3.
18 Inheritance
Recap:
Asexual reproduction is brought about by mitosis.
Sexual reproduction requires a male and female of the
same species to produce gametes by meiosis. At
fertilisation, when the gametes fuse, the offspring (2n)
receive one set of genes from the father (n) and one
set from the mother (n).
The inheritance of characteristics
Rules govern, the way genes are passed on to the offspring and how
these genes are expressed.
Genes for eye colour, earlobe shape and every other characteristic are
carried on chromosomes. In a diploid organism, there are 2 genes for
each characteristic, found at the same locus on homologous pairs of
chromosomes.
Each homologous pair may carry different forms of
the same gene, alternatives called alleles.
eg. eye colour, has alleles for blue or brown colour.
An individual may carry two different alleles for a particular characteristic (heterozygous).
Alternatively, they may carry the same allele on both chromosomes of the homologous pair
(homozygous).
Different alleles are represented by either an uppercase or a lowercase
letter of the same type.
Our largest chromosomes carry > 1000 genes, each with an exact
position. In each homologous pair, one chromosome came from the
mother and one from the father.
Any individual will be homozygous for some characteristics and heterozygous for others.
If two homozygous individuals for one characteristic breed together, this characteristic must
be passed on as there is only one type of allele and all gametes will carry it (pure-breeding).
As diploid organisms have two alleles for every gene, whether they
are the same (homozygous) or different (heterozygous), this is known
as their genotype.
If two individuals, heterozygous for a characteristic, breed together,
then we get variation.
The 2 chromosomes, forming the homologous pair, separate during
meiosis, so gametes receive different alleles. eg. for the first gene the
genotype = Pp
Meiosis produces gametes: P & p
The recombination of alleles during
sexual reproduction produces great
variation amongst offspring, leading
to evolution of new strains, races
and in time, new species.
Dr Jocelyn Potamitou, The Heritage Private School, Limassol
3.19 Studying patterns of inheritance
If we now cross 2 heterozygotes (with the same
genotype as the F1):
F1 - the first generation of offspring
Why are these results probabilities & not certainties?
• Each fertilisation is a random event (independent of each other) and humans don’t
have enough offspring for statistical accuracy.
• Every cross between the same 2 parents is an independent event, so 2 heterozygous
parents with a ¼ chance of having a blue-eyed baby, even if they have just had a blue-
eyed baby, will still have a ¼ chance of a blue-eyed child in the next pregnancy.
If it is important to know the genotype of phenotypically identical offspring eg.
for crossing domestic animals or for crops etc. – BB or Bb (both brown eyed):
We must do a test cross (back cross to the recessive).
Genetic crosses can be shown as a pedigree:
Ans:
Any unaffected individual who has one
affected parent must carry an affected allele
(heterozygous). Also, any unaffected parent
who has an affected child must have given the
child one of their affected alleles, so this
parent will be heterozygous.
Dr Jocelyn Potamitou, The Heritage Private School, Limassol
3.20 Inherited medical conditions and codominance
Inherited medical conditions
eg. of monohybrid inheritance (characters controlled by a single gene):
1. Albinism – caused by a recessive allele.
Homozygous recessive individuals are unable to
produce the pigment melanin (lack eye, hair &
skin colour). Pinkness comes from
visible blood
vessels – highly
sensitive to light.
2. Cystic fibrosis – also caused by a recessive allele (the same
pattern of inheritance is seen).
3. Huntington’s disease – caused by a dominant allele.
Only one copy of this allele is
needed to express the disease.
Leads to brain degeneration:
50% chance of inheritance with
one and only affected parent.
4. Sickle cell anaemia
Caused by a single base mutation.
Inherited as any recessive allele.
Symptoms: Fatigue, Aching joints,
Poor circulation.
However, heterozygous carriers,
have a different phenotype.
While showing some symptoms of
anaemia, carriers have some
resistance to Malaria:
a selective advantage in
areas where malariaoccurs
eg. equatorial Africa.
Codominance
When both alleles contribute to the phenotype.
ie. (when two alleles can produce three different
phenotypes):
eg. Human ABO blood groups:
3 possible alleles IA, IB and IO
Alleles IA and IB display codominance
(neither allele is dominant over the
other), but both are dominant over IO.
Dr Jocelyn Potamitou, The Heritage Private School, Limassol
4.21 Sex is determined by X and Y chromosomes
A human karyotype:
22 homologous pairs of chromosomes (autosomal) and
one ‘pair’ of sex chromosomes.
During meiosis to produce gametes:
• All egg cells will contain an X chromosome.
• 50% of sperm cells will carry an X chromosome and
50% will carry a Y chromosome.
The sex of the child is determined by the sperm cell
that fertilises the ovum.
The sex chromosomes carry genes needed for sexual
development (the sex organs, hormones and position of fat stores).
The Y chromosome carries very few other genes. The X chromosome carries
information for characteristics other than sex (sex-linked genes). So, males are
‘haploid’ for these genes (having only one copy) and any allele, whether dominant
or recessive, will be seen in the phenotype.
Males are more likely to suffer from sex-linked
diseases (no male carriers).
The inheritance of sex-linked characteristics
Two examples (both recessive alleles):
1. Red-green colour blindness
Inability to distinguish between red and green colours.
For sex-linked genes, the sex chromosomes are shown in crosses: If:
XCXC (homozygous normal)
XCXc (heterozygous carrier)
XcXc (homozygous colour blind)
XCY (normal male)
XcY (affected male)
2. Haemophilia (failure in blood clotting mechanism)
A cross between a normal male and a
carrier female, as for any sex-linked
gene, results in a probability of:
2 normal children (1 male/1 female)*
1 carrier female*
1 affected male*
Dr Jocelyn Potamitou, The Heritage Private School, Limassol