Chapter Twenty-Five:

Wars, Revolutions, and the Birth of Mass Society 1900 – 1929

Chapter Twenty-Five Focus Questions:

1. What were the main issues in the contests over empire, and what were the results of these
contests?
2. What factors contributed to the wars of the early twentieth century?
3. Why did the Russian Revolution take place, and what changes did it produce in Russian
politics and daily life?
4. What were the major outcomes of the peacemaking process and postwar conditions?
5. How did the rise of mass society affect politics, culture, and everyday life around the
world?
6. In what ways did Argentina’s history differ from that of countries caught up in World
War I?

Chapter Twenty-Five Summary:

The competition among Western powers heated up in the second half of the nineteenth century and
spilled over into the early twentieth. Competition for power and resistance to existing structures
contributed to the violence, and the use of industrial technology to warfare made conflicts more
destructive than ever. As these imperial contests expanded and developed into revolutions, local wars, and
eventually, world war, the death and destruction felt around the world arrived at a scale not before seen.
World War One provided as many innovations on the battlefield and homefront as lives it took, and the
postwar process of making peace did relatively little to solve the general issues that led to the outbreak of
war. The World War did further the development of mass society and culture, and leveled social classes
on the battlefield, but many of the developments became key ingredients in politicians’ efforts to recruit
supporters and lead to further mobilization. Outside of Europe, some societies were able to flourish, such
as that of Argentina, examined in the Counterpoint of this chapter, which experienced a “golden age” in
stark contrast to the suffering elsewhere.

Chapter Twenty-Five Annotated Outline:

I. Backstory
1. Both competition for power and resistance to existing power
structures contributed to the violence that marked the early twentieth
century, and the application of industrial technology to warfare made
conflicts more destructive than ever.
 Chapter 25: Wars, Revolutions, and the Birth of Mass Society 1900 – 1929

2. Imperial conquests and contests led to revolutions and local wars,

and eventually to a larger conflict that changed the shape of history; the
Great War.
3. Politics after the wars depended on mass culture and the explosion
of technology, and modern communication technologies spread political
ideologies as well as entertainment.
II. Imperial Contests at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century
1. Large-scale rebellions against imperial domination became more
common as nationalist movements grew, and competition among the
imperial powers themselves heated up.
A. Clashes for Imperial Control
1. The British, in search of gold in South Africa, directed by the prime
minister of the Cape Colony Cecil Rhodes, raided territory of the Boers
(descendants of early Dutch settlers), but the Boers unexpectedly won.
2. In response, the British waged the Boer War against them, which, after
appalling bloodshed and unfit conditions, including the new institution
of the concentration camp, was won by the British in 1902, and they
annexed the area.
3. Shortly after their victory, the British passes laws to take African-owned
land for whites and restricting their rights and freedoms. This would be
the foundation for the policy of racial segregation and discrimination
called apartheid.
4. About the same time, Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines
to the U.S. as a result of the Spanish-American War of 1898. In addition,
the U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898 as well.
5. Japan, when angered by Russian expansion in Manchuria, attacked
tsarist forces at Port Arthur in 1904, starting the Russo-Japanese War.
Surprisingly to most of the world, Japan defeated Russia, marking the
first time a non-European nation defeated a European great power in the
modern age.

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6. Japan went on to annex Korea after the victory, while Russia erupted int
eh Revolution of 1905 as a result of their defeat.
B. Growing Resistance to Foreign Domination
1. Japanese victory over tow important dynasties (the Qing and the
Romanovs in Russia) reverberated globally, inspiring people under
foreign control that they too could defeat powerful forces.
2. In China, after defeat at the hands of Japan, reformers pressed for new
policies, but the Dowager Empress Cixi had the reformers executed.
3. One organization in China, the Society of Righteous and Harmonious
Fists (or Boxers) used ritual boxing to ward off evils, and reached the
height of their power in 1900. However, with their uprising troops from
imperial powers invaded to crush the movement.
4. Furthermore, rebellions in several of the Ottoman provinces challenged
their rule. Sultan Abdul Hamid II tried to revitalize the empire by using
Islam and territorial expansion, but dissident Turks embraced
nationalism and in 1908, calling themselves the Young Turks, they took
control of the government.
5. Other dissident groups in the Middle East and Balkans modeled
themselves after the Young Turks, but once the Young Turks were in
control of the government, they brutally opposed those similar
movements in Egypt, Syria, and the Balkans.
6. However, resistance to empire continued to grow. In India, the Hindu
leader Tilak preached noncooperation and forceful nationalism, and to
repress him, the British sponsored the Muslim League, to diving Muslim
nationalists from Hindus.
7. As a result of all the movements, inhabitants of the colonies, both the
rulers and the ruled, were often on edge amidst resistance and
crackdowns.
III. From Revolutions and Local Wars to World Wars
1. Revolutions, local wars, and ongoing colonial violence opened
one of the bloodiest decades in human history, and the outcomes of the

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conflicts were not always in line with what inspired individuals to take up
arms.
A. Revolutionaries and Warriors: Mexico, China, and the Balkans
1. In 1910 in Mexico, liberal reformers headed by Francisco Madero began
a drive to force dictator Porfirio Diaz from office. While Diaz saw himself
as a reformer, only a handful of wealthy families and foreign investors
reaped the riches.
2. In comparison to the liberal reformers, peasants aimed for economic
justice and survival, forming armies to fight for land reform. Leaders like
Zapata fought against corruption and the government, while others like
Pancho Villa led armies that fought against U.S. citizens and others who
were seizing local land and resources.
3. Diaz was ousted from power in 1911, and amid assassinations of leaders,
including Zapata, the Mexican government announced reforms in its
Constitution of 1917.
4. In China, with the failing of the Qing dynasty, in 1911-1912 a group of
revolutionaries organized as the Guomindang (Nationalist Party), and
overthrew the long-lived dynasty, declaring China a republic.
5. Nationalist leader Sun Yatsen used a cluster of Western ideas tied to long-
standing Chinese values to call for modernization and the end of foreign
domination over China.
6. Yatsen was not a capable administrator, and he soon resigned, leaving the
country to descend into chaos, as regional generals began to act as
warlords.
7. Adding to the tensions, Balkan politicians aroused ethnic nationalism to
challenge both Habsburg and Ottoman power. In the First Balkan War, in
1912, Macedonia and Albania were severed from the Ottoman Empire, but
the victors soon turned against one another in the Second Balkan War of
1913.
8. After the fighting, Austria-Hungary enforced peace terms that further
infuriated Serbs, and many Serbs dreamed of Crushing Austria-Hungary.

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9. All of these and other international tensions came to a head in June 1914
in Sarajevo when a Bosnian Serb assassinated the heir to the Habsburg
throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife Sophie. The subsequent
response to the assassination led to the Austrian declaration of war on
Serbia on July 28.
10. With alliances and agreements in place, the major European powers
were eager to resolve the international tensions that existed among them
over global, national, and even domestic issues.
B. Fighting World War I
1. World War I (or the Great War) Erupted in August 1914 with the Central
Powers (Austria-Hungary and Germany) on one side, with the Allies
(France, Great Britain, and Russia) on the other. Italy, originally aligned
with the Central Powers, went over to the Allies in 1915 in hopes of
postwar gains.
2. As the fighting expanded overseas to colonies, Japan joined the Allies,
and the Ottoman Empire attacked its traditional enemy, Russia, and joined
the Central Powers. The U.S. entered the war in 1917.
3. The countries fighting in the war all hungered for the same benefits that
inspired imperialism: territory, empire, and power.
4. When the war started, new battlefield technologies were ready to go, and
even more, newer technology was developed during the war, but both
sides held onto a nineteenth-century strategy of the offensive, where
massive attacks would be decisive.
5. The colonies were very involved as well, with almost all European
powers having using natives of conquered territories to fights on the fronts
and serve as forced laborers.
6. The first months of the war crushed hopes of a quick victory, illustrated
by the German Schlieffen Plan, which called for a quick defeat of France,
then focus turned to Russia. However, fighting was slower than expected,
and in massive battles neither side could achieve victory.

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7. With casualties in the millions, the expected offensive war turned into a
stationary, defensive stalemate along a life of nightmarish trenches.
8. In the East, the Russians believed that no army could stand up to their
numbers, and they pushed quickly into Germany, but their success was
short-lived.
9. War at sea proved equally indecisive, as Germans responded to the Allied
blockade of their ports with an intensive U-boat campaign. Despite U.S.
casualties, President Woodrow Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality,
and the Germans, not wanting to press the issue, stopped unrestricted
submarine warfare.
10. The British hoped to knock out the Ottomans and open ports to Russia
by attacking Gallipoli at the Dardanelles Strait. After a horrific struggle
and loss of life, the British (mostly colonial troops from New Zealand and
Australia), the Ottomans emerged victorious, and the suffering of this
battle strengthened Australia’s and New Zealand’s will to break with
Britain.
11. Both sides refused a negotiated peace, and had military leaders
thoroughly dominated, all armies would have been demolished in nonstop
offensives by the end of 1915. However, soldiers on both sides sometimes
refused to engage in battle.
12. Troops from Asian and African colonies often had different experiences,
especially because colonial soldiers were frequently put in the font ranks.
C. Citizens at War: The Home Front
1. World War I quickly became a total war—one in which all
resources of each nation were harnessed to the war effort. In the cause of
victory, civilians were required to work overtime and sacrifice.
2. Initially political parties in each combatant nation put aside
differences, and some hoped that the spirit of nationalism could end
prejudices. Governments mobilized the masses on the home front, and
new laws made it a crime to criticize official policies.

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3. However, as the war dragged on, some began to lobby for peace,
including women, who met to call for an end to war, and some socialists,
who moved to neutral countries to work for a peace settlement.
4. Total war also upset gender order, as men left the workplace to
join the fighting, women moved into a variety of high-paying jobs. While
many objected to women’s loss of femininity, a “new woman” with a
respectable job and new responsibilities for supporting her family was
emerging from the war.
5. Rising social tensions revolved around issues of class as well.
Businesses kept raising prices to earn high profits, shortages of staple
foods caused hardships, and the cost of living surged. The prolonged
conflict created grievances among people worldwide.
IV. Revolutions in Russia and the End of World War I
1. By 1917 the situation was becoming desperate for everyone: the
German government resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, which
brought the U.S. into the war, and French soldiers mutinied against further
offensives while in Russia, protests turned into outright revolution.
A. The Russian Revolution
1. Russia had sustained the greatest number of casualties by 1917, and Tsar
Nicholas II failed to unify his government or his people. He stubbornly
insisted on conducting the war himself instead of using experienced and
knowledgeable officials.
2. In March of 1917, crowds of working women and civilians
commemorating International Women’s Day began looting shops for food,
other workers joined them, and soldiers defected.
3. Nicholas soon abdicated, and politicians from the old Duma formed a
new ruling body called the Provisional Government. The abdication of the
tsar unleashed popular forces that had been building.
4. Soviets—councils of workers and soldiers—campaigned to end
favoritism toward the wealthy, and peasants began to seize aristocratic

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estates, while the Provisional Government seemed unwilling to end the

war, and unable to improve living conditions.
5. In April 1917, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik faction of
the Russian Socialist Party, returned from exile and called on his
countrymen to withdraw from the war, for the soviets to seize power, and
for all private land to be nationalized.
6. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power, and when January
elections failed to give them a majority, they party simply took over the
government by force.
7. The new government agreed to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which
brought peace with Germany, while placing vast regions of the Russian
Empire under German occupation, and they adopted the name
Communists to distinguish themselves from the socialists who voted for
war in 1914.
8. Opposition to the Bolsheviks swiftly formed, and led to a civil war
between the pro-Bolsheviks (the “Reds”) and the antirevolutionary forces
(the “Whites”), who were joined by non-Russian-nationality groups eager
for independence and Russia’s former allies of the U.S., Britain, France,
and Japan.
9. Internal divisions in the Whites, however, led to their defeat by the more
unified Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks organized revolutionary Marxism
worldwide, and in March 1919 they founded Comintern (Communist
International), an organization to achieve communism globally.
10. In 1922, the Bolsheviks formally created the multiethnic Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR) out of the territories the Red Army had
secured in the Crimea, the Caucasus, and Central Asia.
B. Ending the War: 1918
1. Although Russia withdrew from the war, the wider conflict continued. In
the spring of 1918 the Central Powers made one final attempt to smash
through Allied lines, but Allied tanks, which could withstand machine-gun
fire, and the arrival of U.S. troops pushed the Germans back.

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2. German military leaders allowed a civilian government to ask for peace,

and after the war, the generals would falsely claim the government had
“stabbed them in the back” by surrendering when victory was still
possible. The two sides signed an armistice on November 11, 1918, as the
Central Powers collapsed.
3. In the course of the war, conservative figures put the battlefield toll at a
minimum of ten million dead and thirty million wounded, incapacitated, or
eventually to dive from their wounds.
4. In all European combatant countries industrial and agricultural production
had plummeted, and from 1918-1919 the global population suffered an
influenza epidemic, which left as many as one hundred million more dead,
and added to the tragic fact that total war had drained society of resources
and population, and had sown the seeds of future catastrophes.
V. Postwar Global Politics
1. Across the globe, protests erupted after the war, and the massive
slaughter and use of forced labor damaged Western claims to be more
advanced than other parts of the world.
A. The Paris Peace Conference, 1919 – 1920
1. The Paris Peace Conference opened in January 1919 with the
U.S., Great Britain, and France dominating the proceedings. U.S. president
Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, on which the truce had been based,
were steeped in the language of freedom.
2. After six months, the Allies produced the Peace of Paris,
composed of individual treaties. The treaties separated Austria and
Hungary, who were both left reeling at their loss of territory and resources,
broke up the Ottoman Empire, and replaced the Hapsburg Empire with a
group of small, internally divided and relatively weak states.
3. In the Treaty of Versailles (with Germany), France recovered
Alsace and Lorraine, and Germany was ordered to pay crippling
reparations, give up its colonies, reduce its army, and accept blame for the
entire war.

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4. Besides redrawing the map of Europe, the diplomats created the

League of Nations, which focused on collective security and maintaining
peace through negotiations as a source of postwar diplomacy. (However,
the U.S. Senate both failed to ratify the peace and refused to join the
league.)
5. Instead of ending colonialism, the League of Nations organized
the former German and Ottoman territories into a system of mandates
awarded to the victors.
6. The league claimed that the mandate system was providing
governance assistance over those “not yet able to stand by themselves,”
but the people of these new mandates were furious.
7. Rebellions against France and Britain erupted in the Middle East
due to the mandate system, but were fairly quickly put down. Ultimately,
however, the postwar settlements contributed to renewed activism among
colonial peoples around the world.
B. Struggles for Reform and Independence
1. In the aftermath of the war, many of the world’s people took
advantage of Western weakness to seek independence. Imperial powers
not only resisted, but continued to use violence to maintain and expand
their empires.
2. The Allied invasion of the Ottoman Empire caused chaos and
suffering. An unacknowledged slaughter occurred during the war when the
Ottoman leadership carried out the deportation of an estimated three
hundred thousand to 1.5 million Armenians.
3. As the Ottoman Empire was dismembered, Turkish military
officers resisted Allied occupation. Led by General Mustafa Kemal, the
Turks founded an independent Turkish republic in 1923, as the Allies tried
to partition Anatolia.
4. Kemal—who later took the name Ataturk—advocated Western
modernity and a capitalist economy. He abolished polygamy, introduced

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the Latin alphabet, and mandated Western dress for both men and women.
In 1936 women received the right to vote and serve in the parliament.
5. China underwent similar turmoil as the Allies’ legal endorsement
(on May 4, 1919) of the Japanese 1915 takeover galvanized student
protests. This May Fourth Movement also targeted Chinese traditions as
responsible for China’s treatment on the world stage.
6. While some in China saw Westernization as key to independence,
others adopted communism. Strikes erupted and tensions between
Communists and the Guomindang boiled over.
7. Military leader Jiang Jieshi (Chaing Kai-Shek) took over the
Guomindang after Yatsen’s death, and as he took cities and defeated
warlords, his followers also murdered Communists in hopes of stopping
their influence.
8. In Ireland, pro-independence activists attacked government
buildings in 1916 in an effort to finally gain Irish freedom from Britain,
but their Easter rebellion was easily defeated.
9. In 1919, republican leader proclaimed Ireland’s independence
from Britain, but instead of granting it, the British government sent in
soldiers and terror reigned until the British were forced to negotiate in
1921 due to public outrage. The Irish Free State was declared a self-
governing dominion, and Northern Ireland became a self-governing
British territory.
C. Colonial Protest and Imperial Expansion
1. Others from colonies who had fought expected to gain the rights
promised to them, but instead they met worsening conditions at home.
2. Fearful of losing their colonies, British forces attacked protesters
in India and put down revolts in Egypt and Iran, while the Dutch jailed
political leaders in Indonesia, and the French punished Indochinese
nationalists.
3. Maintaining empires was crucial to covering debt incurred during
WWI, and a new generation of British and French adventurers headed for

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the oil fields of the Middle East and Indonesia. Investors from the U.S.
grabbed land in the Caribbean and across Latin America.
4. The balance of power among the imperial nations was shifting,
however. Japan’s economic success during and after the war was seen as
key to freeing Asia from Westerners, but the Japanese government was not
yet strong enough to challenge Western powers militarily.
VI. An Age of the Masses
1. After the war, the sense of democratic potential based on mass
participation grew, and the condition of women came to symbolize the
strength of the masses.
2. However, modernizing the economy meant developing mass
consumerism, and by the end of the decade, a handful of political leaders
were adopting new media to mobilize their citizenry.
A. Mass Society
1. The development of mass society was a global phenomenon,
fueled by the growing connections among and within economies.
Urbanization surged, and global populations soared.
2. Wartime innovations spurred new industries and created new jobs
making goods for peacetime use. The new livelihood of scientific manager
also played a part as efficiency experts developed methods to streamline
work for maximum productivity.
3. As industry spread, both skilled and unskilled workers were
organizing in unions to advance their collective interests. However, these
male-dominated unions usually agreed with employers that women should
receive lower wages.
4. Because they could mobilize masses of people, unions played a
key role in politics, and labor flexed its muscle in many countries from
China to Britain.
5. Modernization also affected traditional social divisions, as the size
of the middle class expanded, and opportunities often reduced the
influence of traditional elites.

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6. Class and racial prescriptions were also breaking down as a result

of the war, as men of all classes and ethnicities had served in the trenches
together.
7. A major emblem of postwar modernity was the “new woman,” or
the “modern girl.” In the 1920s many women cut their hair, abandoned
traditional clothes, smoked, had their own money from jobs, and went out
unchaperoned.
B. Culture for the Masses
1. Wartime propaganda had aimed to united people against a
common enemy, but after the war, the same mediums of media continued
the development of mass or standardized culture.
2. By the 1920s film flourished around the world to spread ideas and
history, but it also helped standardize behavior. Cinematic portrayals also
played to postwar fantasies and fears. As popular films and books crossed
national boundaries, global culture flourished.
3. Radio was first heard by mass audiences in public halls, but
quickly became a relatively inexpensive consumer item, featuring sports
reporting, advice on home management, and by the 1930s, politicians
reaching the masses.
4. Print media grew in popularity as well, and their advertising
encouraged new personal habits and modern hygiene.
C. Mobilizing the Masses
1. The 1920s also saw politicians mobilizing the masses for their
political causes. The Bolsheviks began massive propaganda efforts and
people around the world came to believe that the USSR was an ideal state.
2. In the colonies and mandates, leaders like Gandhi in India and the
Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt mobilized the masses around spiritual
teachings. In Italy, Mussolini consolidated his coup with mass propaganda
fueling postwar resentments.

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3. Indian leaders urged boycotts of British products, and Gandhi’s

experiences with racism in South Africa made him determined to liberate
the India masses from British imperialism.
4. In rejecting the West, Gandhi’s movement resembled another
force for the empowerment of ordinary people, the Muslim Brotherhood,
which called for a return to Islam along with a rejection of the secular,
“modern” mindset.
5. In contrast, communism promised a modern, technological
culture. While the reality was that conditions declined for the workers, and
they revolted against the Bolsheviks. As production dropped, Lenin
changed course, and his New Economic Policy compromised with
capitalism.
6. Authoritarian rule also came to Italy, but through Mussolini, who
attained power as a mass hero. Blaming parliaments for economic ills,
many supported his overturning of parliamentary government and his
appointment as prime minister after he and his supporters marched on
Rome.
7. Beside violence, Mussolini used mass propaganda and the media
to promote traditional values and prejudices, though fascism was never a
coherent doctrine. In fascism, only state supremacy mattered.
8. In the cities, his government build modern buildings and broad
avenues, but despite these signs of modernity, Mussolini’s corporate state
denied individual rights and outlawed independent labor unions.
9. Regardless, Mussolini’s popularity soared among war-torn men,
and he became a model for other militaristic leaders.
VII. Counterpoint: A Golden Age for Argentineans
1. World War I allowed some societies outside of Europe to flourish.
While many nations in the Western Hemisphere chose the road to war,
Argentineans experienced a “golden age” in stark contrast to the suffering
elsewhere.
A. A Flourishing Economy and Society

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1. Starting in the 1880s, immigrants flooded to Argentina. In the

commercial city of Buenos Aires traders imported European goods,
ranchers supplied world markets, and industry thrived.
2. World War I broke Argentina’s dependence on Britain’s economy and it
turned its productivity inward, so that after the war the economy
continued to grow.
3. Reforms came in 1912, which led to the 1916 election of Hipolito
Yrigoyen, a candidate whose popularity with workers and the middle
class made for relatively stable politics.
4. One exception to this stability, however, occurred after a general strike
in 1918. Many middle and upper-class members of European heritage
began looking for scapegoats, and encouraged vigilante groups to turn
on Jews, and in January 1919 these groups attacked Jewish property and
arrested Jews.
B. Golden-Age Culture
1. Argentina’s overall climate of growth and prosperity sparked an outburst
of cultural creativity. A vibrant working-class culture brought the world
the tango, which spread worldwide.
2. Writer Jorge Luis Borges moved beyond literary fashions, wrote about
the mysteries of learning, remembering, and forgetting. His work laid
the foundation for “magical realism,” the late-twentieth-century
movement in Latin American fiction.
VIII. Conclusion
1. Competition among nations and the clash of classes led to the loss
of tens of millions of lives between 1900 and 1920. Dynasties collapsed
and governments fell, while much of the world was reordered.
2. Some political leaders were inspired by Western ideals and
models, while others rejected them, and the United States gained power,
even as it announced a policy of isolationism.

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3. World war furthered the development of mass society and culture,

and wartime technology churned out postwar consumer goods while
fostering innovations.
IX. Chapter Twenty-Five Special Features
A. Seeing the Past: Wartime Propaganda
1. Propaganda agencies on both sides of World War I touted the war
as a patriotic mission to resist villainous enemies.
B. Reading the Past: Léopold Sédar Senghor, “To the Senegalese Soldiers Who Died
for France”
1. A poem by a fighter in the French colonial forces who
immortalized the Senegalese who fought for France, while they received
little credit from them.
C. Lives and Livelihoods: The Film Industry
1. The development of the film industry led to dozens of new
livelihoods and lines of work, and by the 1920s and beyond, turned
performers into national and global celebrities.

Key Terms
Bolshevik – a fraction of the Russian Socialist Party that advocated control of revolutionary
activity by a disciplined group of the party elite instead of by the working class as a whole;
renamed “Communist” by Lenin following the Russian Revolution
collective security – the system of international diplomacy, especially involving the peaceful
resolution pf disputes, established by the League of Nations
Comintern – an international organization of workers established by the Bolsheviks to spread
communism worldwide
fascism – a political movement originating in postwar Italy under Mussolini that stressed the
primacy of the state over the individual and the importance of violence an warfare in making
nations string
Fourteen Points – a proposal by US president Woodrow Wilson for peace during WWI based in
“settlement” rather than “victory” and in the self-determination of peoples
Guomindang – The Chinese nationalist party founded by Sun Yatsen that overthrew the Qing
dynasty and fought to rule mainland China from 1911 to 1949
League of Nations – the international organization set up following WW1 to maintain peace by
arbitrating disputes and promoting collective security

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mandate system – a system of regional control over former Ottoman lands awarded by the
League of Nation’s charter to the victors in WWI
New Economic Policy – Lenin’s compromise with capitalism that allowed peasants to sell their
grain on the market and entrepreneurs to engage in trade and keep the profit
soviet – a council of workers and soldiers elected to represent the people in the Russian
Revolutions of 1905 and 1917
total war – the vital involvement if civilians in the war industry, the blurring of home and battle
fronts, and the use of industrial weaponry t destroy an enemy

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