Connectors

There are three types of connectors used in fiber optic cable as shown in figure.

❖ SC Connector (Subscriber Channel)

❖ ST Connector (Straight Tip)
❖ MT – RJ Connector
 Unguided Media

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast
through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.

The electromagnetic waves which are used in wireless communication are divided from
electromagnetic spectrum based on their frequencies.

• Unit of frequency: Hertz (HZ)

1
• frequency α
wavelength

Lower the frequency of wave, Higher the wavelength and more is thedistance travelled by
the wave.

Radio Waves
The electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 3 KHz to 1 GHz is known
as radio waves.

Radio waves are omniidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they
are propagated in all the directions. This means that the sending and receiving
antenna do not have to be aligned.

Radio waves those of low and medium frequencies can penetrate walls.

Microwaves
The electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 GHz to 300 GHz is known as
micro waves.
Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they should
be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be
aligned. Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.

Very high-frequency microwaves can’t penetrate walls. This characteristic can be

disadvantage if the receivers are inside the buildings.
Infrared Waves

The electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 300 GHz to

400 THz is known as Infrared waves. Due to very high frequency
(very low wavelength) it can be used for very short-range
communication.

Infrared waves can’t penetrate walls. This advantageous

characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not
interfere with the use of the remote by our neighbors. However,
this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-
range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves
outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves
that can interfere with the communication.
Chapter 2 - MCQs

1. Which of the following is an example of a controlled system with a feedback loop?

a) Light bulb

b) Thermostat in a refrigerator

c) Electric kettle

d) Hair dryer

2. In a feedback loop system, the function of the feedback is to:

a) Amplify the output

b) Monitor the input

c) Control the system's stability

d) Record the temperature

3. In a thermostat-controlled system, what is the primary feedback variable?

a) Time

b) Temperature

c) Voltage

d) Pressure

4. What type of control system is used in an air conditioning system?

a) Open-loop control system

b) Closed-loop control system

c) Manual control system

d) None of the above

5. Which layer in the OSI model is responsible for end-to-end communication?

a) Transport layer

b) Data link layer

 c) Network layer

d) Physical layer

6. How many layers does the OSI model have?

a) 4

b) 5

c) 6

d) 7

7. Which of the following is NOT a layer in the TCP/IP model?

a) Application layer

b) Presentation layer

c) Transport layer

d) Internet layer

8. Which layer in the TCP/IP model is responsible for routing data between networks?

a) Application layer

b) Transport layer

c) Internet layer

d) Network access layer

9. The OSI model's Data Link Layer corresponds to which layer in the TCP/IP model?

a) Network access layer

b) Internet layer

c) Transport layer

d) Application layer

10. Which of the following is a key advantage of wireless communication over wired
communication?

a) Higher speed
 b) Reduced interference

c) Easier scalability and mobility

d) Higher bandwidth

11. Which wired communication method uses electrical signals for data transmission?

a) Wi-Fi

b) Ethernet

c) Bluetooth

d) Zigbee

12. Which of the following wireless technologies is commonly used for short-range
communication?

a) Bluetooth

b) 4G LTE

c) Fiber optic

d) Ethernet

13. What is the maximum theoretical range of a Wi-Fi connection?

a) 10 meters

b) 50 meters

c) 100 meters

d) 500 meters

14. What is the first step in the process flow of an IoT application?

a) Data analysis

b) Data storage

c) Data collection from sensors

d) Cloud computation
 15. Which of the following protocols is commonly used for IoT communication?

a) HTTP

b) MQTT

c) FTP

d) SMTP

16. Which of the following is an essential component of an IoT ecosystem?

a) Sensors

b) Cloud platform

c) Communication protocols

d) All of the above

Answers:

1) b) Thermostat in a refrigerator
2) c) Control the system's stability
3) b) Temperature
4) b) Closed-loop control system
5) a) Transport layer
6) d) 7
7) b) Presentation layer
8) c) Internet layer
9) a) Network access layer
10) c) Easier scalability and mobility
11) b) Ethernet
12) a) Bluetooth
13) c) 100 meters
14) c) Data collection from sensors
15) b) MQTT
16) d) All of the above