26 NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING AND THERMAL

CUTTING PROCESSES
Review Questions
26.1 Why are the nontraditional material removal processes important?
Answer. Reasons for importance are: (1) need to shape new metal alloys and non-metals that are
difficult to machine by conventional processes; (2) unusual and complex workpart geometries; and
(3) need to avoid surface damage which is often associated with conventional machining.
26.2 There are four categories of nontraditional machining processes, based on principal energy form.
Name the four categories.
Answer. The four categories are: (1) mechanical, but not including conventional machining; (2)
electrical; (3) thermal; and (4) chemical.
26.3 How does the ultrasonic machining process work?
Answer. In ultrasonic machining, abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high velocity
against the work by a tool vibrating at low amplitude and high frequency. The tool oscillates in a
direction perpendicular to the work surface, and is fed slowly into the work, so that the shape of
the tool is formed in the part. The abrasives, impinging against the work surface, perform the
cutting.
26.4 Describe the water jet cutting process.
Answer. Water jet cutting uses a high-pressure, high-velocity stream of water directed at the
work surface to cut of the work.
26.5 What is the difference between water jet cutting, abrasive water jet cutting, and abrasive jet
cutting?
Answer. WJC cuts with a narrow, high velocity water stream; AWJC adds abrasive grits to the
water stream; and AJM cuts with abrasive particles that have been added to a high velocity air
stream.
26.6 Name the three main types of electrochemical machining.
Answer. The three types are: electrochemical machining, deburring, and grinding.
26.7 Identify the significant disadvantages of electrochemical machining.
Answer. Disadvantages of ECM include: (1) cost of electrical power to operate the process, and
(2) cost of disposal of electrolyte sludge.
26.8 How does increasing discharge current affect metal removal rate and surface finish in electric
discharge machining?
Answer. As discharge current increases, MRR increases and surface finish is degraded.
26.9 What is meant by the term overcut in electric discharge machining?
Answer. Overcut refers to the difference between the size of the electrode (tool) in EDM and
the size of the machined hole, cavity, or kerf (in wire EDM).
26.10 Identify two major disadvantages of plasma arc cutting.

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 Answer. Two disadvantages are: (1) rough surface on cut edge, and (2) metallurgical damage to
cut surface.
26.11 What are some of the fuels used in oxyfuel cutting.
Answer. Principal fuels are acetylene, MAPP (methylacetylene-propadiene), propylene, propane,
and natural gas
26.12 Name the four principal steps in chemical machining.
Answer. The four steps are: (1) cleaning, (2) masking, (3) etching, and (4) demasking.
26.13 What are the three methods of performing the masking step in chemical machining.
Answer. The three steps are: (1) cut and peel, (2) screen resist, and (3) photographic resist.
26.14 What is a photoresist in chemical machining?
Answer. A photoresist is a masking material that is sensitive to light. When exposed, it
chemically transforms and can be removed from the surface of the work, leaving the desired
surface unprotected by the maskant.

Multiple Choice Quiz

There are a total of 18 correct answers in the following multiple choice questions (some questions have
multiple answers that are correct). To attain a perfect score on the quiz, all correct answers must be
given, since each correct answer is worth 1 point. For each question, each omitted answer or wrong
answer reduces the score by 1 point, and each additional answer beyond the number of answers required
reduces the score by 1 point. Percentage score on the quiz is based on the total number of correct
answers.
26.1 Which of the following processes use mechanical energy as the principal energy source (may be
more than one)? (a) grinding, (b) laser beam machining, (c) milling, (d) ultrasonic machining, (e)
water jet cutting, and (f) wire EDM.
Answer. (a), (c), (d), and (e).
26.2 Ultrasonic machining can be used to machine both metallic and nonmetallic materials: (a) true or
(b) false.
Answer. (a)
26.3 Applications of electron beam machining are limited to metallic work materials due to the need for
the work to be electrically conductive: (a) true or (b) false.
Answer. (b)
26.4 Which one of the following is closest to the temperatures used in plasma arc cutting? (a) 2750°C
(5000°F), (b) 5500°C (10,000°F), (c) 8300°C (15,000°F), (d) 11,000°C (20,000°F), (e) 16,500°C
(30,000°F).
Answer. (d)
26.5 Chemical milling is used in which of the following (may be more than one)? (a) drilling holes with
high depth-to- diameter ratio, (b) making intricate patterns in sheet metal, (c) removing material to
make shallow pockets in metal, (d) removing metal from aircraft wing panels, and (e) cutting of
plastic sheets.
Answer. (c) and (d).

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26.6 Etch factor is which of the following in chemical machining (more than one)? (a) A, (b) 1/A, (c) C
I t, (d) d/u, and (e) u/d; where A = degree of anisotropy, C = specific removal rate, d = depth of
cut, I = current, t = time, and u = undercut.
Answer. (a) and (d).
26.7 Of the following processes, which one is noted for the highest material removal rates? (a) electric
discharge machining, (b) electrochemical machining, (c) laser beam machining, (d) oxyfuel cutting,
(e) plasma arc cutting, (f) ultrasonic machining, and (g) water jet cutting.
Answer. (e)
26.8 Which of the following processes would be appropriate to drill a hole with a square cross-section,
0.25 inch on a side and 1-inch deep in a steel workpiece (one best answer)? (a) abrasive jet
machining, (b) chemical milling, (c) EDM, (d) laser beam machining, (e) oxyfuel cutting, (f) water
jet cutting, and (g) wire EDM.
Answer. (c)
26.9 Which of the following processes would be appropriate for cutting a narrow slot, less than 0.015
inch wide, in a 3/8- inch thick sheet of fiber-reinforced plastic (more than one)? (a) abrasive jet
machining, (b) chemical milling, (c) EDM, (d) laser beam machining, (e) oxyfuel cutting, (f) water
jet cutting, and (g) wire EDM.
Answer. (d) and (f).
26.10 Which of the following processes would be appropriate for cutting a hole of 0.003 inch diameter
through a plate of aluminum that is 1/16-inch thick (one best answer)? (a) abrasive jet machining,
(b) chemical milling, (c) EDM, (d) laser beam machining, (e) oxyfuel cutting, (f) water jet cutting,
and (g) wire EDM.
Answer. (d)
26.11 Which of the following processes could be used to cut a large piece of 1/2-inch plate steel into two
sections (more than one)? (a) abrasive jet machining, (b) chemical milling, (c) EDM, (d) laser
beam machining, (e) oxyfuel cutting, (f) water jet cutting, and (g) wire EDM.
Answer. (e) and (g).

Problems
General
26.1 For each of the following applications, identify one or more nontraditional machining processes
that might be used, and present arguments to support your selection. Assume that either the part
geometry or the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. (a) A matrix
of 0.1 mm (0.004 in) diameter holes in a plate of 3.2 mm (0.125 in) thick hardened tool steel. The
matrix is rectangular, 75 by 125 mm (3.0 by 5.0 in) with the separation between holes in each
direction = 1.6 mm ( 0.0625 in). (b) An engraved aluminum printing plate to be used in an offset
printing press to make 275 by 350 mm (11 by 14 in) posters of Lincoln's Gettysburg address. (c) A
through-hole in the shape of the letter L in a 12.5 mm (0.5 in) thick plate of glass. The size of the
"L" is 25 by 15 mm (1.0 by 0.6 in) and the width of the hole is 3 mm (1/8 in). (d) A blind-hole in
the shape of the letter G in a 50 mm (2.0 in) cube of steel. The overall size of the "G" is 25 by 19
mm (1.0 by 0.75 in), the depth of the hole is 3.8 mm (0.15 in), and its width is 3 mm (1/8 in).

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 Solution: (a) Application: matrix of holes in 0.125 inch thick hardened steel, hole diameter = 0.004
in., separation between holes = 0.0625 in. Possible processes: EBM and LBM can make holes of
this size with depth-to-diameter ratios as large as 0.125/0.004 = 31.25.
(b) Application: engraved aluminum printing press plate for 11 in. by 14 in posters. Possible
process: photochemical engraving; making a negative of the speech and transferring this to
either a silk screen or directly to the photoresist would seem to be the most straightforward
methods.
(c) Application: through-hole in the shape of the letter “L” drilled through 0.5 inch thick plate
glass. Possible process: USM works on glass and other brittle non-metallic materials. This is
probably the best process. LBM might also work.
(d) Application: the letter “G” drilled to a depth of 0.15 in. in block of steel. Possible processes:
ECM and EDM would be useful for pocketing operations such as this.
26.2 Much of the work at the Cut-Anything Company involves cutting and forming of flat sheets of
fiber-glass for the pleasure boat industry. Manual methods based on portable saws are currently
used to perform the cutting operation, but production is slow and scrap rates are high. The
foreman says the company should invest in a plasma arc cutting machine, but the plant manager
thinks it would be too expensive. What do you think? Justify your answer by indicating the
characteristics of the process that make PAC attractive or unattractive in this application.
Solution: In plasma arc cutting, the workpart must be an electrically conductive material. Fiber
glass is not electrically conductive. PAC is therefore not an appropriate process for this
application.
26.3 A furniture company that makes upholstered chairs and sofas must cut large quantities of fabrics.
Many of these fabrics are strong and wear-resistant, which properties make them difficult to cut.
What nontraditional process(es) would you recommend to the company for this application?
Justify your answer by indicating the characteristics of the process that make it attractive.
Solution: Water jet cutting would be an ideal process for this application. WJC cuts through
fabrics quickly and cleanly, and the process could be readily automated.
Electrochemical Machining
26.4 The frontal working area of the electrode is 2000 mm2 in a certain ECM operation in which the
applied current = 1800 amps and the voltage = 12 volts. The material being cut is nickel (valence =
2), whose specific removal rate C is given in Table 26.1. (a) If the process is 90% efficient,
determine the rate of metal removal in mm3/min. (b) If the resistivity of the electrolyte = 140
ohm-mm, determine the working gap?
Solution: (a) From Table 26.1, C = 3.42 x 10-2 mm3/A-s
From Eq. (26.6) MRR = frA = (CI/A)A = CI = (3.42 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(1800 A)
= 6156 x 10-2 mm3/s = 61.56 mm3/s = 3693.6 mm3/min
At 90% efficiency MRR = 0.9(3693.6 mm3/min) = 3324.2 mm3/min
(b) Given resistivity r = 140 ohm-mm, I = EA/gr in Eq. (26.2). Rearranging, g = EA/Ir
g = (12 V)(2000 mm2)/(1800 A)(140 ohm-mm) = 0.095 mm
26.5 In an electrochemical machining operation, the frontal working area of the electrode is 2.5 in 2. The
applied current = 1500 amps, and the voltage = 12 volts. The material being cut is pure aluminum,
whose specific removal rate C is indicated in Table 26.1. (a) If the ECM process is 90 percent

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 efficient, determine the rate of metal removal in in 3/hr. (b) If the resistivity of the electrolyte = 6.2
ohm-in, determine the working gap?
Solution: (a) From Table 26.1, C = 0.000126 in 3/A-min.
MRR = fr x A = (CI/A)(A) = CI
MRR = CI = 0.000126(1500) = 0.189 in 3/min at 100% efficiency.
At 90% efficiency MRR = 0.189(0.90) = 0.1701 in 3/min = 10.206 in3/hr.
(b) I = EA/gr; Rearranging, g = EA/Ir = 12(2.5)/(1500 x 6.2) = 0.0032 in.
26.6 A square hole is to be cut using ECM through a plate of pure copper (valence = 1) that us 20 mm
thick. The hole is 25 mm on each side, but the electrode that is used to cut the hole is slightly less
that 25 mm on its sides to allow for overcut, and its shape includes a hole in its center to permit the
flow of electrolyte and to reduce the area of the cut. This tool design results in a frontal area of
200 mm2. The applied current = 1000 amps. Using an efficiency of 95%, determine how long it
will take to cut the hole.
Solution: From Table 26.1, C = 7.35 x 10-2 mm3/A-s
From Eq. (26.6) fr = CI/A = (7.35 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(1000 A)/(200 mm2) = 0.3675 mm/s
At 95% efficiency, fr = 0.95(0.3675 mm/s) = 0.349 mm/s
Time to machine = (20 mm)/(0.349 mm/s) = 57.3 s
26.7 A 3.5 in diameter through-hole is to be cut in a block of pure iron (Valence = 2) by
electrochemical machining. The block is 2.0 in thick. To speed the cutting process, the electrode
tool will have a center hole of 3.0 in which will produce a center core that can be removed after
the tool breaks through. The outside diameter of the electrode is undersized to allow for overcut.
The overcut is expected to be 0.005 in on a side. If the efficiency of the ECM operation is 90%,
what current will be required to complete the cutting operation in 20 minutes?
Solution: Electrode frontal gap area A = 0.25π(3.52 - 3.02) = 2.553 in2
From Table 26.1, C = 0.000135 in 3/A-min.
fr = CI/A = 0.000135 I/2.553 = 0.0000529 I in/min at 100% efficiency.
At 90% efficiency fr = 0.9(0.0000529 I) = 0.0000476 I in/min.
To cut through a 2.0 inch thickness in 20 minutes requires a feed rate fr = 2.0/20 = 0.1 in/min.
fr = 0.1 = 0.0000476 I
I = 0.1/0.0000476 = 2101 A.
Electric Discharge Machining
26.8 An electric discharge machining operation is being performed on tungsten. (a) Determine the
amount of metal removed in the operation after one hour at a discharge amperage = 20 amps. (b)
If the work material were tin, determine the amount of material removed in the same time. Use
metric units and express the answer in mm3.
Solution: (a) From Table 4.1, Tm = 3410°C for tungsten
From Eq. (26.7), MRR = KI/Tm1.23 = 664(20)/(34101.23) = 13,280/22,146 = 0.5997 mm3/s
= 2159 mm3
(b) From Table 4.1, Tm = 232°C for tin
From Eq. (26.7), MRR = KI/Tm1.23 = 664(20)/(2321.23) = 13,280/812 = 16.355 mm3/s
= 58,878 mm3
26.9 Same as Problem 26.8, except the new material to be compared with tungsten is zinc. Use U.S.
Customary units and express the answer in in 3.

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 Solution: (a) From Table 4.1, Tm = 6170°F for tungsten
From Eq. (26.7), MRR = KI/Tm1.23 = 5.08(20)/(61701.23) = 101.6/45,925 = 0.00221 in. 3/s
= 0.1327 in. 3
(b) From Table 4.1, Tm = 420°F for Zinc
From Eq. (26.7), MRR = KI/Tm1.23 = 5.08(20)/(4201.23) = 101.6/1685 = 0.0603 in. 3/s
= 3.62 in. 3
26.10 Suppose the hole in Problem 26.7 were to be cut using EDM rather than ECM. Using a discharge
current = 20 amps (which would be typical for EDM), how long would it take to cut the hole?
Solution: For EDM, using Eq. (26.7), MRR = 5.08 I/Tm1.23 (USCS).
From Table 4.1, Tm = 2802°F for iron.
MRR = 5.08(20)/28021.23 = 101.6/17,393 = 0.00584 in 3/min
Cross-sectional area of tool from previous problem A = 2.553 in 2
fr = MRR/A = 0.00584/2.553 = 0.002293 in/min.
Time to machine the 2.0 inch thickness = 2.0/0.002293 = 874.3 min = 14.57 hr.
26.11 A metal removal rate of 0.01 in 3/min is achieved in a certain EDM operation on a pure iron
workpart. What metal removal rate would be achieved on nickel in this EDM operation, if the
same discharge current were used?
Solution: From Table 4.1, Tm = 2802°F for iron.
MRR = 5.08 I/28021.23 = 5.08 I/17,393 = 0.000292 I in3/min
Given that MRR = 0.01 in 3/min.
0.000292 I = 0.01
I = 0.01/0.000292 = 34.24 A.
From Table 4.1, Tm = 2651 F for iron.
MRR = 5.08(34.24)/26511.23 = 173.93/16,248 = 0.0107 in3/min
26.12 In a wire EDM operation performed on 7 mm thick C1080 steel using a tungsten wire electrode
whose diameter = 0.125 mm. Past experience suggests that the overcut will be 0.02 mm, so that
the kerf width will be 0.165 mm. Using a discharge current = 10 amps, what is the allowable feed
rate that can be used in the operation? Estimate the melting temperature of 0.80% carbon steel
from the phase diagram of Figure 6.4.
Solution: From Figure 6.4, Tm = 1500°C for 1080 steel
Using Eq. (26.7), MRR = 664(10)/(15001.23) = 6640/8065 = 0.8233 mm3/s
Frontal area of kerf = 0.165(7.0) = 1.155 mm2
fr = 49.4/1.155 = 42.79 mm/min
26.13 A wire EDM operation is to be performed on a slab of 3/4 in thick aluminum using a brass wire
electrode whose diameter = 0.005 in. It is anticipated that the overcut will be 0.001 in, so that the
kerf width will be 0.007 in. Using a discharge current = 7 amps, what is the expected allowable
feed rate that can be used in the operation?
Solution: From Table 4.1, Tm = 1220°F for aluminum.
Using Eq. (27.7), MRR = 5.08(7)/12201.23 = 35.56/6255 = 0.005685 in3/min
Frontal area of kerf = 0.75(0.007) = 0.00525 in 2
fr = 0.005685/0.00525 = 1.083 in/min.
26.14 A wire EDM operation is used to cut out punch and die components from 25 mm thick tool steel
plates. However, in preliminary cuts, the surface finish on the cut edge is poor. What changes in
discharge current and frequency of discharges should be made to improve the finish?

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 Solution: As indicated in Figure 26.9(a), surface finish in EDM could be improved by reducing
discharge current and increasing frequency of discharges.
Chemical Machining
26.15 Chemical milling is used in an aircraft plant to create pockets in wing sections made of an
aluminum alloy. The starting thickness of one workpart of interest is 20 mm. A series of
rectangular-shaped pockets 12 mm deep are to be formed with dimensions 200 mm by 400 mm.
The corners of each rectangle are radiused to 15 mm. The part is an aluminum alloy and the
etchant is NaOH. The penetration rate for this combination is 0.024 mm/min and the etch factor is
1.75. Determine: (a) metal removal rate in mm3/min, (b) time required to machine to the specified
depth, (c) required dimensions of the opening in the cut and peel maskant to achieve the desired
pocket size on the part.
Solution: (a) Neglecting the fact that the initial area would be less than the given dimensions of
200 mm by 400 mm, and that the material removal rate (MRR) would therefore increase during
the cut as the area increased, A = 200 x 400 – (30 x 30 - π(15) 2) = 80,000 – 193 = 79,807 mm2
MRR = (0.024 mm/min)(79,807 mm2) = 1915.4 mm3/min.
(b) Time to machine (etch) = 12/0.024 = 500 min. = 8.33 hr.
(c) Given Fe = 1.75, undercut u = d/Fe = 12/1.75 = 6.86 mm
Maskant opening length = L – 2u = 400 – 2(6.86) = 386.28 mm
Maskant opening width = W – 2u = 200 – 2(6.86) = 186.28 mm
Radius on corners = R – u = 15 – 6.86 = 8.14 mm
26.16 In a chemical milling operation on a flat mild steel plate, it is desired to cut an ellipse-shaped
pocket to a depth of 0.4 in. The semiaxes of the ellipse are: a = 9.0 in and b = 6.0 in. A solution of
hydrochloric and nitric acids will be used as the etchant. Determine: (a) metal removal rate in
in3/hr, (b) time required to machine to depth, (c) required dimensions of the opening in cut and peel
maskant required to achieve the desired pocket size on the part.
Solution: (a) Neglecting the fact that the initial area would be less than the given dimensions of 9
in. by 6 in., and that the material removal rate (MRR) would therefore increase during the cut as
the area increased, area of an ellipse A = πab = π(9.0)(6.0) = 54π = 169.65 in. 2
MRR = (0.001 in/min)(169.65 in 2) = 0.16965 in 3/min = 10.18 in3/hr
(b) Time to machine (etch) = 0.4/0.001 = 400 min. = 6.67 hr.
(c) Given Fe = 2.0, undercut u = d/Fe = 0.4/2.0 = 0.2 mm
Maskant opening a’ = a – u = 9.0 – 0.2 = 8.8 in
Maskant opening b’ = b – u = 6.0 – 0.2 = 5.8 in
26.17 In a certain chemical blanking operation, a sulfuric acid etchant is used to remove material from a
sheet of magnesium alloy. The sheet is 0.25 mm thick. The screen resist method of masking was
used to permit high production rates to be achieved. As it turns out, the process is producing a
large proportion of scrap. Specified tolerances of ±0.025 mm are not being achieved. The foreman
in the CHM department complains that there must be something wrong with the sulfuric acid.
"Perhaps the concentration is incorrect," he suggests. Analyze the problem and recommend a
solution.
Solution: The problem in this chemical blanking operation is that the screen resist method of
masking cannot achieve the tolerances specified. The photoresist method should have been used,
and the process should be changed over to adopt this method.

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26.18 In a chemical blanking operation, stock thickness of the aluminum sheet is 0.015 in. The pattern to
be cut out of the sheet is a hole pattern, consisting of a matrix of 0.100 in diameter holes. If
photochemical machining is used to cut these holes, and contact printing is used to make the resist
(maskant) pattern, determine the diameter of the holes that should be used in the pattern.
Solution: From Table 26.2, Fe = 1.75.
In chemical blanking, etching will occur on both sides of the part. Therefore, the effective hole
depth on each side = one-half of the stock thickness = 0.015/2 = 0.0075 in.
Undercut u = 0.0075/1.75 = 0.0043 in.
Diameter of opening = 0.100 - 2(0.0043) = 0.0914 in.

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