UNIT 8 :

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

Name: Bhoomi jain

Course: BSc life science
Roll no. : 23583054
Subject: Ecology and Evolution
Phytogeography

Phytogeography, also known as plant geography, is the branch of biogeography that deals with the
geographic distribution of plants. It examines how and why plant species and communities are
distributed across different regions of the world.

Phytogeography examines how environmental factors such as climate, soil, and topography influence
the distribution of plant life.

Phytogeographical Regions of India

India is one of the world's most biodiverse countries, with diverse climatic conditions, topography,
and ecosystems. Based on these factors, India is divided into nine phytogeographical regions, each
with distinct vegetation types and endemic species.

1. The Western Himalayas

Location: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand (Western part of the Himalayas).

Climate & Vegetation:

Cold and temperate climate with heavy snowfall.

Alpine meadows, coniferous forests, and temperate broad-leaved forests.

Flora:

Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Blue Pine (Pinus wallichiana) , Rhododendrons (Rhododendron spp.),
Junipers (Juniperus spp.)

Endemic Species:
Himalayan Cypress (Cupressus torulosa), Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallichiana)

2. The Eastern Himalayas

Location: Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Eastern Nepal, Bhutan.

Climate & Vegetation:

High rainfall and humidity with subtropical and temperate forests.

Evergreen forests, alpine meadows, and bamboo forests.

Flora:

Oak (Quercus spp.), Rhododendrons (Rhododendron spp.), Orchids (Paphiopedilum spp.), Magnolia
(Magnolia campbellii)

Endemic Species:

Sikkim Rhubarb (Rheum nobile), Arunachal Cobra Lily (Arisaema griffithii)

3. The Indus Plain (Northwestern Region)

Location: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat (Indus River basin).

Climate & Vegetation:

Arid and semi-arid climate with low rainfall.

Desert and thorn forests, scrub vegetation.

Flora:

Khejri (Prosopis cineraria), Babool (Acacia nilotica), Cactus species (Opuntia spp.)

Endemic Species:

Desert Teak (Tecomella undulata), Salvadora (Salvadora persica)

4. The Gangetic Plain

Location: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal.

Climate & Vegetation:

Fertile alluvial plains with tropical monsoon climate

Deciduous forests and riverine vegetation.

Flora:

Sal (Shorea robusta), Banyan (Ficus benghalensis), Mango (Mangifera indica), Jamun (Syzygium
cumini)

Endemic Species:

Indian Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa)

5. The Thar Desert

Location: Rajasthan, Gujarat.

Climate & Vegetation:

Extreme temperatures, low rainfall, sandy soil.

Xerophytic (drought-resistant) vegetation.

Flora:

Cactus (Opuntia spp.), Khejri (Prosopis cineraria), Desert Date (Balanites aegyptiaca)

Endemic Species:

Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album), Desert Teak (Tecomella undulata)

6. The Western Ghats

Location: Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.

Climate & Vegetation:

Heavy monsoon rainfall, high humidity.

Tropical evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests.

Flora:
Ebony (Diospyros ebenum), Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

Endemic Species:

Neelakurinji (Strobilanthes kunthiana), Malabar Tamarind (Garcinia cambogia)

7. The Eastern Ghats

Location: Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu.

Climate & Vegetation:

Moderate rainfall, tropical monsoon climate.

Dry deciduous and moist deciduous forests.

Flora:

Indian Kino Tree (Pterocarpus marsupium), Flame of the Forest (Butea monosperma)

Endemic Species:

Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus), Nallamala Tulsi (Ocimum spp.)

8. The Deccan Plateau

Location: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.

Climate & Vegetation:

Hot and dry climate with moderate rainfall.

Dry deciduous and thorn forests.

Flora:

Teak (Tectona grandis), Indian Mahua (Madhuca indica), Bamboo (Bambusa spp.)

Endemic Species:

Indian Ghost Tree (Sterculia urens), Sandalwood (Santalum album)

9. The Coastal Plains and Islands

a) Coastal Plains

Location: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Gujarat, Maharashtra.

Climate & Vegetation:

Tropical humid climate with saline soils.

Mangrove forests and coconut plantations.

Flora:

Mangroves (Rhizophora, Avicennia spp.), Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia)

b) Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep

Location: Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea.

Climate & Vegetation:

Tropical rainforest climate with high humidity.

Evergreen forests, coastal vegetation.

Flora:

Pandanus (Pandanus spp.), Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)

Endemic Species:

Andaman Padauk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides), Nicobar Breadfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)

Endemism

Endemism refers to the ecological state in which a species is restricted to a particular geographic
location and is not naturally found anywhere else. These locations can range from a small island to
an entire continent or specific habitat type.

Types of endemism

1. Taxonomic endemism

Taxonomic endemism refers to the restriction of a particular taxon (such as a species, genus, or
family) to a specific geographic area, meaning it is found nowhere else in the world. Endemism can
occur at different taxonomic levels and geographic scales, from local (e.g., an island or mountain
range) to regional (e.g., a country or continent).

1. Species-Level Endemism: When a species is restricted to a particular area (e.g., the

Nepenthes khasiana found only on a few Indonesian islands).

2. Genus-Level Endemism: When an entire genus is unique to a specific region (e.g.,

Sequoiadendron, the giant sequoia, found only in California).

3. Family-Level Endemism: When a whole family of organisms is found only in one region
(e.g., the family Amborellaceae, with the single species Amborella trichopoda, endemic to
New Caledonia).

Nepenthes khasiana Sequoiadendron Amborella trichopoda

2. Neoendemism

Neoendemism refers to a form of endemism in which species have recently evolved and are
restricted to a specific geographic area. These species are often the result of recent speciation events,
such as adaptive radiation, hybridization, or other evolutionary processes. Neoendemic species are
typically found in regions with active ecological or geological changes, such as volcanic islands,
mountain ranges, or isolated habitats.

Examples of Neoendemism:

Darwin’s finches in the Galápagos Islands, which evolved relatively recently from a common
ancestor.

Cichlid fish in Africa’s Rift Valley lakes, which have rapidly diversified into many distinct species.

California’s serpentine soil plants, which have adapted to specialized soil conditions in a
geologically recent timeframe.

Neoendemism contrasts with paleoendemism, where species were once widespread but are now
restricted to a small area due to extinction elsewhere.
serpentine soil plants

3. Paleoendemism

Paleoendemism refers to species or taxa that were once widespread but are now restricted to a
limited geographic area. These species have survived in isolated locations while going extinct in
other parts of their former range. Paleoendemic species are often considered "living fossils" because
they represent ancient evolutionary lineages that have persisted over long geological timescales.

Examples of Paleoendemism:

Ginkgo biloba – Once widespread, now naturally found only in small regions of China.

Coelacanths – Ancient fish thought to be extinct until rediscovered off the coast of South Africa.

Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis) – A prehistoric tree species discovered in a remote Australian
canyon. Tuataras (Sphenodon) – Reptiles native to New Zealand, surviving as the only members of
an ancient lineage. Paleoendemism contrasts with neoendemism, which involves species that have
recently evolved and are restricted to a specific area due to recent speciation.

Wollemi pine

4. Autochthonous endemism

Autochthonous endemism refers to species that have evolved in their present location and have never
been found anywhere else. These species originated in and remain restricted to a specific geographic
area due to long-term isolation or unique environmental conditions. This form of endemism often
occurs in regions with stable climates and geography, such as islands, mountain ranges, or ancient
ecosystems.

Examples of Autochthonous Endemism:

Galápagos tortoises (Chelonoidis nigra) – Developed unique adaptations on the Galápagos Islands.
Baobab trees of Madagascar (Adansonia species) – Unique to specific regions due to evolutionary
history.

Autochthonous endemism is different from allochthonous endemism, where species originate

elsewhere but become restricted to a particular area due to extinction in other regions.

Baobab trees of Madagascar

5. Allochthonous endemism

Allochthonous endemism refers to species that originated in one region but are now restricted to a
different area due to extinction in their original range. These species are not native to their current
location in the sense of evolutionary origin, but they persist there after disappearing from their
former habitats.

Examples of Allochthonous Endemism:

Baobab trees of Madagascar – Once widespread across the Northern Hemisphere, now naturally
found only in China. California Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera) – Thought to have had a broader
range in the past, now limited to desert oases in California.

Baobab trees of Madagascar. California Fan Palm

Allochthonous endemism contrasts with autochthonous endemism, where species evolve and remain
in the same location without shifting their range.

Factors Influencing Endemism

Endemism arises due to several ecological, geographical, and evolutionary factors that limit the
distribution of species to specific regions. These factors play a crucial role in shaping biodiversity
and determining why certain species are restricted to particular habitats.

1. Geographical Factors

These factors create physical barriers that prevent species from dispersing to other areas, leading to
the development of endemic species.

a) Isolation and Barriers

Mountains – High-altitude species may evolve separately from those in lowlands. (Example: wood
rose)

Oceans and Islands – Island species evolve in isolation due to limited gene flow. (Example:
Galápagos Tortoise)

Deserts – Harsh conditions prevent species from spreading beyond desert boundaries. (Example:
Welwitschia plant in the Namib Desert)

Rivers and Lakes – Aquatic species may be restricted to specific water bodies. (Example: Lake
Baikal Seal in Russia)

b) Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Species that were once widespread got restricted when continents separated.

(Example: Marsupials in Australia, separated from other continents by the movement of tectonic
plates)

c) Habitat Fragmentation

Natural events (earthquakes, landslides) or human activities (deforestation, urbanization) create

isolated populations.

(Example: Western Ghats endemic frogs, affected by deforestation and habitat destruction)

2. Ecological Factors

These factors determine whether an organism can survive in a particular environment.

a) Climate and Microclimate

Some species require highly specific temperature, rainfall, and humidity levels.

(Example: The Cloud Forest Orchid, which thrives only in high-humidity montane forests)
b) Soil Conditions

Plants and soil-dependent organisms may be restricted to regions with unique soil types.

(Example: Venus Flytrap, found only in the nutrient-poor soils of the Carolinas, USA)

c) Specialized Ecological Niches Some species are highly adapted to specific interactions with other
organisms (e.g., pollinators, prey).

(Example: Madagascar’s Lemurs depend on unique fruiting trees found only in their native habitat.)

3. Evolutionary and Genetic Factors

Endemism is often the result of evolutionary processes like speciation, adaptation, and genetic
isolation.

a) Adaptive Radiation

A single ancestor evolves into multiple species, each adapted to a different ecological niche.

(Example: Darwin’s Finches in the Galápagos Islands, which evolved different beak shapes for
feeding on different food sources.)

b) Genetic Drift and Bottlenecks

Small populations experience random changes in genetic diversity, leading to unique species.

(Example: Hawaiian Honeycreepers evolved into various species due to genetic drift.)

c) Co-evolution and Mutualism

Some species evolve in close association with other organisms, making them dependent on specific
partners.

(Example: The Yucca plant and Yucca moth, which rely exclusively on each other for pollination
and reproduction.)

4. Historical Factors

Past events such as climate change, mass extinctions, and glaciations have influenced species
distribution and endemism.

a) Glaciation and Ice Ages

Many species survived in isolated "refugia" during ice ages, leading to the formation of endemic
species.

(Example: The Pleistocene glaciation led to isolated populations of species in temperate forests.)

b) Mass Extinctions and Survival of Relicts

Some species survived past extinction events and are now found only in specific regions.

(Example: Ginkgo biloba, a living fossil species that was once widespread but is now endemic to
China.)

c) Fossil Evidence and Paleoendemism

Some species were once widespread but are now limited to a small geographic range due to changes
over millions of years.

(Example: The Coelacanth, a "living fossil" fish, now found only in deep waters off Africa and
Indonesia.)

5. Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Factors

Human activities can contribute to the creation or loss of endemic species.

a) Habitat Destruction and Deforestation

Rapid urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation reduce habitats, confining species to smaller areas.

(Example: Many Amazonian frog species are endangered due to habitat loss.)

b) Climate Change

Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns force species to migrate or become extinct.

(Example: Alpine species moving to higher altitudes due to rising global temperatures.)

c) Introduction of Invasive Species

Non-native species outcompete endemic species, leading to their decline

(Example: The brown tree snake in Guam led to the extinction of many native bird species.)

d) Overhunting and Exploitation

Excessive hunting, poaching, and illegal trade threaten endemic species.

(Example: The Mauritius Dodo became extinct due to hunting by early settlers.)