Bioquímica e Fisiologia Microbianas
Licenciatura em Engenharia Química e Biológica
2º ano | 1º semestre | 2021/2022
T8
Anabolism
Anabolism is the de novo biosynthesis of complex
organic molecules from simpler ones.
These processes are endergonic, requiring an input
of energy to drive them, which mostly comes from
the ATP provided by catabolism.
Many catabolic processes not only generate energy,
in the form of ATP and reduced coenzymes, for use
in biosynthesis, but also provide carbon skeletons
that can feed into anabolism.
Amphibolic pathways
Pathways with dual catabolic and anabolic
roles are referred to as amphibolic.
Amphibolic pathways include the glycolisis
pathway and the TCA cycle.
Anaplerotic reactions
As a consequence of removing
intermediate compounds from these
amphibolic pathways for biosynthesis,
their levels may become depleted.
For example, oxaloacetate is taken from
the TCA cycle to furnish the demand for
carbon skeletons in amino acid
biosynthesis.
These intermediates have to be
replenished via an alternate route,
referred to as an anaplerotic pathway, in
order to maintain operation of this cycle.
Glyoxalate cycle - Replenishment of
oxaloacetate, particularly for
gluconeogenesis.
Anaplerotic reactions
Gluconeogenesis, essentially the
reversal of glycolysis, also fulfils a
similar anaplerotic role.
The reversal of the flow of carbon from
pyruvate maintains a supply of hexoses,
which would otherwise become
depleted.
These intermediates are mostly required
for the synthesis of cell wall
components and storage carbohydrates.
Anaplerotic reactions
Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli and
other enteric bacteria can generate
oxaloacetate, by fixing CO2 to
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), using PEP
carboxylase.
Many Gram-positive bacteria and yeasts
have a similar carboxylation system, but
one which utilizes the pyruvate
carboxylase, to add CO2 to pyruvate.
Nucleotides and nucleic acids
Nucleotides are composed of a cyclic nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and phosphate.
Most microorganisms can synthesize their own bases: Purine skeleton being derived from inosinic acid, whereas
pyrimidines originate from orotic acid.
Pentase sugar and phosphate is derived from ribose-5-phosphate formed via pentose phosphate pathway.
Nucleotides and nucleic acids
Amino acids and proteins
Ammonia Incorporation
Occurs in Two Ways
Primary assimilation of ammonia in
many bacteria involves glutamate
dehydrogenase which catalyse the
reductive amination without the
requirement for ATP.
When ammonium ion concentrations are
low, assimilation of nitrogen may be via
glutamine synthetase, but demands
expenditure of ATP.
Once glutamate has been synthesized,
the newly formed α-amino group can be
transferred by enzymes called
transaminases to other carbon skeletons.
Microorganisms have a number of
transaminases, each of which catalyzes
the formation of several amino acids.
Amino acids and proteins
Assimilatory Nitrate
Reduction: NO3 to NH3
The nitrogen in nitrate (NO3−) is much
more oxidized than that in ammonia
(NH3). Therefore nitrate must first be
reduced to ammonia before the nitrogen
can be converted to an organic form.
This reduction of nitrate is called
assimilatory nitrate reduction.
Amino acids and proteins
Amino Acid Biosynthetic
Pathways
Some amino acids are made directly by
transamination of a precursor metabolite.
The carbon skeletons for amino acids
come almost exclusively from
intermediates of glycolysis or the citric
acid cycle.
Biosynthesis of amino acids and proteins
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can exist either as single
units (monosaccharides) or joined
together in molecules ranging from two
units (disaccharides) to thousands of
units (polysaccharides).
The monosaccharides are derived from
common sugar substrates such as
glucose or hydrolysed polysaccharide
substrates and must be synthesized via
gluconeogenesis.
Different polysaccharides can be formed
by varying the orientation of the
glycosidic bond to form linkages, or by
changing the monomer.
Carbohydrates
Examples of important microbial polysaccharides include:
• Glycogen, branched-chain homopolymers of a-linked glucose units
that function as carbon and energy reserves.
• Cellulose and other cell wall b-glucans, composed of b-linked
glucose units.
• Peptidoglycan, a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine and N-
acetylmuramic acid, cross-linked with peptides.
• Various gums such as dextran and xanthan.
Fatty acids and lipids
Lipids are important components
of membranes and may function
as energy reserves in some
organisms.
Other important lipids include
sterols, such as ergosterol
(precursor of vitamin D2), which
are key cell membrane
components in fungi, synthesized
only under aerobic conditions.
Glycolipids, including
lipopolysaccharides,
glycosyldiglycerides and
lipoteichoic acid, are also found in
many microorganisms.
Fatty acids and lipids
Synthesis of saturated fatty acids begins with
two molecules of acetyl-CoA; both must be
complexed with acyl carrier protein (ACP). The
4-carbon fatty acyl-ACP takes the place of
acetyl-ACP in the next round. Two more
carbons are added, resulting in a 6-carbon
fatty acyl-ACP. Subsequent rounds add 2-
carbon units until the final length is reached.