Salim Habib Education Complex

Research Methodology-I

Course Code- PSY 505

BS Applied Psychology 5th

Submitted by : Saleha Sadaf

Submitted to : Mam Munazzah

……………………………………………………………..

1|Page
 Psychological Research Process
Here is a detailed overview of the psychological research process:
1. Formulation of research question
2. Literature review
3. Developing a hypothesis
4. Choosing variables to study
5. Research participants
6. Research design
7. Data collection
8. Data Analysis
9. Result and interpretation
10. Reporting and dissemination
11. Evaluation and revision

Step 1: Formulation of Research Question

Formulating a research question is a critical step in the research process. It involves choosing a topic,
narrowing it down, and developing a clear question that can be answered.
Steps for formulating a research question
1. Choose a topic: Pick a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study.
2. Narrow your topic: Do enough research to narrow your topic down to something manageable.
3. Focus your question: Make sure your question is focused on a single issue and is specific enough to answer
thoroughly.
4. Consider feasibility: Make sure your question is answerable within the time frame and practical
constraints.
5. Evaluate the pertinence: Consider if there is a need for a study to address the problem.
Characteristics of a strong research question
 Focused on a single issue
 Researchable
 Feasible to answer
 Specific enough to answer thoroughly
 Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
 Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Step 2: Literature Review

A literature review is a summary of existing research and literature on a specific topic. It's a key part of
research, as it helps identify gaps in the research and formulate new hypotheses. Purpose supports the
identification of research questions, Helps identify gaps in research, Helps formulate new hypotheses, and
Frames the significance of a research project.
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research
worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary

2|Page
Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this
process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are
similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.
What it includes
 A review of academic and professional journal articles
 A review of books
 A review of web-based resources
 An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the studies
 An identification of patterns, connections, or contradictions in the research
How to write it
1. Define the topic
2. Search for relevant literature
3. Evaluate the sources
4. Identify themes, debates, and gaps
5. Create an outline
6. Write the literature review
7. Edit and revise as needed
Structure
 An introduction that defines the scope and purpose of the review
 A body that organizes the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology
 A conclusion that summarizes the key points and highlights the research gap
Step 3: Developing a hypothesis
Developing a hypothesis is a process that involves forming a tentative prediction or explanation that can be
tested. It's a key skill for problem solving and analytical thinking.
Steps for developing a hypothesis
1. Review the literature: Look at what previous studies have found and what theories explain the
phenomenon you're interested in.
2. Identify variables: Understand the independent, dependent, and control variables.
3. Form a testable question: Create a question that can be tested with data and evidence.
4. Consider possible explanations: Think about what other explanations might be possible.
5. Form a hypothesis: Create a prediction or explanation that states the relationship between your variables.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
 It's clear, focused, and concise
 It's relevant to the research question
 It includes both independent and dependent variables
 It's testable
Types of hypothesis

3|Page
1. Null hypothesis: A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables. Denoted by H0, it is a
negative statement like “There is no significance difference in academic performance of students who
experience depression & those who do not.”
2. Alternative hypothesis: Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis is
donated as H1 or Ha. It explicitly states that proposes a specific relationship or effect between variables. A
good alternative hypothesis example is “There is a significance difference in academic performance of students
who experience depression & those who do not.”
The alternative hypothesis further branches into directional and non-directional.
Directional hypothesis: A hypothesis that states the result would be either positive or negative is called
directional hypothesis. It accompanies H1 with either the ‘<' or ‘>' sign.
Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis only claims an effect on the dependent variable. It
does not clarify whether the result would be positive or negative. The sign for a non-directional hypothesis is
‘≠.'
3. Simple hypothesis: A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two
variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, “Smoking is a prominent cause of lung
cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking.
4. Complex hypothesis: In contrast to a simple hypothesis, a complex hypothesis implies the relationship
between multiple independent and dependent variables. For instance, “Individuals who eat more fruits tend
to have higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.” The independent variable is eating more
fruits, while the dependent variables are higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.
5. Associative and casual hypothesis: Associative and casual hypotheses don't exhibit how many variables
there will be. They define the relationship between the variables. In an associative hypothesis, changing any
one variable, dependent or independent, affects others. In a casual hypothesis, the independent variable
directly affects the dependent.
6. Empirical hypothesis: Also known as the working hypothesis, this hypothesis claims that a theory is valid
based on experiments and observation
7. Statistical hypothesis: The point of a statistical hypothesis is to test an already existing hypothesis by
studying a population sample. Hypothesis like “44% of the Indian population belong in the age group of 22-
27.” leverage evidence to prove or disprove a particular statement.

Step 4: Choosing variables to study

Types of Variables in Psychology Research Variables in psychology are things that can be changed or altered,
such as characteristics or values. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if
changes to one thing result in changes to another.
Independent Variable
It is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. An example of an independent variable in
psychology: In an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test performance, sleep deprivation would
be the independent variable. The experimenters would have some of the study participants be sleep-deprived
while others would be fully rested.
4|Page
Dependent Variable
It is the variable that is measured by the experimenter. In the previous example, the scores on the test
performance measure would be the dependent variable. So, how do you differentiate between the
independent and dependent variables? The things that change, either naturally or through direct
manipulation from the experimenter, are generally the independent variables. What is being measured? The
dependent variable is the one that the experimenter is measuring.
Intervening Variables in Psychology
In the real world, variables often don't stand alone. In many cases, factors affect the main variables of interest.
Intervening variables, also sometimes called intermediate or mediator variables, are factors that influence the
relationship between two other variables. For example, sleep problems in university students are often
influenced by factors such as stress. As a result, stress might be an intervening variable that influences how
much sleep people get, which in turn may influence how well they perform on exams.
Extraneous Variables in Psychology
Independent and dependent variables are not the only variables present in many experiments. In some cases,
extraneous variables may also play a role. This type of variable may impact the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. For example, in our previous example of an experiment on the effects
of sleep deprivation on test performance, other factors such as age, gender, and academic background may
have an impact on the results. In such cases, the experimenter will note the values of these extraneous
variables so any impact can be controlled for.
There are two basic types of extraneous variables:
 Participant variables: These extraneous variables are related to the individual characteristics of each study
participant that may impact how they respond. These factors can include background differences, mood,
anxiety, intelligence, awareness, and other characteristics that are unique to each person.
 Situational variables: These extraneous variables relate to things in the environment that may impact how
each participant responds. For example, if a participant is taking a test in a chilly room, the temperature
would be considered an extraneous variable. Some participants may not be affected by the cold, but
others might be distracted or annoyed by the room's temperature.
Controlled Variables in Psychology
In many cases, extraneous variables are controlled for by the experimenter. A controlled variable is one that is
held constant throughout an experiment. Using controlled variables means that when changes occur, the
researchers can be sure that these changes are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not
caused by changes in other variables.
Confounding Variables in Psychology
If a variable cannot be controlled for, it becomes what is known as a confounding variable. This type of
variable can have an impact on the dependent variable, which can make it difficult to determine if the results
are due to the influence of the independent variable, the confounding variable, or an interaction of the two.
Operationalizing Variables in Psychology

5|Page
An operational definition describes how the variables are measured and defined in the study. Before
conducting a psychology experiment, it is essential to create firm operational definitions for both the
independent variable and dependent variables. For example, in our imaginary experiment on the effects of
sleep deprivation on test performance, we would need to create very specific operational definitions for our
two variables. If our hypothesis is, "Students who are sleep deprived will score significantly lower on a test,"
then we would have a few different concepts to define:
 Students: First, what do we mean by "students?" In our example, let’s define students as participants
enrolled in an introductory university-level psychology course.
 Sleep deprivation: Next, we need to operationally define the "sleep deprivation" variable. In our example,
let’s say that sleep deprivation refers to those participants who have had less than five hours of sleep the
night before the test.
 Test variable: Finally, we need to create an operational definition for the test variable. For this example,
the test variable will be defined as a student’s score on a chapter exam in the introductory psychology
course.

Step 5: Research Participants

A research participant is an individual who takes part in a research study by providing data or information that
the researcher collects and analyzes. The selection of research participants depends on the research questions
and objectives. Researchers identify and choose participants who have relevant experiences or characteristics
that align with the study’s goals. For instance, if a study aims to understand the challenges faced by first-
generation college students, the participants would be individuals who fit that description.

Step 6: Research Design

Research design is a plan that outlines how to answer a research question. It's a framework that includes the
research methods and techniques used to collect, measure, and analyze data.
What does research design include?
 Research question: The question the research is trying to answer
 Theories and models: The theories and models that support the research
 Data collection strategy: How to gather data and information
 Data analysis strategy: How to analyze the data to answer the research question
Why is research design important?
 Good research design ensures that the data collected is relevant and helps answer the research question
 Poor research design can lead to invalid results and conclusions
What factors should be considered when designing research?
 Practical considerations: How much time is available for data collection and analysis
 Research ethics: Whether ethical approval is required
 Access to data: Whether it's possible to access the data needed
 Research skills: Whether the necessary skills are available, such as statistical analysis or interview
techniques

What are some types of research design?

6|Page
Three of the main types of psychological research focus on: 1. Descriptive Studies 2. Correlational Studies 3.
Experimental Research Methods

Descriptive Studies
This type of research can tell us more about what is happening in a specific population. It relies on techniques
such as observation, surveys, and case studies.

Correlational Studies
Correlational research is frequently used in psychology to look for relationships between variables. While
research look at how variables are related, they do not manipulate any of the variables. While correlational
studies can suggest a relationship between two variables, finding a correlation does not prove that one
variable causes a change in another. In other words, correlation does not equal causation.

Experimental Research Methods

Experiments are a research method that can look at whether changes in one variable cause changes in
another. The simple experiment is one of the most basic methods of determining if there is a cause-and-effect
relationship between two variables. A simple experiment utilizes a control group of participants who receive
no treatment and an experimental group of participants who receive the treatment. Experimenters then
compare the results of the two groups to determine if the treatment had an effect.

Experimental Methods in Psychology

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Research in Psychology
Research in psychology can also involve collecting data at a single point in time, or gathering information at
several points over a period of time.

Cross-Sectional Research
In a cross-sectional study, researchers collect data from participants at a single point in time. These are
descriptive type of research and cannot be used to determine cause and effect because researchers do not
manipulate the independent variables. However, cross-sectional research does allow researchers to look at
the characteristics of the population and explore relationships between different variables at a single point in
time.

Longitudinal Research
A longitudinal study is a type of research in psychology that involves looking at the same group of participants
over a period of time. Researchers start by collecting initial data that serves as a baseline, and then collect
follow-up data at certain intervals. These studies can last days, months, or years. The longest longitudinal
study in psychology was started in 1921 and the study is planned to continue until the last participant dies or
withdraws. As of 2003, more than 200 of the participants were still alive.

Step 7: Data Collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information to answer research questions. It's a key
part of research because it helps researchers make decisions and draw conclusions

7|Page
1. Development of data collection instruments: Create or select instruments, such as surveys or interviews, to
collect data.
2. Data collection procedures: Collect data from participants, ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of the
data.
3. Data quality control: Monitor data quality and address any issues that arise during data collection.

Methods of Data Collection

Focus groups
A cost-effective method for gathering opinions and feelings from respondents. Uses open-ended questions to
get feedback. Can be used for qualitative analysis
Observation
A method for gathering data without asking questions. Can be subjective, as the researcher may need to
provide their opinion on the data. The data collected may be biased.
Interviews
A formal conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer asks the interviewee
questions to gather relevant data.
Surveys
A versatile method that can be used to gather quantitative or qualitative data. Can be used to communicate
directly with an audience. Can be based on closed-ended questions
Quantitative data collection
Often based on mathematical calculations, which can make the data more objective and reliable.
Qualitative research
Involves collecting data about words, emotions, sounds, feelings, and colors. Can rely on experience, intuition,
judgment, and emotion.

Step 8: Data Analysis

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data
requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these
categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
o Data preparation: Clean and prepare the data for analysis.
o Selection of statistical analysis procedures: Choose appropriate statistical procedures, such as
descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.
o Data analysis: Analyze the data, using statistical procedures to identify patterns, trends, and
correlations.
Statistical Calculations:

8|Page
The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics for the purpose of the
analysis.
(i) The descriptive statistics may be on any of the following forms:
 Measures of Central Tendency: These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean and
harmonic mean
 Measures of Variability: These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and standard
deviation.
 Measures of Relative Position: These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), percentiles and
percentile ranks
 Measures of Relationship: There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial correlation and
multiple correlations.
(ii)The inferential statistics may be in any one of the following forms:
o Significance of Difference between Means
o Analysis of Variance
o Analysis of Co-Variance
o Correlation Methods
o Chi Square Test
o Regression Analysis

Step 9: Results and Interpretation

Research results and interpretation are the findings and explanations of a research study. Results are the
direct outcomes of a study, while interpretation is the explanation of those results.
Results
The results section of a research paper reports the findings of the study. Results are presented objectively,
without speculation on why they were found. Results can be presented visually using graphs, tables, and other
figures.
Interpretation
The interpretation section of a research paper explains the meaning of the results. Interpretation includes
relating the results to existing knowledge and theory. Interpretation also includes considering the implications
of the results and how they might apply to real-world situations. Interpretation is a crucial step in the research
process because it helps researchers determine the significance of their results.

Step 10: Reporting and Dissemination

Reporting and dissemination in research is the process of sharing research findings with stakeholders and the
public. It's important for research to be disseminated so that it can be used to inform policy and practice.
 Reporting: The act of writing a report that shares the results of research
 Dissemination: The process of sharing research findings with a wide audience

Step 11: Evaluation and Revision

9|Page
Evaluation and revision are both important parts of the research process. Evaluation helps to ensure the
credibility of research findings, to assess the quality of a research project, program, or activity, while revision
helps to improve the quality of the research by making sure the information is well organized, appropriate,
and complete

10 | P a g e